1.

Modern ‘Fly-by-wire’ techniques would be simply impossible without enhanced capability of

digital electronics. Integration of aircraft data in a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display makes the
cockpit convenient to the pilot
2. Power plants are purely mechanical devices which convert chemical energy into mechanical
energy
1. En route navigational aids and the systems installed in the aircraft like IRS (Inertial Reference
System, INS (Inertial Navigation System), GPS (Global positioning systems) jointly solve the
navigational problems based on the principles of digital Electronics.
2. The front instrument panel, positioned in the normal line of sight of the pilots, contains all
instruments critical for the safe flight of the aircraft. This panel is normally sloped forward
15° from the vertical to minimize parallax errors
3. The first real attempt at establishing a standard method of grouping was the `blind flying
panel' or `basic six' . The gyro horizon occupies the top centre position, and since it provides
positive and direct indications of attitude, and attitude changes in the pitching and rolling
planes, it is utilized as the master instrument. As control of airspeed and altitude are directly
related to attitude, the airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator flank the
gyro horizon and support the interpretation of pitch attitude
4. The turn-and bank indicator serves as a secondary reference instrument for heading
changes, so it too supports the interpretation of roll attitude
5. With the development and introduction of new types of aircraft, flight instruments and
integrated instrument systems, it became necessary to review the functions of certain
instruments and their relative positions within the group. As a result a grouping known as
the `basic T' was introduced
6. It will be noted that there are now four `key' instruments, airspeed indicator, pitch and roll
attitude indicator, an altimeter forming the horizontal bar of the `T', and the direction
indicator forming the vertical bar
7. Machmeter and a radio magnetic indicator can take precedence over a turn-and-bank
indicator and a vertical-speed indicator
8. Altimeter : Indicates the aircraft's height (in feet or metres) above a reference level (usually
mean sea level) by measuring the local air pressure. To provide accurate readings the
instrument is adjustable for local barometric pressure
9. Airspeed Indicator (ASI) :ASI displays the speed of the aircraft (in knots) relative to the
surrounding air. The instrument compares the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's pitot tube
with the static pressure (see Fig. 5.1.4). The indicated airspeed must be corrected for air
density (which varies with altitude, temperature and humidity) and for wind conditions in
order to obtain the speed over the ground.
10. Vertical Speed Indicator : VSI indicates rate of climb or descent (in feet per minute or
meters per second) by sensing changes in air pressure .
11. Heading (Compass) : Compass indicates the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north.
However, due to the inclination of the earth's magnetic field, the instrument can be
unreliable when turning, climbing. descending or accelerating. Because of this the HSI (see
Fig 5.1.9) is used
12. Rate of Turn Indicator : Indicates the direction and rate of turn an internally mounted
inclinometer displays the 'quality' of turn i.e. whether the turn is correctly coordinated, as
opposed to an uncoordinated turn in which the aircraft would be in either a slip or skid. In
 modem aircraft the turn and bank indicator has been replaced by the turn coordinator which
displays (a) rate and direction of roll when the aircraft is rolling, and (b) rate and direction of
turn when the aircraft is not rolling.
13. Attitude Director Indicator : ADI displays the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon (see
Figure 5.1.8). From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level and if the aircraft nose
is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary indicator for instrument flight and is
also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in
combination should this instrument or its power fail.
14. The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) : displays a plan view of the aircraft's position
showing its heading. Information used by the HSI is derived from the compass and radio
navigation equipment (VOR) which provides accurate bearings using ground stations.
15. The gyro horizon, or artificial horizon : as it is sometimes called, indicates the pitch and
bank attitude of an aircraft relative to the vertical, and for this purpose employs a
displacement gyroscope whose spin axis is maintained vertical by a gravity-sensing device,
so that effectively it serves the same purpose as a pendulum but with the advantage that
aircraft attitude changes do not cause it to oscillate.
16. EGT Indicator : Indicates Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) of an Engine. The value is
presented by a pointer and a digital readout in degree Fahrenheit or degree Celsius.
Maximum Pointer is there two shows the maximum value attained in a particular flight.
There is an Over temperature light on the top of the indicator which illuminates red to
indicate an over temperature in the Exhaust Gas Section.
17. N1 RPM indicator : Indicates N1 RPM of an engine. The value is presented by a pointer and a
digital counter. The value is shown in percentage.
18. N2 RPM Indicator :Indicates N2 RPM of an engine. The value is presented by a pointer and a
digital counter. The value is shown in percentage.
19. Fuel Flow Indicator : shows Fuel Flow. Flow rate is presented by pointer and counter in PPH
(Pound Per Hour).
20. Standby Altimeter : As a mandatory requirements, every aircraft must have an altimeter
which is pneumatically operated. Alternate static system is the pressure source of this type
of altimeter. The altimeter measures the atmospheric pressure with reference to mean sea
level pressure.
21. Standby Air Speed Indicator : As a mandatory requirement, every aircraft must have an Air
Speed Indicator is pneumatically operated. Alternate Pitot and Static pressure are the
sources of this indicator. This indicator displays IAS (Indicated Air Speed) in knots
22. Standby attitude director indicator (ADI), which use in-case of failure of normal instrument
23. standby magnetic compass for direct reading of magnetic heading indication. This is
mandatory equipment which must be installed in every commercial aircraft.
24. There are many different Electronic Instrument Systems, including:
25. 1.Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) 2. Engine Indicating & Crew Alerting System
(EICAS) 3. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM)
26. Electronic flight Instrument system : As in the case of conventional flight instrument
systems, a typical electronic flight instrument installation is made up of left (Captain) and
right (First Officer) systems. Each system comprises: 1. Electronic Attitude Director Indicator
(EADI) 2. Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI).
27. The EADI and EHSI can be positioned side by side or vertically top and bottom. Normally the
EADI is positioned on the top or on the on-side position.
28. The electronic attitude direction indicator (EADI) is designed to replace the basic ADI and
normally comprises of: • an attitude indicator • a fixed aircraft symbol • pitch and bank
command bars • a glide slope indicator • a localizer deviation indicator • a slip indicator •
flight mode annunciator • various warning flags
29. The aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon is indicated by the fixed aircraft symbol and the
flight command bars. The pilot can adjust the symbol to one of three flight modes. The
command bars move up for a climb or down for descent, roll left or right to provide lateral
guidance. The bars show pitch commands that allow the pilot to capture and fly an ILS glide
slope, a pre-selected pitch attitude, or maintain a selected barometric altitude. The localizer
deviation pointer, a symbolic runway, represents the centre of the ILS localizer, and comes
into view when the pilot has acquired the glide slope.
30. Electronic horizontal situation indicator ( EHSI) : presents a selectable, dynamic colour
display of flight progress with plan view orientation. The EHSI has a number of different
modes of operation which can be selected by the flight crew. The number is dependent on
the system fitted.
31. The PFD presents the usual attitude indicator in connection with other data, such as
airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, heading or coupled landing systems.
32. The ND displays route information, a compass card or the weather radar picture
33. EFIS primary flight display (PFD) :The typical EFIS PFD is a multicolour cathode ray tube
(CRT) or liquid crystal display (LCD) display unit that presents a display of aircraft attitude
and flight control system commands including VOR, localizer, TACAN (Tactical Air
Navigation), or RNAV (Area Navigation) deviation together with glide slope or pre-selected
altitude deviation. Various other information can be displayed including mode annunciation,
radar altitude, decision height and excessive ILS deviation.
