Navigation System

CONTENT
Chapter 1 – FLIGHT CONTROL INSTRUMENTS

Chapter 2 – NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Chapter 3 – ENGINE MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
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Compiled by: NGUYỄN QUỐC DŨNG
CHAPTER 1
FLIGHT CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of manned flight, it has been recognized that supplying the pilot with
information about the aircraft and its operation could be useful and lead to safer flight. The Wright
Brothers had very few instruments on their Wright Flyer, but they did have an engine tachometer,
an anemometer, and a stop watch. Present airplane, Instrument systems now exist to provide
information on the condition of the aircraft, engine, components, the aircraft’s attitude in the sky,
weather, cabin environment, navigation, and communication.
For convenience, the old flat panel in the front of the cockpit with various individual instruments
attached to it has evolved into a sophisticated computer-controlled digital interface with flat-panel
display screens and prioritized messaging. There are usually two parts to any instrument or
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instrument system. One part senses the situation and the other part displays it. In analog
instruments, both of these functions often take place in a single unit or instrument (case). These
are called direct-sensing instruments.
Remote-sensing requires the information to be sensed, or captured, and then sent to a separate
display unit in the cockpit. Both analog and digital instruments make use of this method. Electricity
is often used by way of wires that carry sensor information into the cockpit. Sometimes pneumatic
lines are used.
In complex, modern aircraft, this can lead to an enormous amount of tubing and wiring terminating
behind the instrument display panel. More efficient information transfer has been accomplished
via the use of digital data buses. Essentially, these are wires that share message carrying for many
instruments by digitally encoding the signal for each. This reduces the number of wires and weight
required to transfer remotely sensed information for the pilot’s use. Flat-panel computer display
screens that can be controlled to show only the information desired are also lighter in weight than
the numerous individual gauges it would take to display the same information simultaneously.
There are three basic kinds of instruments classified by the job they perform: flight instruments,
engine instruments, and navigation instruments. There are also miscellaneous gauges and
indicators that provide information that do not fall into these classifications, especially on large
complex aircraft. Flight control position, cabin environmental systems, electrical power, and
auxiliary power units (APUs), for example, are all monitored and controlled from the cockpit via
the use of instruments systems. All may be regarded as position/condition instruments since they
usually report the position of a certain moveable component on the aircraft, or the condition of
various aircraft components or systems not included in the first three groups.
The instruments used in controlling the aircraft’s flight attitude are known as the flight instruments.
There are basic flight instruments, such as the altimeter that displays aircraft altitude; the airspeed
indicator; and the magnetic direction indicator, a form of compass. Additionally, an artificial
horizon, turn coordinator, and vertical speed indicator are flight instruments present in most
aircraft.
Over the years, flight instruments have come to be situated similarly on the instrument panels in
most aircraft. This basic T arrangement for flight instruments. The top center position directly in
front of the pilot and copilot is the basic display position for the artificial horizon even in modern
glass cockpits.
Engine instruments are those designed to measure operating parameters of the aircraft’s engine.
These are usually quantity, pressure, and temperature indications. They also include measuring
engine speed. The most common engine instruments are the fuel and oil quantity and pressure
gauges, tachometers, and temperature gauges. Various engine instruments found on reciprocating
and turbine-powered aircraft. Engine instrumentation is often displayed in the center of the cockpit
where it is easily visible to the pilot and copilot.
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On light aircraft requiring only one flight crewmember, this may not be the case. Multiengine
aircraft often use a single gauge for a particular engine parameter, but it displays information for
all engines through the use of multiple pointers on the same dial face.
Navigation instruments are those that contribute information used by the pilot to guide the aircraft
along a definite course. This group includes compasses of various kinds, some of which
incorporate the use of radio signals to define a specific course while flying the aircraft en-route
from one airport to another. Other navigational instruments are designed specifically to direct the
pilot’s approach to landing at an airport. Traditional navigation instruments include a clock and a
magnetic compass.
In large commercial aircraft you can find many instruments. They are used to monitor and control
the flight, the engines and the aircraft systems. The flight instruments provide all data to perform
a safe an economic flight. They are located on captains instrument panel and are repeated on
copilots instrument panel.
