ASP-01-05 – Avionics and instrumentation

Lesson notes for instructor handbook

Introduction

1. This lesson describes avionics and aircraft instrumentation, focusing predominantly

on types of instrumentation and their purpose.

2. Lesson overview. This lesson will teach the students:

a. the appearance and function of aircraft instrumentation systems

b. the presentation of different aircraft attitudes

c. instrumentation presentation on the electronic flight information system (EFIS)

d. the function and purpose of a head up display

e. common components of an aircraft avionics system

f. about the F-111C, its capabilities and Air Power contributions.

Revision

3. Revision for this lesson is atmospheric pressure and pitch, roll and yaw. Lesson
review content is taken from lessons:

a. ASP-01-03 – Basic aerodynamics.

Aircraft recognition

4. The F-111C Aardvark is the aircraft for this lesson. While its official name was the
Aardvark, it was known in the RAAF as the Pig. The F-111C is chosen for this lesson as it
was equipped with a unique avionics system called a terrain following radar. The terrain
following radar was tied to the aircraft’s autopilot system. It would map the ground in-front
of the aircraft, allowing the F-111C to fly at high speeds and low altitudes in zero visibility –
all by itself! This was done to keep the aircraft underneath adversary air search radars. Whilst
the terrain following radar is not an instrument, it allowed the F-111C to fly in ways that are
not possible with the standard instruments alone.

5. The F-111C was purchased by Australia to provide a medium-range strike capability

to replace the Canberra bombers. This lesson will relate some of the F-111C’s capabilities to
Air Power Contributions. Specifically, the aircraft’s high speed, long range, munitions
payload, and terrain following radar and how they relate to the air strike contribution of
strategic attack. Strategic attack is an offensive activity designed to create specific strategic
effects that damage, degrade or destroy an adversary’s will, war-making capabilities, or
disrupt or deny courses of action. The F-111C performed the Air Power contribution of air
strike. Air Power contributions are defined in lesson ASP-01-01.

https://www.boeing.com.au/resources/en-au/pdf/RAAF-100-Years/F-111-PC.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSyDslyADv4

Main topic body

6. Flight instruments. Flying higher, faster, and further came with challenges beyond
aircraft design. Free to move in three planes, the pilot needed to know how the aircraft was
orientated within the immediate air mass and where it was relative to the landscape below.
Furthermore, as the understanding of aerodynamics grew and the appreciation of airflow over
the wings gathered increasing importance, the need to know the aircraft’s speed became vital.
Aircraft were no longer merely hopping from a ramp, or down a hillside for a short jaunt -
they were capable of sustained flight and significant manoeuvrability. Conveying that
information to the pilot became the purpose of instrumentation, and like aircraft design, with
increasing demands, came increasing complexity.

a. Attitude. ASP-01-03 – Basic aerodynamics explained the flight controls and how
they enabled an aircraft to move along three different axes creating pitch, roll, and
yaw. An aircraft moves along these axes in three-dimensional space. During daytime
clear weather flight, a pilot can reference the visual horizon to ensure that the
aircraft is flying at the intended attitude. Attitude is the description of the aircraft's
 position relative to two of the three axes of movement. Pitch attitude is the angular
measurement of the aircraft’s pitch with respect to the horizon. Bank attitude is the
angular measurement of the aircraft’s wings with respect to the horizon. When
flying in cloud or at night, the pilot does not have reference to the horizon, therefore,
instrumentation to measure attitude is required to enable flight in these conditions.

b. 6-pack instruments. The first aircraft were without instruments, calling for the pilot
to fly by sight and feel. When cockpits began to develop, early instrumentation was
very limited. For airspeed, a flexible metal plate would be mounted on the strut
between the wings. The speed of airflow would bend the plate set to a backplate on
which was written different airspeeds, thus effectively creating a pointer system to
indicate the speed through the air. Compasses were basic and of a nautical nature,
while an inclinometer filled with liquid and resembling a thermometer, indicated the
nose pitching up or down. A similar device to the inclinometer saw slip and skid
represented by a small ball slewing left and right in a liquid-filled tube.