34. EFIS navigation display (ND) :Like the EFIS PFD, a typical EFIS NO takes the form of a
multicolour CRT or LCD display unit. However, in this case the display shows the aircraft's
horizontal situation information which, according to the display mode selected, can include
compass heading, selected heading, selected VOR, localizer, or RNAV course and deviation
(including annunciation or deviation type), navigation source annunciation, digital selected
course/desired track readout, excessive ILS deviation, to/from information, distance to
station/waypoint, glide slope, or VNAV deviation, ground speed, time-to-go, elapsed time or
wind, course information and source annunciation from a second navigation source,
weather radar target alert, waypoint alert when RNAV is the navigation source, and a
bearing pointer that can be driven by VOR, RNAV or ADF sources as selected on the display
select panel. The display mode can also be set to approach format or enroute format with or
without weather radar information included in the display.
35. Engine Indicating & Crew Alerting System (EICAS) : The upper (primary) EICAS display
shows the engine parameters and alert messages whilst the lower (secondary) display
provides supplementary data (including advisory and warning information).
36. Uses of different number systems: Decimal numbers are used to represent quantities
which are outside the digital system. The binary system is extensively used by digital
systems like digital computers which operate on binary information. The octal system has
certain advantages in digital work because it requires less circuitry to get information into
 and out of a digital system. Moreover, it is easier to read, record, and print out octal
numbers than binary numbers. The hexadecimal number system is particularly suited for
microcomputers.
37. Analog signals : have any voltage level or maximum values. Level or amplitude changes are
slow or fast but always smooth and continuous.
38. Digital signals : only have two possible levels, logic-one (HI) and logic-zero (LO). Level
changes of digital signals are very fast. They change from high to low and from low to high in
a split second. A good example of the use a digital representation of an analog quantity is
the recording of music. Compact Disks (CD's) and digital audio tapes are becoming usual and
are proving to be superior means of recording and playing back music. Musical instruments
and the human voice produce analog signals and the human ear naturally responds to
analog signals
39. D/A converters change digital data words from a digital computer to an equivalent analog
signal as either a voltage or a current source. These analog voltages or currents are then
used for a further activation within a system. For example drive a motor or produce sound.
40. A/D converter changes the analog signals from sensors to digital data that can be
understood by the digital computer. There are many different types of A/D converters',
which type is used depends on the type of analog input and on what the digital computer
needs to know about the analog signal.
41. Analog and Digital Representation : The levels at which the code changes are known as
quantisation levels, and the intervals between them as quantisation intervals. In the
example given in Figure 3, the quantisation levels are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 volts, and the
quantisation interval is 1 volt.
42. Using a 3-bit word gives 23 = 8 different quantisation levels. A 4-bit word would have 24 = 16
quantisation levels with 0.5 volt quantisation intervals giving improved resolution over the
same range of input voltage
43. Parallel Encoding : The process of taking an analog voltage and converting it to a digital
signal can be done in several ways. One simple way that is easy to visualize is by means of
parallel encoding (also known as simultaneous, multiple comparator, or flash converting).
44. When Vin exceeds 1.0 V, comparator 1 will output a LOW. Now IR0R and IR1R ; are both
enabled, but because it is a priority encoder, the output will be a binary 1 (110).
45. Counter Method of A/D Conversion : simplest but least used method of A/D conversion
46. Disadvantage of Counter Method : The main disadvantage of the counter method is its slow
speed. In the worst case (maximum analog input) the counter has to reach the maximum
count before the staircase Voltage is greater than the analog input. For an 8-bit converter,
this means a conversion time of 255 clock periods. For a l2-bit converter, the conversion
time is 4,095 clock periods
47. Successive Approximation : The most widely used approach in A/D conversion is the
successive-approximation method
48. Output Buffer : When the conversion is finished the control circuit sends out a low end-of-
conversion signal. The falling edge of this signal loads the digital equivalent into the buffer
register. In this way, the digital output will remain even though we start a new conversion
cycle.
49. Advantage : The main advantage of the successive-approximation method is speed. At best,
it takes only n clock pulses to produce n-bit resolution of the analog signal. This is a big
 improvement over the counter method. Even with slower designs the successive
approximation method is still considerably better than the counter method.
50. Binary Weighted Resistors Method : The op-amp summing circuit can be used to build a D/A
converter by selecting input resistors that are weighted in binary progression
51. Current Switches Figure how we can transistorize the switching. Data bits DR3 Rthrough
DR0R drive the bases of the transistors through the current-limiting resistors. When a bit is
high, it produces enough base current to saturate its transistor
52. Disadvantages of Weighted Resistors : A difficulty arises with weighted resistors. As the
number of bits increases, the range of resistance values gets awkward. For 8 bits, we need
resistances of R, 2R, 4R, ....., 128R. The largest resistance is 128 times the smallest. For a 12-
bit converter, the largest resistance needs to be 2,048 times the smallest. Because of the
tolerance and range problems, mass production of weighted-resistor D/A converters is
impractical.
53. The R/2R LADDER Method : One way to get around the problems of binary-weighted
resistors is to use a ladder circuit. Figure 5.3.8 is an example of the R-2R ladder commonly
used in integrated D/A converters.
54. Aircraft data bus systems allow a wide variety of avionics equipment to communicate with
one another and exchange data
55. The word ‘bus’ is a contraction of the Greek word ‘omnibus’ and the word simply means ‘to
all’. Thus, in the context of computers and digital systems, ‘bus’ refers to a system that
permits interconnection and data exchange between the devices in a complex system. Note,
however that ‘interconnection’ involves more than just physical wiring, amongst other
things it defines the voltage levels and rules (or protocols) that govern the transfer of data
56. Bus terminology : Bus systems can be either bidirectional (one way) or unidirectional (two
way). They can also be serial (one bit of data transmitted at a time) or parallel (where often
8, 16 or 32 bits of data appear as a group on a number of data lines at the same time).
Because of the constraints imposed by conductor length and weight, all practical aircraft bus
systems are based on serial (rather than parallel) data transfer. Bus systems provide an
efficient means of exchanging data between the diverse avionic systems found in a modern
aircraft . Individual Line Replaceable Units (LRU), such as the Engine Data Interface or
Flap/Slat Electronics Units are each connected to the bus by means of a dedicated bus
coupler and serial interface module. Within the LRU, the dedicated digital logic and
microprocessor systems that process data locally each make use of their own local bus
system. These local bus systems invariably use parallel data transfer which is ideal for
moving large amounts of data very quickly but only over short distances
57. Bus protocols : In computers and digital systems communications protocols are established
to enable the efficient exchange of data between multiple devices connected to the same
bus. A number of different standards are commonly used.
58. Bus architecture : Note how the bidirectional system simplifies the interconnection of the
LRUs and allows all of the devices to transmit and receive on the same bus
59. Serial bus principles :Within the LRU data is transferred using an internal parallel data bus
(either 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits wide)
60. The required parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel data conversion is carried out by a bus
interface (often this is a single card or module within the LRU). The data to be transferred
can be synchronous (using clock signals generated locally within each LRU) or it may be
 asynchronous (i.e. self-clocking). The system has the obvious limitation that data can only be
exchanged between two devices. In practice we need to share the data between many
LRU/avionic units. This can be achieved by the bus system illustrated . In this system, data is
transferred using a shielded twisted pair (STP) bus cable with a number of coupler panels
that are located at appropriate points in the aircraft (e.g. the flight deck, avionics bay, etc).