The engine indications are located on the center instrument panel and the airframe system
indications for the electric, hydraulic, fuel and other systems, is usually found on the overhead
panel or flight engineer panel.
Information about the engine indications can be found in unit 77 of the JAMF course and system
indications are in specific units, like unit 28 for the fuel system. The instruments which are used
to control and monitor the flight can be divided further, into the navigation instruments which you
will see in unit 34 and the flight instruments which are subject of this unit.
BASIC T
The flight instruments on the captains and copilots instrument panels have an identical layout. The
most important instruments to fly the aircraft are located in the center in the so called basic T
arrangement. The altimeter indicates the altitude of the aircraft above sea level or the airport. You
will learn about it in detail in lesson 2 of this unit.
The airspeed indicator shows a speed which is only identical to the real airspeed of the aircraft
when you fly at sea level, but it is a reference for all aerodynamic parameters influencing aircraft
lift, drag and maneuverability. You will learn more about it in lesson 2 of this unit.
The compass or heading indication is integrated in the Horizontal situation indicator, or HSI in
short. It shows the direction of the aircraft longitudinal axis in relation to magnetic north.
You will learn more about it in lesson 8 of this unit. Other indication in the HSI are discussed in
the navigation unit 34. Additional flight instruments which you will learn about in this unit are the
Vertical speed indicator, the Mach meter and the temperature indicators. The photograph on the
right side of the screen shows the instrument panels of a modern glass cockpit aircraft, in this
example, an A340.
You will also find the same indications in this cockpit design, but it is discussed in more detail in
the Electronic Instrument Systems part of the course. Even in small aircraft you can find the same
arrangement of the flight instruments.
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2. AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
In this lesson we will show you the air data instruments, such as the altimeter and airspeed
indicator. These instruments use air pressure information from outside the aircraft. To understand
their function you must be familiar with the international standard atmosphere, ISA in short, and
what pressures act on the aircraft during flight. You can find this information in the aerodynamic
unit.
ALTIMETER FUNCTION
We will begin this Air data instruments lesson with a closer look at the Altimeter. In an aircraft
you can always find the Altimeter in the same location of the basic-T even in small aircraft. The
altimeter is a very important indicator because it shows the pilot if the aircraft is flying at the
required altitude. You can find various types of altimeters in aircraft. In small piston engine aircraft
the Altimeter has two Pointers, one for 100 ft and the second for 1000 ft.
The altimeters in aircraft which can fly at higher altitudes has either an additional pointer for the
indication of 10000 ft or it uses a digital readout for the total altitude and just one pointer for the
analog indication of the one hundred feet range. This type is most common in larger aircraft with
conventional instruments.
All altimeters have the same basic function: They simply measure the static pressure of the
atmosphere and indicate it in feet or meters. You know that the static pressure at sea level is
1013.25 hPa, which corresponds to 1013.25 mb of the old unit. To make it easier we will use just
1013 hPa in the following discussions. With increasing altitude the pressure decreases. At 18000
ft the pressure is only 50% of the pressure at sea level and at 36000 ft the pressure has decreased
to 25%. At 54000 ft the pressure is again halved to just 12.5% of the value at sea level.
A pneumatic altimeter, which you can find in small aircraft and also as a standby altimeter in larger
aircraft, has a sensitive pressure gauge, called aneroid bellows. The static pressure which is applied
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to the sealed case surrounds the bellows and compresses it. The bellows deflection moves the
instrument mechanism and turns the altitude pointer which shows the altitude on a scale calibrated
in feet or meters.
The altimeter indication is calibrated to the standard atmosphere shown with the graph on the left.
Please note that near sea level a certain pressure difference only changes the altitude by a small
amount but at higher altitudes the same pressure difference has a larger effect on the altitude. This
means that accuracy of altimeters decrease with the altitude.
The main altimeters of large aircraft have bellows. They are driven by an air data computer and
use only electrical components such as motors, amplifiers or even digital computers.