c. The aircraft of World War 1 used a barometer to measure pressure and calibrated its
dial to represent feet – thus becoming an altimeter. Dynamic airflow was drawn in
through a tube to depress a diaphragm within an instrument, which in turn deflected
a needle to indicate airspeed, and engine revolutions per minute were displayed on a
tachometer. It was a very basic array and only of use to assist in visual flight – flight
into clouds without a horizon was still some decades from being a reality.

d. Over time, flight instruments have evolved into what we loosely term today as the
basic six pack. The six instruments that are fundamental to flight and readily
recognised in most modern cockpits draw their information from different sources.
Ideally, these instruments are arranged in the same positions within the 6 pack in all
aircraft, to standardise the way that the pilot’s eyes can scan the instruments and
draw information quickly and efficiently.

e. The top row, from left to right is comprised of the airspeed indicator, the flight
attitude indicator or artificial horizon, and the altimeter. The lower row from left to
right is comprised of the turn co-ordinator, the direction indicator, and the vertical
speed indicator.
f. Pitot-static system. A full explanation of the pitot-static system is beyond the scope
of this lesson. For this lesson, the cadets simply need to understand that three of the
instruments use the pitot static system. This system uses measurements from the
static air pressure around the aircraft and the dynamic ram-air collected through the
pitot tube. This system works because air pressure decreases with altitude. The
below reference provides a detailed explanation of the pitot-static system.

https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/10_phak_
ch8.pdf

g. Altimeter, vertical speed indicator and air speed indicator. The altimeter,
airspeed indicator and the vertical speed indicator use the pitot-static system to
provide information to the pilot. The altimeter represents outside static air pressure
 (drawn from ports along the side of the fuselage) as an altitude, measured in feet.
Using the same source is the vertical speed indicator which displays the rate of
change in pressure as a rate of change in feet-per-minute. The airspeed indicator uses
dynamic air drawn in through the pitot tube to register dynamic air pressure as
airspeed in nautical miles per hour or knots. However, the air speed indicator also
uses static air pressure to calibrate the airspeed to the relative pressure of the air
mass at the altitude at which the aircraft is flying.

h. Gyroscopes. In simple terms, a gyroscope is a spinning disc which retains its same
relative position in space regardless of what is taking place around it. This is known
as rigidity in space. This is very useful in an aircraft as the gyroscope is minimally
affected by aircraft movement and qualities of the gyroscope readily transfer to
flight instruments.

i. Flight attitude indicator, turn and balance indicator, and direction indicator.
The flight attitude indicator, turn co-ordinator and direction indicator are members
of the gyroscopic system. The flight attitude indicator possesses a small fixed
winged device set to a moving background which, driven by the gyroscope,
represents the horizon in relation to the aircraft. The turn co-ordinator utilises these
qualities to indicate a rate of turn, while retaining the slip/skid ball in liquid to
confirm that the turn is balanced. Interestingly, the direction indicator has no sense
of direction. It’s gyroscope only senses a rate of change in direction. The face of the
instrument is represented as a compass face but needs to be aligned with the actual
aircraft compass at the beginning of the flight and reset periodically through the
flight.

7. Presentation of attitude during climb, cruise, and descent. The below graphic
illustrates aircraft attitudes for climb, cruise, and descent, during both level flight and turning.
Graphic from US Federal Aviation Authority – Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
– Chapter 8.

https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/10_phak_
ch8.pdf

8. Electronic flight instrument systems. The six pack is commonplace in many light
aircraft, although electronic flight instrument systems, or EFIS, are becoming more prevalent
in new aircraft. The Diamond DA40 is no exception. Sometimes referred to as glass displays,
the instrumentation is displayed on small screens resembling televisions and can deliver a
vast amount of information above and beyond that of the six pack. EFIS still draws
information from the outside environment but uses computers to digitally convert the
information to a dynamic display.

a. Primary flight display. Fundamentally, the screens consist of a primary flight

display and a multifunction display. Depending on the configuration, this
information can be displayed across two screens, or split across a single screen.
EFIS possess various forms of interchangeability to allow pilots to tailor the
information they need to see where and when they need it. We will consider the
Garmin array as found in the Diamond DA40.