Each coupler panel allows a number of avionic units to be connected to the bus using a stub
cable. In order to optimize the speed of data transfer and minimize problems associated
with reflection and mismatch, the bus cable must be terminated at each end using a
matched bus terminator. Bus couplers are produced as either voltage mode or current mode
units depending upon whether they use voltage or current sensing devices. Within each
LRU/avionics unit, an interface is provided that performs the required serial-to-parallel or
parallel-to-serial data conversion. As well as providing an electrical interface (with
appropriate voltage and current level shifting) the interface unit also converts the data
formats (e.g. from serial analogue doublets present in the stub cable to Manchester-
encoded serial data required by the Terminal Controller) . In order to transmit data using the
serial data bus information must be presented in a standard format.
61. A typical format for serial data would use a word length of 32 bits. This word comprises of
several discrete fields including: • Up to 20 bits for data (which may be further
divided) • An 8-bit label field which is used to identify the data type and any parameters that
may be associated with it • A source/destination identifier (SDI). • A number of
status bits used to provide information about the mode, hardware condition, or validity of
data • An added parity bit which provides a means of validating the data (i.e.
determining whether or not it is free from error).
62. ARINC 429 : The ARINC 429 data bus has proved to be one of the most popular bus
standards used in commercial aircraft. The ARINC 429 specification defines the electrical and
data characteristics and protocols that are used. ARINC 429 employs a unidirectional data
bus standard known as Mark 33 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS). Messages are
transmitted in packets of 32bits at a bit rate of either 12.5 or 100 kilobits per second
(referred to as low and high bit rate respectively). Because the bus is unidirectional, separate
ports, couplers and cables will be required when an LRU wishes to be able to both transmit
and receive data. Note that a large number of bus connections may be required on an
aircraft that uses sophisticated avionic systems
63. ARINC 429 is a two wire differential bus which can connect a single transmitter or source to
one or more receivers or sinks. Two speeds are available, 12.5 k bps (bits per second) and
100 kbps. The data bus uses two signal wires to transmit 32-bit words. Transmission of
sequential words is separated by at least four bit times of NULL (zero voltage).
64. The ARINC 429 electrical characteristics are summarized below:
Voltage levels: +5V, 0V, −5V (each conductor with respect to ground)
+10V, 0V, −10V (conductor A with respect to conductor B)
Data encoding: Bi-Polar Return to Zero
Word size: 32 bits
Bit rate (high): 100K bits per second
Bit rate (low): 12.5K bits per second
Slew rate (high): 1.5ms (±0.5 ms)
Slew rate (low): 10ms (±5 ms)
65. The nominal transmission voltage is 10V ±1V between wires (differential), with either a
positive or negative polarity. Therefore, each signal leg ranges between +5V and −5V. If one
conductor is at +5V, the other is conductor is at −5V and vice versa. One wire is called the ‘A’
(or ‘+’ or ‘HI’) conductor and the other is called the ‘B’ (or ‘−’ or ‘LO’) wire. The modulation
employed is bipolar return to zero (BPRZ) modulation.
66. The received voltage on a serial bus depends on line length and the number of receivers
connected to the bus. With ARINC 429, no more than 20 receivers should be connected to a
single bus. Since each bus is unidirectional, a system needs to have its own transmit bus if it
is required to respond to or to send messages. Hence, to achieve bidirectional data transfer
it is necessary to have two separate bus connections.
67. Protocol : Since there can be only one transmitter on a twisted wire pair, ARINC 429 uses a
very simple, point-to-point protocol. The transmitter is continuously sending 32-bit data
words or is placed in the NULL state. Note that although there may only be one receiver on a
particular bus cable the ARINC specification supports up to 20.
68. The slew rate refers to the rise and fall time of the ARINC waveform
69. ARINC 429 data word format : In most cases, an ARINC message consists of a single 32-bit
data word. The 8-bit label field defines the type of data that is contained in the rest of the
word. ARINC data words are always 32 bits and typically include five primary fields, namely
Parity, SSM, Data, SDI, and Label. ARINC convention numbers the bits from 1 (LSB) to 32
(MSB).
70. The Label field is an octal value that indicates the type of data (e.g. airspeed, altitude, etc)
that is being transmitted.
71. The SDI field is used when a transmitter is connected to multiple receivers but not all data is
intended for used by all the receivers. In this case each receiver will be assigned an SDI value
and will look only at labels which match its SDI value. While the specification calls for SDI 00
to be universally accepted this may not actually be the case.
72. The Data field contains the actual data to be sent. The principal data formats defined in the
specification are Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) which uses groups of four bits to contain a
single decimal digit and BNR which is binary coding. For both of these data types, the
specification defines the units, the resolution, the range, the number of bits used and how
frequently the label should be sent.
73. The SSM field is used for information which assists the interpretation of the numeric value
in the data field. Examples of SSM values might be North, East, South, West, Plus, Minus,
Above or Below
74. The P field is the parity bit. ARINC 429 uses odd parity. The parity bit is the last bit
transmitted within the data word.
75. The ARINC 429 binary specification calls for the use of two’s complement notation to
indicate negative numbers and this binary format is known as BNR.
76. Inverter : An inverter is a gate with only one input signal and one output signal; the output
state is always the opposite of the input state. An inverter is also called a NOT gate because
the output is not the same as the input. The output is sometimes called the complement
(opposite) of the input
77. OR Gates : The OR gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. If any
input signal is high, the output signal is high. OR Gates are analogous to parallel circuit
78. The AND gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. All inputs must be
high to get a high output.AND Gates are analogous to series circuit. If all the switches are ON
the light will be illuminated, otherwise the light will not be illuminated
79. The NOR gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. All inputs must be
low to get a high output. In other words, the NOR gate recognizes only the input word
whose bits are all 0s.
80. Two-Input Gate : the logical structure of a NOR gate which is an OR gate followed by an
inverter. Therefore, the final output is NOT the OR of the inputs. Originally called a NOT-OR
gate, the circuit is now referred to as a NOR gate.
81. the NOR gate recognizes only the input word whose bits arc all 0s. In other words, all inputs
must be low to get a high output
82. , the Boolean equation for a 2 input NOR Gate is Y = A + B Read this as Y equals NOT A
OR B."
83. The NAND gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. All input signals
must be high to get a low output.
84. Two-Input Gate : the logical structure of a NAND gate, an AND gate followed by an
inverter. Therefore, the final output is NOT the AND of the inputs. Originally called a NOT-
AND gate, the circuit is now referred to as a NAND gate. one or more low inputs produce a
high output. The boolean equation for a 2-input NAND gate Y = A B
85. Three-Input Gate : If all inputs are low. The result of ORing is low; therefore, the final output
is high. If one or more inputs are high, the result of ORing is high; so the final output is low.
In other words, all inputs must be low to get a high output
86. Three-Input Gate : Y = ABC If one or more inputs are low, the result of ANDing is low;
therefore, the final output is high. If all inputs are high, the ANDing gives a high signal; so the
final output is low
87. The EXCLUSIVE-OR gate is different; it recognizes only words that have an odd number of 1s.
88. TOW INPUT : If both inputs are high, both AND gates have low outputs and the final output
is low. In other words, the output is a 1 only when the inputs are different
89. Parity : XOR gates are ideal for testing the parity of a word. XOR gates recognize words with
an odd number of Is. Therefore, even-parity words produce a low output and odd-parity
words produce a high output.
90. A computer is an electronic device, which can accept and process data by carrying out a set
of stored instructions in sequence. This sequence of mathematical and logic operations is
known as a Program
91. One of the most important characteristics of a computer is that it is a general-purpose
device, capable of being used in a number of different applications
92. A Byte of information can output 256 possible combinations of bits, and is of far more use in
designing computer components and modules than a bit. A single character on keyboard is
represented internally as a series of 8 bits, or a byte.