ALTIMETER SETTINGS
You have learned in the last segment that the altimeter is calibrated to the conditions of the standard
atmosphere. A closer look at the pressure graph near sea level should make this clear again. You
can see that the graph is nearly linear in this area and that the altitude increases by 30 ft for each
pressure decrease of 1 hPa. When an aircraft flies at an altitude of 1000 ft, the outside static
pressure is about 980 hPa
The altimeter converts this static pressure to an indication of 1000 ft. The indicated altitude is
therefore equal to the true altitude. As you can imagine, this scenario is only correct if the pressure
at sea level is really 1013 hPa This weather map shows you that the real pressure at sea level
changes continously and is only 1013 hPa at certain locations for a certain time, here for example
in Hamburg. Other areas have low pressure or high pressure. When you fly from Hamburg to Lulea
in northern Sweden, the altimeter readings are always correct because the pressure corresponds to
standard conditions.
Due to the actual weather conditions the pressure in London is 1000 hPa at sea level. To indicate
one 1000 ft the altimeter needs a static pressure of about 980 hPa. This means that the true altitude
will be about 600 ft when you arrive in London. To solve this problem with different pressures at
sea level each altimeter has a baro set knob.
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With the baro set knob on the instrument you give the altimeter a new reference pressure. In
pneumatic indicators the knob directly turns the whole altimeter mechanism to set a new reference
value. Electrical indicators do the correction electrically inside the indicator or via the air data
computer. When you select 1000 hPa with the baro set knob, the altimeter will show 600 ft, because
the difference between the reference and the actual pressure is 20 hPa.
Now lets assume that the aircraft lands at London Heathrow which has a field elevation of 80 ft.
The altimeter indicates the field elevation, in this example 80 ft in London, if you set a baro
reference which corresponds to the pressure at sea level. This baro setting is called QNH and is
the normal setting during takeoff and landing. You get an indication of 0 ft if you set the baro knob
to the actual pressure of the airport. This setting is called QFE and can be used instead of QNH for
takeoff and landing.
You cant compare altitude indications when you use different baro settings. This means that an
altitude separation by ATC is not possible. Therefore it is very important that all altimeters use the
same baro setting during cruise flight. This standard setting of 1013 hPa must be selected during
climb at a certain altitude, called the transition altitude. Now ATC can clear all aircraft to different
altitudes to separate them vertically. This altitude is now called flight level which is calculated by
dividing the altitude by one hundred.
During descent at the so called transition level the setting is changed back to the QNH or QFE of
the destination to get the correct altitude indications during landing.
During cruise flight the indicated altitude is also the true altitude when the real pressure at sea level
is 1013 hPa. The true altitude is higher than the indicated altitude when the pressure at sea level is
higher than the standard value. And the true altitude is lower than indicated if the pressure is lower
than standard. In this case all aircraft fly lower than indicated so obstacle clearance must be
monitored very carefully.
You can have a similar problem when the temperature does not correspond to the standard
temperature of 15° C at sea level. Temperature variations can expand or contract the atmosphere
and therefore shift the pressure levels. If the temperature is warmer than standard the true altitude
will be higher than indicated and if the temperature is colder than standard the true altitude will be
lower than indicated. In winter the clearance to obstacles like mountains must be monitored more
carefully.
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AIRSPEED INDICATOR
You can measure the airspeed when you know the dynamic pressure “Q”, because “Q” is equal to
“v” squared times the half the density of rho. You should know also that the dynamic pressure is
the difference between the total and the static pressure. This calculation is known as Bernoullis
principle. The airspeed indicator applies bernoullis principle because it uses a differential
manometer which gets total and static pressure.
The pneumatic airspeed indicators, which you can find in small aircraft or as standby indicators in
large commercial aircraft, use bellows as the differential manometer. The total pressure line is
connected to the inside of the bellows and the static pressure is distributed to the indicator case so
that it surrounds the bellows. This means that the motion of the bellows is proportional to the
dynamic pressure “Q”.
You will learn in the next lesson about pitot static systems, where the total and static pressure come
from. The pneumatic airspeed indicator shows the indicated Airspeed, or IAS in short, on a scale
which is usually calibrated in kts. At low speed the total pressure is low and the bellows are
compressed. At a medium speed all mechanical parts are in the present position. At high speeds
the total pressure is high and the bellows expand.