b. The primary flight display provides the flight information supplied by a six pack
with a range of differences. The slip/skid ball is normally represented at the top of
the display as a rectangle beneath a triangular sky pointer and is known as the brick.
The airspeed indicator and altimeter are displayed as vertical tapes on either side of
the screen. The aircraft attitude is compiled from gathered air data rather than a gyro
 and displayed by a central ‘winged’ representation set to a sizeable backdrop
covering the screen with brown below and blue above the horizon to represent land
and sky. The direction indicator is also digitally represented on the display.

c. Multi-functional display. The multi-function display can display a range of

information, including a moving map display for navigation featuring the position of
other nearby aircraft as well as a means of entering a flight plan and creating a route
to follow on the map display. Radio frequencies can be displayed. Importantly,
engine instrumentation can also be shown.

d. In aircraft with a six pack, the monitoring of engine performance, fuel tank
quantities, temperatures and pressures of the engine are also shown on analogue
instruments and dials. Frequently, with caution markings and limits coloured amber
and red on a scale behind them, these instruments relay engine data from sensors to
the respective gauges. One role of the multi-functional display is to display this data
digitally, which it achieves with a notably high level of accuracy. The multi-
functional display can be selected to solely show engine performance parameters,
useful during pre-flight checks, or reduced to a partial screen – ever-present and
complementing the map display on the multi-functional display. The choices of
EFIS arrays are almost limitless.

https://www.southernwings.co.nz/aircraft-flight-instruments-explained/

https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/10_phak_
ch8.pdf

https://www.aopa.org/training-and-safety/students/presolo/special/understanding-gyroscopic-
instruments

https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Electronic_Flight_Instrument_System

9. Head up display. The next generation of advanced avionics can be found in the
head up display. The head up display projects flight information into the pilot’s line of sight,
allowing them to maintain their eyes outside the cockpit, thus reducing head movement and
the delay in information transfer normally associated with scanning between the outside
environment and the instrument panel. On certain aircraft, such as the F-35, this information
can be projected onto a screen that is incorporated into the pilot’s helmet.
10. More commonly, the head up display flight data is projected onto a transparent
screen that folds down in front of the pilot, much like a sun visor does. This clear plate, or
combiner, allows the pilot to see through its lens while still gathering the critical flight data.
In certain circumstances, such as landing, some imagery on the combiner can be overlaid
onto the real-world runway to accurately pursue a touchdown point. Even so, the head up
display must not be overloaded with data for the phase of flight and must be set to the correct
level of illumination, otherwise important cues may be missed.

https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Head_Up_Display

11. Avionics Systems. As aircraft became more plentiful in the skies and ventured
farther afield, the need to communicate became greater. From origins of tapping Morse code
and receiving communications via signal lamp, advanced communications and avionics suites
are now standard in modern aircraft. Most voice communications are via very high frequency
(VHF) radios, with a growing amount of communication on international airliners taking
place digitally via satellite data-links. Aircraft can carry a transponder that relays a signal for
ground-based radars to detect and interpret direction, speed, and altitude. In turn, individual
codes can be set on the aircraft’s transponder to distinguish one aircraft from another.

12. Avionics systems can also be used for navigation, allowing the aircraft to tune into
ground-based stations that can provide enroute navigation information, or systems that can be
followed to make an approach to land. A Global Positioning System, or GPS, is a key
element of navigation in modern aircraft and fixes an aircraft’s position using a network of
satellites.
13. The Diamond DA40 is equipped with VHF communications, a transponder, GPS,
and the ability to interrogate a range of ground-based navigation aids, displaying their
information on either the primary fight display or multi-functional display, as required. It also
possesses an avionics master switch, allowing the avionics to be switched on and off through
a single switch at the commencement and termination of flight.

Conclusion

14. This lesson covered the operation and presentations of the aircraft instruments and
introduces modern situational awareness devices such as the head up display and EFIS.
Avionics systems are also introduced. The F111-C’s terrain following radar highlights an
alternative means to safely navigate in the vertical plane.