93. The ALU often only performs simple operations. Complex operations, such as multiplication,
division and operations involving decimal numbers are performed by dedicated hardware,
called floating-point processors, or floating point units
94. Registers : Microprocessor chips have some internal memory locations that are used by the
control unit and ALU
95. Memory : Computers and other digital circuits rely on stored information, either data to be
acted upon or instructions to direct circuit actions.
96. Accessing a Memory Item : Memory devices consist of a large number of memory cells each
capable of remembering one bit of binary information. The information in memory is stored
in digital form with collections of bits, called words, representing numbers and symbols. The
most common symbol set is the American National Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). Words in memory, just like the letters in this sentence, are stored one
after the other. They are accessed by their location or address. The number of bits in each
word, equal to the number of memory cells per memory location, is constant within a
memory device but can vary for different devices. Common memory devices have word sizes
of 8, 16 and 32 bits.
97. Addresses and Chip Size : An address is the identifier, or name, given to a particular location
in memory. The memory chip size can be ex-pressed as M×N, where M is the number of
unique addresses, or memory locations and N is the word size, or number of bits per
memory location.
98. Basic Structure : Memory chips, no matter how large or small, have several things in
common. Each chip has address, data and control lines. the 256×1 memory has 8 address
lines and 1 data line. data lines transfer both inputs (when writing) and outputs (when
reading) so the W/ R control line is needed to put the memory chip in read mode or write
mode.
99. Memory Types : The concepts described above are applied to several types of random-
access, semiconductor memory. Semiconductor memories are categorized by the ease and
speed with which they can be accessed and their ability to "remember" in the absence of
power.
100. SAM versus RAM : Sequential-access memory (SAM) must be accessed by stepping
past each memory location until the desired location is reached. Two special types of SAM
are the queue and the push-down stack
101. Random Access Memory (RAM) : Most RAM chips are volatile, meaning that stored
information is lost if power is removed. RAM is either static or dynamic. Dynamic RAM
(DRAM) stores a bit of information as the presence or absence of charge. This charge, since
it is stored in a capacitor, slowly leaks away. It must be refreshed periodically. Memory
refresh typically occurs every few milliseconds and is usually performed by a dynamic RAM
controller chip. Static RAM (SRAM) stores a bit of information in a flip-flop.
102. The advantage of DRAM is increased density and ease of manufacture, making them
significantly less expensive. SRAM's, however, have much faster access times. Most general
purpose computers use DRAMs, since large memory size and low cost are the major
objectives. Where the amount of memory required doesn't justify the use of DRAM, and the
faster access time is important, SRAM's are common, for example, in embedded systems
(telephones, toasters) and for cache memories. Both types of RAM are available in MOS
families; SRAM's are also available in bipolar
103. Read-Only Memory (ROM) : Read-Only Memory is nonvolatile; its contents are not
lost when power is removed from the memory.. Since the "programming" of a mask ROM
must be done by the manufacturer, adding expense and time delays, this type of ROM is
primarily used only in high volume applications
104. EPROM, EEPROM : Two types of PROMs that can be "erased" and reprogrammed
are EPROM's and EEPROM's. The transistors in UV erasable PROMs (EPROM's) have a
floating gate surrounded by an insulating material. When programming with a bit value, a
high voltage creates a negative charge on the floating gate. Exposure to ultraviolet light
erases the negative charge. Similarly, electrically erasable PROMs (EEPROM's) erase their
floating-gaie values by applying a voltage of the opposite polarity.
105. ROM's are practical only for storing data or programs that do not change
frequent¬ly and must survive when power is removed from the memory. The programs that
start up a computer when it is first switched on or the memory that holds the call sign in a
repeater are prime candidates for ROM.
106. Flash : Flash also known as FEPROM is one of the newest types of nonvolatile
memory. In this device data is erased and reprogrammed in blocks, unlike the byte by byte
altering capability of EEPROM. FLASH memory has the density of EPROM's and the electrical
erase capability of standard EEPROM's. FLASH is used in digital cameras to store pictures,
PC's store their BIOS on FLASH memory chips, and MP3 audio recorders use FLASH to store
music.
107. Nonvolatile RAM : Low-power RAMs can be used in such applications if they are
supplied with NiCd or lithium cells for backup power. A more elegant and durable solution is
nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM), which includes both RAM and ROM. The standard volatile RAM,
called shadow RAM, is backed up by nonvolatile EEPROM. In the event of primary power
failure, to successfully save the RAM data, some power must be maintained until the
memory store is complete (+5 V for 20 ms).
108. Cache versus Main Memory : A "cache" is a place to store treasure; the treasure,
the information you are using frequently, can be accessed quickly because it is in the high-
speed cache.
109. Output Devices : The most familiar output device is the computer screen, or
monitor. For smaller character displays, LED arrays can be used. The next most common
output device is the printer, to produce paper hard copy. Modems and magnetic disks and
tapes are output devices as well as input devices.
110. Interactive Computers : Some computers can perform several different tasks
depending on operator inputs. Such a computer is called an interactive computer
111. Optical fibres offer some very significant advantages over conventional copper
cables. These include: • Optical fibres are lightweight and of small physical size •
Exceptionally wide bandwidth and very high data rates can be supported • Relative freedom
from electromagnetic interference • Significantly reduced noise and cross-talk compared
with conventional copper cables • Relatively low values of attenuation within the medium •
High reliability coupled with long operational life • No sparks or shorts: Fiber optics do not
emit sparks or cause short circuits, which is important in explosive gas or flammable
environments. • Electrical isolation and freedom from earth/ground loops.
112. There are very few disadvantages of optical fibres. They include: • Industry
resistance to the introduction of new technology • Need for a high degree of precision
when fitting cables and connectors • Concerns about the mechanical strength of fibres
and the need to ensure that cable bends have a sufficiently large radius to minimize losses
and the possibility of damage to fibres.
113. Splice : An interconnection method for joining the ends of two optical fibers in a
permanent or semipermanent fashion. Chemical Splice - A permanent joint made with an
adhesive such as UVcured polymer or epoxy. Fusion Splice - A splice accomplished by the
application of localized heat sufficient to fuse or melt the ends of two lengths of optical
fiber, forming a continuous single optical fiber. Mechanical Splice - A fiber splice
accomplished by fixtures or materials, rather than by thermal fusion
114. Propagation in optical fibres : Essentially, an optical fibre consists of a cylindrical
silica glass core surrounded by further glass cladding. The fibre acts as a channel (or
waveguide) along which an electromagnetic wave can pass with very little loss. Fibre optics is
governed by the fundamental laws of reflection and refraction. For example, when a light
wave passes from a medium of higher refractive index to one of lower refractive index, the
wave is bent towards the normal, as shown in Figure 5.10.1(a). Conversely, when travelling
from a medium of lower refractive index to one of higher refractive index, the wave will be
bent away from the normal.
115. Optical fibres are manufactured by drawing silica glass from the molten state and
they are thus of cylindrical construction. The more denser medium (the core) is surrounded
by the less dense medium (the cladding). Provided that the angle of incidence of the input
wave is larger than the critical angle, the light wave will propagate inside the core by means
of a series of total internal reflections. Any other light waves that are incident on the upper
boundary at an angle θRcR > θR Rwill also propagate along the inner medium. Conversely,
any light wave that is incident upon the upper boundary with θ < θRcR will pass into the
outer medium and there be lost by scattering and/or absorption.
116. The construction of a typical fibre optic cable is shown in Figure 5.10.5. This
comprises: • Five optical fibres and two filler strands • Separator tape • Aramid yarn
strength member • An outer jacket.