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AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS
You have seen that the airspeed indicator shows the IAS, which directly depends on the dynamic
pressure as the difference between total and static pressure. This IAS is proportional to all
aerodynamic effects acting on the aircraft, like lift and drag. The effectiveness of the flight controls
also depend directly on the dynamic pressure. The IAS is therefore a very important parameter for
a safe flight.
On the other hand the IAS only shows the real speed of the aircraft at mean sea level with standard
conditions. This is because the airspeed indicator is calibrated to the standard air density, and the
real density of the air is not taken into account. In aircraft equipped with air data computers and
electrical instruments or glass cockpits the airspeed indication shows the calibrated airspeed or
CAS in short.
The CAS is corrected by any error which comes from the indicator and the source of the static
pressure. The correction is done by an air data computer, so often you also find that CAS stands
for computed airspeed. You will learn more about the air data computer in lesson 4. In our example
the CAS is 7 knots lower than the IAS. The speed formula is only valid when the medium used is
incompressible. Unfortunately air compresses at higher speeds and generates a total pressure
increase called the compressibility error.
The graph shows you that the higher the airspeed and altitude the larger the error. For example
when you fly at 30000 ft with a calibrated airspeed of 293 kts the error will become 15 kts. The
corrected airspeed which is in our example 278 kts is called the equivalent airspeed or EAS in
short. This value is not indicated in commercial airplanes, and is only important for design data
and further calculations.
For navigation purposes you need the real speed of the aircraft. This is called the true airspeed , or
TAS in short and it is measured against the surrounding air. The true airspeed is calculated from
the EAS by replacing the standard density used before with the real density. This means the TAS
increases with increasing altitude and is only identical to the EAS at mean sea level.
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In our example the TAS is 470 kts when we fly with an EAS of 278 kts at 30000ft Note that another
speed indication which you can find in aircraft, called the ground speed or GS in short, is not an
air data indication. The ground speed is calculated by a different system like the inertial reference
unit in reference to the ground.
You will learn more about this in lesson 9. The ground speed is used for navigation purposes and
to calculate the wind component from the difference to the TAS, here for example we have 10 kts
tailwind.
AIRSPEED LIMITS
It is necessary for pilots to know the airspeed limits for different flight situations. In small aircraft
the speed limits are marked with colored ranges and lines on the airspeed indicator scale. The VS0
is the stall speed in landing configuration, this means with flaps and gear down. The VS1 is the
stall speed in clean configuration with maximum weight. The VFE is the maximum allowable
speed with flaps extended. VNO is the maximum airspeed for cruise flight.
VNE stands for never exceed, so this value shows the maximum allowed airspeed. The green band
shows the Normal Operating Range. The white band is the Full Flap Operating Range. The yellow
band is the caution range. This speed must only be used in smooth air without hard maneuvers. In
airspeed indicators of jet aircraft you can find a pointer to show the maximum allowed airspeed.
This is necessary because the speed limit is not a fixed value like the VNE in piston engine aircraft.
At low altitudes the limit depends on the dynamic pressure which acts on the aircraft structure.
This limit is called maximum operating velocity or VMO in short. It is either constant or it
increases slightly with increasing altitude. This is when the compressibility error of the IAS is
taken into account. At higher altitudes the limit depends on the maximum allowed mach number
or MMO in short. This value decreases with increasing altitude because the speed of sound
decreases.
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Airspeed Indicators of jet aircraft dont show the low speed limit because they depend on many
factors such as weight and flap position. Only on aircraft with a glass cockpit can you find a
minimum speed indication on the speed tape of the PFD. The maximum speed is also shown on
the speed tape. In addition all aircraft have overspeed and stall warning systems which are
independent of the indication. You will learn this in lesson 5 of this unit.
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

The vertical speed indicator shows the pilot the rate of climb or descent in feet per minute. In a
vertical speed indicator the static pressure line is connected to a differential pressure bellows and
to the sealed instrument case via a calibrated metering unit, also called capillary tube or orifice.