117. The cable has an overall diameter of about 0.2 inches and the individual optical fibre
strands have a diameter of 140 µm (approx. 0.0055 inches). The buffers are coded in order
to identify the fibres using colours (blue, red, green, yellow and white). The filler strands are
made from polyester and are approximately 0.035 inches in diameter.
118. STANAG 3910 Data Bus System : This is the European standard data bus with a 20
Mbit/sec data rate and will enter service with the new Eurofighter 2000
119. Principle of the CRT :p A CRT is a thermionic device which consists of an evacuated
glass envelope, inside which are positioned an electron gun and beam-focusing and -
deflection systems. The inside surface of the screen is coated with a crystalline solid material
known as a phosphor. The electron gun consists of an indirectly heated cathode biased
negatively with respect to the screen, a cylindrical grid) surrounding the cathode, and two
(sometimes three) anodes. The grid is maintained at a negative potential. Its purpose being
to control the current and so modulate the beam of electrons passing through the hole in
the grid. The anodes are at a positive potential with respect to the cathode, and they
accelerate the electrons to a high velocity until they strike the screen. The anodes also
provide a means of focusing and, as will be noted from this is in two stages.
120. When the electrons impact on the screen, the phosphor material luminesces at the
beam focal point causing emission of a spot of light on the face of the screen.
121. Deflection systems can be either electrostatic or electromagnetic, the former being
used in oscilloscope type instruments, and the latter in tubes used in television receivers,
video display units, and other equipment requiring the display of alphanumeric data
122. Colour CRT Displays : Colour CRT displays are now widely used in weather radar
indicators, and are the norm for the CRT indicators designed for the display of navigational
data, engine operating parameters, and other flight management data associated with the
systems developed for such aircraft as the Airbus A310
123. The video data received from a radar antenna is conventionally in what is termed
rho-theta form corresponding to the sweep of the antenna as it is driven by its motor
124. In a colour display indicator, however, scanning is somewhat similar to that adopted
in the tube of a television receiver or video display monitor, i.e., raster scanning in horizontal
lines
125. Colour Generation : For example, if a beam is being emitted by the ‘red’ electron
gun only, then the red dots only would luminesce, and if the beam completes a full scan of
the screen, then as a result of persistence of vision by the human eye a completely red
screen would be observed.
126. if all three guns are emitting, a mix of red, green and blue phosphor luminescence
will produce a white scan or trace, and similarly if the red and blue guns are emitting the mix
of red and blue phosphors will produce a mauve scan or trace.
127. The memory output is applied to a data demultiplexer whose output corresponds to
the MSBs and LSBs (M and L) of the 2-bit binary words and is supplied to a data decoder. The
inputs are decoded to provide 3-bit output words corresponding to the colours to be
displayed,
128. The viewing angle for round LEDs tends to be in the region of 20° to 40°, whereas
for rectangular types this is increased to around 100°. Table 5.11.3 shows the characteristics
of some common types of LED.
129. ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES (ESD) : Earlier we said that advancements in
technology were bringing new challenges for those involved with the operation and
maintenance of modern passenger aircraft. One of those challenges is associated with the
handling of semiconductor devices that are susceptible to damage from stray electric
charges.
130. Electrostatic Sensitive Devices (ESD) are electronic components and other parts that
are prone to damage from stray electric charge. This problem is particularly prevalent with
modem LSI and VLSI devices but it also affects other components such as metal oxide
semiconductor (MOS) transistors, microwave diodes, displays, and many other modern
electronic devices. Extensive (and permanent) damage to static sensitive devices can result
from mishandling and inappropriate methods of storage and transportation.
131. Static Sensitive Devices : All modem microelectronic components are prone to
damage from stray electric charges but some devices are more prone to damage than
others. Devices that are most prone to damage tend to be those that are based on the use
of field effect technology rather than bipolar junction technology. They include CMOS logic
devices (such as logic gates and MSI logic), MOSFET devices (such as transistors), NMOS and
PMOS VLSI circuits (used for dynamic memory devices, microprocessors. In general, printed
circuit board mounted components are at less risk than individual semiconductors.
132. Representative values of static voltage susceptibility for different types of
semiconductor : Type of devices --Typical static voltage susceptibility @CMOS logic 250 V
to 1 Kv @ TTL logic 550 V to 2.5 kV @Bipolar junction transistors 150 V to 5 kV
@Dynamic memories 20Vto 100V VLSI @microprocessor 20 V to 100 V @ MOSFET
transistors 50 V to 350 V @Thin film resistors 300 V to 3 kV @ Silicon controlled rectifiers
4kVtol5kV
133. Special Handling of Components Sensitive to Electrostatic Discharge : The lead is
usually fitted with an integral 1 MΩ resistor which helps to minimise any potential shock
hazard to the wearer.
134. Note that there are three main classes of materials used for protecting static
sensitive devices. These are conductive materials (such as metal foils, and carbon
impregnated synthetic materials), static dissipative materials (a cheaper form of conductive
material), and so-called anti-static materials (these are materials that are neutral on the
triboelectric scale, such as cardboard, cotton, and wood). Of these, conductive materials
offer the greatest protection whilst anti-static materials offer the least protection
135. Aircraft software : can be divided into five levels according to the likely
consequences of its failure
136. Software certification : The initial certification of an aircraft requires that the Design
Organisation (DO) shall provide evidence that the software has been designed, tested and
integrated with the associated hardware in a manner that satisfies standard DO-178B/ED-
12B (or an agreed equivalent standard). In order to provide an effective means of software
identification and change control, a software configuration management plan (CMP) (e.g. as
defined in Part 7 of DO-178B/ED-12B) is required to be effective throughout the life of
the equipment (the CMP must be devised and maintained by the relevant DO).
137. Hence all software upgrades and modifications are subject to the same approval
procedures as are applied to hardware modifications. This is an important point that
recognises the importance of software as an ‘aircraft part’. Any modifications made
to software must be identified and controlled in accordance with the CMP.
138. Software upgrading : When considering software modifications and upgrades it is
important to distinguish between executable code (i.e. computer programs) and the data
that is used by programs but is not, in itself, executable code. Both of these are commonly
referred to as ‘software’ and both are likely to need modification and upgrading during the
life of an aircraft
139. Field loadable software : Field Loadable Software (FLS) is executable code (i.e.
computer programs) that can be loaded into a computer system whilst the system is in place
within the aircraft.
140. There are three main types of FLS; Loadable Software Aircraft Parts (LSAP), User
Modifiable Software (UMS), and Option Selectable Software (OSS).
141. User Modifiable Software (UMS) is declared by the aircraft Type Certificate holder’s
design organization (or Supplementary Type Certificate holder’s design organization) as
being intended for modification within the constraints established during certification
142. Option selectable software (OSS) : Option Selectable Software (OSS) is software
that contains approved and validated components and combinations of components that
may be activated or modified by the aircraft operator within boundaries defined by the Type
 Certificate or Supplementary Type Certificate holder. Typical examples of target hardware
for OSS can be found in Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) units.
143. Database field loadable data : Database Field Loadable Data (DFLD) is data that is
field loadable into target hardware databases. DFLD is usually modified or updated by
overwriting it using data from a data file which is field loaded. Hence a DFLD must be given
its own unique part number and release documentation.