The pressure difference between inside and outside the bellows acts on the instrument mechanism
and moves the vertical speed pointer.
When the aircraft is in a level flight the static pressure is stable. Therefore the pressure inside the
bellows and in the case is equal so the pointer shows 0 ft/min. When the aircraft climbs decreasing
static pressure contracts the bellows and the pointer indicates the actual climb rate. When the
aircraft descends increasing static pressure expands the bellow and the pointer indicates the actual
sink rate.
The indication of the standard vertical speed indicator is delayed at the beginning of a climb or
descent. Therefore jet aircraft usually have an instantaneous vertical speed indicator or IVSI in
short. It uses a small pump with a spring loaded piston.
If the aircraft starts a descent we get a negative gravity force. This moves the piston up and
increases the pressure inside the bellows before the static pressure outside the aircraft changes.
During climb the effect is inversed. Note that any vertical acceleration has this effect, so for
example during a turn with a high bank angle you get a wrong indication.
In modern aircrafts you can find electrical Vertical Speed Indicators. This indicator normally uses
an inertial vertical speed signal, called IVS from the inertial reference unit, or IRU in short. If this
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signal is not available the vertical speed from the air data computer is used. In modern glass cockpit
aircraft the vertical speed indication is displayed on the PFD.
MACHMETER
A mach meter indicates the ratio of the true air speed of the aircraft to the actual speed of sound.
All jet aircraft need this indication to fly safely and economically at high altitudes. The mach meter
can be a separate instrument or the mach indication is integrated in an airspeed indicator or it is
displayed on the PFD of an EFIS.
The Mach meter basically measures the airspeed with a differential bellows, as described already
for the airspeed indicator. The speed of sound is a function of the temperature which decreases
linearly with increasing altitude. So in other words the speed of sound is also a function of the
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altitude which we can measure with the altitude bellows. The maximum allowed mach number is
marked with a red line on the mach meter scale, because it is a fixed value.
TEMPERATURE INDICATIONS
On all commercial aircraft you can find air temperature indications, as shown on an airbus ECAM
system.
On other aircraft you can find analog or digital indicators, for example, with the TAS. Two
different temperatures are defined: One is the static air temperature, or SAT in short. This is the
temperature of the undisturbed air around the aircraft. It is also called outside air temperature, or
OAT.
The second indicated temperature is called the total air temperature or TAT in short. During flight
it is higher than the SAT because of the so called ram rise. The total temperature can be measured
directly by the TAT probe also called rosemount probe after the manufacturer. The probe guides
the airstream around a sensing element called a thermistor. The TAT probe has also a heating
element which prevents ice build-up. During flight the heating does not influence the measured
temperature, but on the ground the heating must be switched off so that it does not influence the
measurement.
Usually on the ground the TAT is equal to the SAT. However, you will get the wrong temperature
reading if an external heat source, like the sun, heats up the sensor because there is no airstream
through the sensor. The problem is solved when you use an aspirated TAT probe. This probe type
uses a bleed air flow as long the aircraft is on the ground to suck in the ambient air which now
passes the sensing element.
The TAT from the probe can be used directly for engine thrust calculations because the ram rise
inside the probe is the same as on the engine inlet. The SAT cant be measured directly. The air
data computer calculates it from the TAT by subtracting the effect of the ram rise.
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3. PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
STATIC PRESSURE SYSTEM
In the last lesson you learned that the Altimeter, the Airspeed indicator and the Vertical speed
indicator need static pressure to indicate correct values. These indicators are connected together
by tubes and pipes made of metal, plastic or rubber and all are connected to a static port.
The static port is a perforated metal plate where the holes allow the outside static air pressure to
enter the static line. Static ports are always located in an area where a smooth airflow allows
undisturbed measurement of the static pressure. This can be either on the forward aircraft fuselage
as shown here or on the pitot tube. The static port area must always be kept clean and smooth to
prevent disturbance of the airflow, because this would give incorrect indications.
The static ports must be protected by a cover during aircraft washing or repainting to prevent the
holes from becoming blocked. The cover is brightly colored so that it is easily visible. It is essential
that the cover is removed before the next flight. Even with a perfectly smooth area around the static
ports, the measured static pressure is not always identical to the real pressure outside of the aircraft
during a flight. This difference between the measured and real static pressure is called the static
source error, or SSE in short.