144. Distribution methods : Note that the method of release is dependent upon whether
the FLS or DFLD is required to meet a specific airworthiness or operational requirement, or
certification specification. For FLS or DFLD that does not need to meet a specific
airworthiness, operational or certification requirement, a Certificate of Conformity is
normally sufficient. In other cases an EASA Form 1 or FAA 8130-3 should accompany any FLS
(executable code) that is required to meet a specific airworthiness or operational
requirement or regulation, or certification specification, i.e. LSAP
145. A ‘Letter of Acceptance’ or equivalent should accompany the release of any
navigational database’s DFLD because an EASA Form 1 or FAA 8130-3 cannot be provided. By
virtue of the speed of distribution and the removal of the need for any physical transport
media (which can be prone to data corruption), electronic distribution is increasingly being
used to transfer FLS or DFLD from the supplier to an operator.
146. Data verification : Checksums involve adding the values of consecutive bytes or
words in the file and then appending the generated result to the file. Cyclic redundancy
checks involve dividing consecutive blocks of binary data in the file by a specified number.
147. ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT : It is equally important to check the
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), i.e. that it radiates little or no electromagnetic
interference to cause problems to other systems and is also unaffected by external
electromagnetic interference from other systems.
148. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) can be defined as the presence of unwanted
voltages or currents which can adversely affect the performance of an avionic system
149. Sources of EMI : Note that, when the susceptibility threshold level is greater than
the levels of conducted or radiated emissions, electromagnetic interference problems do not
exist. Systems to which this applies are said to be Electromagnetically Compatible. In other
words, the systems will operate as intended and any EMI generated is at such a level that it
does affect normal operation.
150. Types of interference : EMI can be categorized by bandwidth, amplitude, waveform
and occurrence. The bandwidth of interference is the frequency range in which the
interference exists. The interference bandwidth can be narrow or broad
151. Broad band interference is caused by devices generating random frequencies and
noise which may be repetitive but is not confined to a single frequency or range of
frequencies.
152. Grounding and bonding resistances of less than 0.001Ω to 0.003 Ω are usually
required.
153. Grounding is defined as the process of electrically connecting conductive objects to
either a conductive structure or some other conductive return path for the purpose of safely
completing either a normal or fault circuit
154. Check the integrity and effectiveness of a bonded or grounded connection using an
approved bonding tester
155. Bonding refers to the electrical connecting of two or more conducting objects that
are not otherwise adequately connected.
156. ACARS - ARINC Communication and Addressing and Reporting System : The
aircraft communications addressing and reporting system (ACARS) is a data link
communication system. A message or report from the airplane to the airline ground base is
called a downlink. A message or report from the airline ground base to the airplane is called
an uplink. ACARS automatically sends reports at scheduled times in the flight to reduce crew
workload. It also sends additional reports when necessary.
157. These are typical ACARS reports: • Crew identification • Out, off, on, in (OOOI)
times • Engine performance • Flight status • Maintenance items
158. The ACARS is a voice and data communication system. It is used to manage flight
plan data and maintenance data between the airplane and the airline.
159. These are the components of the ACARS: • Interactive display unit (IDU) • Control
display unit (CDU) • ACARS program switch modules • Management unit (MU).
160. The ACARS program switch modules contain dual inline package (DIP) switches.
These switches identify the airplane.
161.
162. The ACARS MU receives the ground-to-air digital messages (uplink). It controls the
transmission of the air-to-ground digital messages (downlink).
163. ACARS connects to these other systems components: • VHF transceiver - to
transmit to and receive data from the ground. • Printer - to print ACARS reports and
messages. • Remote electronics unit - to distribute the chime annunciation and light
annunciation signals. • Audio control panel - to signal the flight crew of incoming ACARS
messages requiring flight crew attention. • SELCAL control panel - to signal the flight
crew of incoming ACARS message that require flight crew attention. • Proximity switch
electronics unit - to send discrete signals for out, off, on and in (OOOI) events.
164. ACARS Programming : The ACARS program switch modules contain dual inline
package (DIP) switches. These set the airplane identification and registration codes.
165. There are three program switch modules. Two modules set the registration code.
One module sets the airplane identification code. Each module has 24 switches. They are
usually set before airplane delivery. A switch that is in the up position is ON. A switch that is
in the down position is OFF.
166. NOTE: Some airplanes can have an airplane personality module (APM) as an
alternative to program switch modules.
167. Operation : The flight management computer system control display unit (CDU) or
the interactive display unit (IDU) gives one an interface with the ACARS system. They lets
you enter, send, and review downlink/uplink data. The CDU shows ACARS messages in the
scratch pad, the IDU shows ACARS messages on the display.
168. CDU Features : The CDU has a MENU key that selects the menu. From the menu
page, you can select the flight management computer system (FMC), ACARS, or the flight
data acquisition unit (DFDAU). To make the system active on the CDU, push the line select
key (LSK) next to the system prompt.
169. EFIS – Electronic Flight Instrument System : A complete EFIS installation in an
aircraft is made up of left (Captain) and right (co-pilot) systems, each system in turn being
 composed of two display units (an attitude director indicator (ADI) and a horizontal situation
indicator (HSI), a control panel, a symbol generator and a remote light sensor.
170. Display Units : The display units consist of the following chassis-mounted elements:
a low-voltage power supply, a high-voltage power supply, four circuit cards (video/monitor,
convergence, deflection and interconnect) and a multi-colour CRT; all are contained within a
protective cover. The principal differences between the ADI and HSI unit is the CRT which,
for obvious reasons, displays different levels of flight and navigation information.
171. The video/monitor card contains a video control microprocessor, video amplifiers
and monitoring logic for the display unit. The main tasks of the processor and associated
EPROM and RAM, are to calculate gain factors for the three video amplifiers (red, blue and
green), and perform input sensor and display unit monitor functions. The input/output
interface functions for the processor are provided by analog multiplexers, an A/D converter
and a multiplying D/A converter.
172. The function of the convergence card is to take X and Y deflection signals and to
develop drive signals for the three radial convergence (red. blue and green) coils and the one
lateral convergence (blue) coil of the CRT.
173. Signals for the X and Y beam deflections for stroke and raster writing are provided by
the deflection amplifier card. The amplifiers for both beams each consist of a two-stage
preamplifier, and a power amplifier. The amplifiers use two supply inputs, 15 V d.c. and 28 V
d.c. the former is used for effecting most of the stroke writing, while the latter is used for
repositioning and raster writing.
174. Magenta : All `fly to' information such as flight director commands, deviation
pointers, active flight path lines.
175. Cyan Sky shading on ADI and for low-priority information such as non-active flight
plan map data.
176. Symbol Generators : These provide the analog discrete and digital signal interfaces
to the aircraft systems display units and control panel and they perform symbol generation
system monitoring, power control and the main control functions of the EFIS. The interfacing
between the card modules
177. Remote Light Sensor :This is a photodiode device which responds to flight deck
ambient light conditions and automatically adjusts the brightness of the electronic displays
to a compatible level.
178. Indicator Displays : The ADI displays traditional pitch and roll attitude indications
against a raster-scanned background, the upper half of which is in cyan and the lower half in
yellow. Attitude information is provided by the inertial reference system.
179. The HSI presents a selectable, dynamic colour display of flight progress and plan
view orientation. Four principal display modes may be selected on the EFIS control panel:
MAP, PLAN, ILS and VOR.
180. Failure Annunciation : Failure of data signals from such systems as the ILS and radio
altimeter are displayed on each ADI or HSI in the form of yellow flags 'painted' at specific
matrix locations on the CRTs.
181. EICAS : The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel, and two
computers supplied with analog and digital signals from engine and system sensors. The
system provides the flight crew with information on primary engine parameters (full-
 time)and with secondary engine parameters and warning / caution / advisory alert messages
(as required).
182. Display Units : The units are mounted one above the other, the upper unit
displaying the primary engine parameters (EPR, N1 and EGT) and warning and caution
messages, while the lower unit displays secondary engine parameters (N2, N3, fuel flow, oil
quantity, pressure and temperature, and engine vibration), status of non- engine systems,
aircraft configuration and maintenance data.
183. Warning, caution and advisory messages are displayed in red and yellow on the left-
hand side of the upper display unit screen as conditions dictate. Abnormal secondary engine
parameters are automatically displayed on the lower display unit.
184. As the various engine parameters change in value the corresponding indicator
pointers rotate as in the case of traditional electromechanical indicators. With the exception
of those indicated in Figure 5.15.13, all elements of the displays are white under normal
operating conditions. In the event of either N1 or EGT exceeding their normal values, both
the corresponding pointer and digital readouts change from white to yellow, and to red, as
the value reaches the limiting bands of the scale.
185. A second switch (STATUS) is provided on the control panel and when pressed it
switches the lower display into a mode that displays the status of several systems (e.g. flight
control surface positions) and also up to 16 status messages requiring flight crew awareness
prior to take-off and in flight.
186. These indicators utilize LEDs, to supply EPR, NI, N3 and EGT information.
187. In order for maintenance engineers to carry out verification testing of systems and
troubleshooting procedures, the lower display unit can be selected to display detailed data
for several systems and up to 16 maintenance messages in what is termed the maintenance
mode.
188. ECAM : The ECAM system comprises the units shown in Figure 5.15.15. As far as
display format is concerned, it differs significantly from EICAS in that it excludes analog
presentation of engine parameters and it adopts the principle of mounting display units side-
by-side so that the left-hand unit is dedicated to information on the system's status,
warnings and corrective action in a sequenced checklist format, while the right-hand unit is
dedicated to associated information in diagrammatic format.
189. System Testing : Two self-test facilities are provided; automatic and manual.
190. Flight Management Computer : Typically, a computer incorporates three different
types of memory: a bubble memory for holding the bulk navigation and aircraft performance
characteristics data bank; a C-MOS RAM for holding specific navigation and performance
data, and the active and secondary flight plan, all 'down -loaded' from the bubble memory;
and a UV-PROM for the operation program, which may be reprogrammed at card level.
191. In a FBW flight control system, the cable control of the primary flight control
surfaces has been removed. Rather, the actuators are controlled electrically. At the heart of
the FBW system are electronic computers. These computers convert electrical signals sent
from position transducers attached to the pilot controls into commands that are transmitted
to the actuators. Because of these changes to the system, the following design features have
been made possible: o Full-time surface control utilizing advanced control laws. o
Retention of the desirable flight control characteristics of a conventionally controlled system
and the removal of the undesirable characteristics. o Integration of functions such as
 the yaw damper into the basic surface control. . o Improved system reliability and
maintainability.
192. the flight deck controls are fitted with what are referred to as ‘‘back drive
actuators.”
193. System Electronics : There are two types of electronic computers used in the typical
aircraft Primary Flight Control System: the Actuator Control Electronics (ACE), which is
primarily an analog device, and the Primary Flight Computer (PFC), which utilizes digital
technology.
194. Interface to Other Airplane Systems : The Primary Flight Control System transmits
and receives data from other airplane systems by two different pathways. The Air Data and
Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU), Standby Attitude and Air Data Reference Unit (SAARU), and
the Autopilot Flight Director Computers (AFDC) transmit and receive data on the ARINC 629
flight controls data busses, which is a direct interface to the Primary Flight Computers. Other
systems, such as the Flap Slat Electronics Unit (FSEU), Proximity Switch Electronics Unit
(PSEU), and Engine Data Interface Unit (EDIU) transmit and receive their data on the ARINC
629 systems data busses. The PFCs receive data from these systems through the Airplane
Information Management System (AIMS) Data Conversion Gateway (DCG) function. The DCG
supplies data from the systems data busses onto the flight controls data busses. This
gateway between the two main sets of ARINC 629 busses maintains separation between the
critical flight controls busses and the essential systems busses but still allows data to be
passed back and forth.
195. Fly-by-Wire Actuation : The control surfaces on the wing and tail of the 777 are
controlled by hydraulically powered, electrically signaled actuators. The elevators, ailerons,
and flaperons are controlled by two actuators per surface, the rudder is controlled by three.
Each spoiler panel is powered by a single actuator. The horizontal stabilizer is positioned by
two parallel hydraulic motors driving the stabilizer jackscrew
196. Bypassed - This mode is present on the aileron, flaperon, and rudder actuators.
197. Damped —This mode is present on elevator and rudder actuators.
198. Blocked —This mode is present on the elevator and aileron actuators
199. GPS – Global Positioning System : Two satellite navigation systems have been
introduced to provide position and time to users around the globe. The global positioning
system (GPS) provides accurate position and time information around the earth, 24 hours a
day. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is a Russian satellite navigation
system similar to GPS. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite navigation system
providing accurate, threedimensional position, velocity, and time information all over the
world. GPS is a network of satellites that broadcasts ranging information, in addition to the
satellite position, and time of transmission. A GPS receiver uses the information transmitted
from at least four satellites to determine the current position, velocity and time of the
receiver.
The increased accuracy of an aircraft's position using GPS provides a number of navigation
benefits. These benefits would include: (1) reduced separation of aircraft without
compromising safety, (2) optimizing aircraft routes, (3) improved approach/departure and
(4) improved traffic control. All of these benefits will reduce cost and increase safety of air
travel.
200. GPS System : GPS is funded and controlled by the U. S. Department of Defense
(DOD). The system consists of three segments: (i) the space segment or satellites, (ii) the
control segment, and (iii) the user segment as shown in figure 5.15.29.
201. The Space Segment (Satellites) : There are 24 GPS satellites in orbit about the
earth. Twenty-one of the satellites are active and three satellites are active spares(figure
5.15.30 & 5.15.31). The satellites orbit the earth in 12 hours and repeat the same ground
track once each day. The constellation of satellites orbit the earth in six orbital planes, at an
altitude of 10898 nautical miles (20183 km). Each orbital planes is included 550 and contains
four satellites. The constellation will provide visibility of 6 to 11 satellites at 5 degrees or
more above the horizon to users, anytime and anywhere in the world. The operational
satellites have a design life of 7.5 years. The satellites transmit at two L-band frequencies
(1575.42 MHz ionosphere and 1227.6 MHz) to allow the detection of signal propagation
delay in the ionosphere. The satellites transmit an RF carrier signal modulated with a
coarse/acquisition ranging code (C/A code), a precision code (Pcode), and a 50-bit per
second navigation message. Each satellite's P-code and C/A code is a unique PRN code. The
unique code is a pseudo-random sequence that allows all the satellites to transmit on the
same frequency without creating radio interference.
202. The Control Segment : The control segment consists of five ground monitor stations
(receiver-transmitters, antennas) and a master control station at locations around the world.
203. The User Segment : The original use for GPS was related to national defense. There
are various military uses for GPS which will not be discussed in this guide. This guide will
discuss the civilian applications of GPS. The user segment consists of a GPS receiver, antenna
and the users of the GPS receiver. The GPS receiver uses the satellite Signals to calculate
position, velocity, and time (PVT). The G°S receiver may be part of a number of aircraft
systems that require accurate, position, velocity and time information. These systems could
include: (1) navigation, (2) approach/departure systems, and (3) air traffic control.
204. Navigation is the main function of GPS.
205. Users may use the standard positioning service (SPS) or the precise positioning
service (PPS)
206. Determination of Position : The GPS receiver uses a process called ranging. A one
nanosecond time error is equivalent to approximately 0.3 meters (0.984 feet) of range error.
However, the receiver clock is not synchronized with the satellite clocks. To compensate for
this, the calculations must assume that the clock is off by some difference which is called the
"clock bias". The measured range can be divided into two parts, the true range and the
range due to the clock bias. Because the measured range is not the true range it is known as
"pseudo range;
207. Satellite Signal Details : The L1 carrier transmitted at 1575.42 MHz is modulated by
the C/A code, the P-code, and the navigation message.
208. A complete message would be sent over a 12.5 minute period.
209. IRS – Inertial Reference System : The Inertial Reference Systems (IRS) which mainly
provide: Attitude, Heading, Ground Speed and Present Position information.
210. Components of IRS : The complete IRS’s consists of: • IRU (Inertial Reference Unit)
• MSU (Mode Selector Unit) • ISDU (Inertial System Display Unit)
211. The ISDU enables the IRS’s to be initialized and their main navigation data to be
displayed. The unit is an emergency means for these operations which are normally
performed through the FMS.
212. The MSU allows the related IRS to be started up and the operation mode selection.
Warning lights enables the system monitoring.
213. The IRU is the main component of this strap down inertial system. It houses 3 (three)
accelerometers and 3 (three) ring laser gyros which detects the aircraft rotations and
accelerations around its 3 (three) axes, and the computer which calculates attitude,
direction, speed and reference position.
214. Mode Selector Unit (MSU) :The mode select unit (MSU) is designed to interface
with one IRU. It is used to command the modes of operation with the mode selector knob:
• OFF MODE: All the circuitry is de-energized. • NAV MODE: Normal position for IRS
operation. After alignment phase, the IRS will provide attitude, heading and position
information to all peripherals • ATT MODE: Selection of this mode when the alignment is not
complete.
215. Only attitude and heading information is usable. The MSU is also used to
annunciate status of the IRU. The four standard aircraft word indicators (amber) on the
front panel are:
216. • ALIGN MODE: shows when the IRS is in the Alignment Mode. It comes on five
seconds after system turn-on, and goes off normally ten minutes after system turn-on. It also
comes on during the three-minute realignment. A flashing light indicates an error in system
initialization.
217. • BAT OPER: indicates that 28 VDC backup power is being used (aircraft batteries). It
comes on also for the first five seconds after system turn-on. This annunciator is used to
trigger an aural warning when the system is powered on ground with batteries only.
218. • BAT WARN: indicates that backup power is inadequate (battery voltage dropped
to below 18 VDC).
219. • IRS WARN: shows a fault. A flashing light indicates a critical failure and that
Attitude Mode may be selected.
220. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) : The IRU is the system main unit. Outside the gyros
and accelerometers, the IRU contains power supplies and eight cards of electronics for
sensor signal conditioning, data handling, timing and control, data processing, and system
interface. It is made up of a unit to 4MCU size provided with an adaptor. Each IRU consist of
the following module:
221. Sensor assembly: The sensor assembly is a rigid unit to which the three LASER
GYROS and the three accelerometers are attached. It also includes a Gyro discharge power
supply and a sensor calibration memory.
222. PCB modules: Two processors, one in interface with the sensors and the other for
navigation and maintenance functions. An IRS digital Input/Output module which manages
ARINC 429 inputs/ outputs and input/output discrete from the ISDU, both FMCs and both
ADCs. A monitor module which manages MSU annunciators discretes.

223. Rear Panel Assembly: The rear panel assembly is a Transformer Rectifier (TR) of the
115V/400Hz power supply to provide 28V to modules. It also ensures lightning and Radio
Frequency protections.
224. Inertial Sensor Display Unit (ISDU) : The ISDU is connected to the IRU and allows
their initialization. It is also used to display the main navigation data such as present
position, ground speed, true heading, wind information and system status. It is designed to
interface with discrete and digital inputs received from each IRU. It can transmit discrete
signals or digital messages to the IRU. The ISDU consists of a front-panel mounted display,
two selector knobs: SYS DSPL and DSPL SEL and a keyboard:
225. • TK/GS: Displays ground track direction in degrees on the left display, and ground
speed in knots on the right.
226. • PPOS: Displays present position of the aircraft. Latitude on the left display and
longitude on the right.
227. • WIND: Displays wind speed in knots on the right and wind direction in degrees on
the left.
228. • HDG/STS: Displays true heading if NAV Mode is selected, or aircraft heading if ATT
Mode is selected, on the left display and the alignment status on the right.
229. Strapdown Gyro : The strapdown gyro is so called because it is fixed in position and
no movement takes place unlike other types of gyro that rotate in a gimbal assembly.
230. Laser Gyro :Inside the IRU, there are three LASER gyros and three accelerometers
which sense angular velocity and linear acceleration in the pitch, roll and yaw axes.
231. Finally the resultant parameters of the gyros and the accelerometers ate processed
in a computer within the IRU for position determining and the generation of other
parameters for peripheral systems i.e,: • Auto Flight • Flight Management • Instruments.
232. There are 2 anodes and 1 cathode, there are then 2 beams in opposite directions
which move in a perpendicular plane of the axis of angular displacement detection.
233. The frequency difference is measured by optical means resulting in a digital output.
234. Accelerometer :The accelerometer is the basis of the IRS system. It senses
acceleration force on each axis of the aircraft. The case of the accelerometer is fixed to the
IRU.
The force produced by an acceleration displaces the pendulum in a sensing mechanism. The
displacement is sensed by a proximeter which generates a signal proportional to the
displacement.
The signal is amplified by a servo-amplifier to excite a torque coil mounted on the pendulum
and provide a torque equal and opposed to the torque arising from linear acceleration.
The electronics for the accelerometer contain a trimming circuit and temperature
compensation circuits.
235. Alignment mode: The alignment is the initialization mode for the IR. Its primary
function is to initialize the attitude, velocity and position integration functions implemented
in the navigation mode. This mode operates on ground only. The IR alignment mode is
divided into 3 parts
236. Navigation (NAV) Mode : The basic operating elements consist of three integration
functions (attitude, velocity and position) driven by input gyro and accelerometer strapdown
sensor data.
237. Attitude Mode : The mode needs a 30-second initialization phase with the aircraft in
level flight.
238. TCAS I provides traffic advisories (TA) and proximity warning of nearby traffic to
assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft.
239. TCAS II provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories (RA)
240. TCAS provides no protection against aircraft that do not have an operating
transponder.
241. The traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) transmits to and receives
signals from other airplanes to get altitude, range, and bearing data.
242. The traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) transmits these two types of
interrogation signals: • Whisper-shout for air traffic control radio beacon system (ATCRBS)
transponders • Mode S.
243. The TCAS does not track airplanes that do not have a transponder.
244. Mode S transponders transmit a squitter signal once each second. The signals
contain a 24-bit airplane address.
245. TCAS computer receives altitude data, it calculates these parameters of the traffic
airplane: • altitude • altitude rate • relative altitude
246. Air-to-Air Coordination : If the target also has TCAS, the two TCAS computers
communicate with each other using the mode S transponders.
247. The altitude separation shows on the ND in hundreds of feet. If the traffic is above,
the digits show above the traffic symbol with a plus (+)sign. If the traffic is below, the digits
show below the traffic symbol with a minus (-) sign.
248. Dedicated Type of ATE : This type of ATE is normally used to test only one type of
unit.
249. Adaptable Type ATE : The most common type of ATE is the adaptable type. It has a
variety of test equipment installed that can be switched on/off as needed and a system of
adapters to meet the test requirements of different types of units.
The most common usage of the adaptable ATE is at higher volume manufacturing and
servicing companies.