The SSE depends on the fuselage shape, the airspeed and angle of attack of the aircraft. The flap
and gear positions also influence the SSE. In the past, pilot„s used diagrams from the flight manual
to correct the indications. Today, air data computers automatically calculate a correction factor to
compensate for the SSE. You will learn more about this in the next lesson.
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There is also one flight situation which influences the measured static pressure, this is a side slip
maneuver. During a sideslip maneuver the airflow generates a higher than normal static pressure
on the left side of the fuselage this is due to the ram effect. Consequently the static pressure on the
right side of the fuselage decreases. To compensate for the effect of a sideslip maneuver, one static
port is installed on each side of the aircraft. Both ports are connected together by the use of a cross-
-porting tube which equalizes the static pressure to the instruments.
PITOT PRESSURE
The pitot system is used by the airspeed indicator. The measured pressure is the total pressure,
which is the sum of the dynamic pressure generated by the airspeed and the static pressure. The
pitot pressure is measured by a pitot tube that points into the airstream. A tube guides the pressure
to the indicator. The name pitot comes from Henri Pitot a French scientist who made the first
calculations to measure airspeed.
The location of the pitot tube is selected by the aircraft manufacturer to measure an undisturbed
pitot pressure. For example, on military aircraft, you find it at the nose of the aircraft. On small
aircraft you find the pitot tube below the wing or in front of the wing. On large aircraft, the pitot
tubes are usually located on the forward part of the fuselage.
All Pitot tubes have an air intake for the total pressure at the front. Please note that the leading
edge of the tube must always be in good condition so that it does not affect the airflow. The
maintenance manual tells you which deformations are acceptable or which require the replacement
of the tube. Inside the tube there is a baffle which prevents water or foreign objects from entering
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the pitot pressure line. A drain hole at the lowest part of the tube drains water and dust particles to
the outside. This hole must always be kept open to guarantee correct instrument indication.
An electrical heating circuit named probe heating, prevents ice from blocking the pitot tube during
flight. Please note that if the aircraft is on the ground, the tube becomes very hot when the heating
is switched on. If the aircraft is parked on the ground for a longer time, the Pitot tube must be
protected by a cover to prevent water and foreign objects, like insects, from entering the pitot tube.
The cover has a bright flag to alert the mechanic or pilot that it must be removed before the next
flight.
On some aircraft types, the pitot tubes also include the static port. As you can see the static port
consists of small holes located around the tube and are connected to the static system. This type of
tube is called a Pitot Static tube.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
To show you the design of the pitot static system architecture let us start with a simple system for
a small aircraft. It has one Airspeed indicator, Altimeter and Vertical Speed Indicator. As you have
seen already, these 3 indicators are supplied by a static pressure system with two static ports. The
pitot pressure system supplies the airspeed indicator. Larger aircraft need a second pilot for flight
operations and this requires a duplicated instrument system. This second instrument system is
supplied by a completely separate pitot and static system.
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A safety improvement is the installation of an Alternate Static source selector valve. It allows the
Captain to use the copilots static pressure system. You also find this selector valve in small single
pilot aircraft which are certified for instrument flight rules, IFR in short.
Aircraft which can fly at higher altitudes and airspeeds need additional indicators such as the
MACH meter, True airspeed and Air Temperature indicator. Typically in these aircraft, an Air
Data Computer, or ADC in short, calculates the necessary data and delivers the electrical signals
to the additional indicators.
The ADC uses the Captain„s pitot static system. The ADC also uses the input from a
TEMPERATURE probe and an Angle of Attack sensor. You will learn more about this in lesson
4. The calculated data from the ADC is also provided to other systems such as the Autoflight and
warning systems.
Improvements in the reliability of air data computers has made it possible to replace all the
pneumatic instruments and their tubings with electrical indicators driven directly from the ADC.
This architecture also needs an ADC for the copilot. The tubes from the pitot static probes go to
the ADCs. As you can imagine, the total loss of the basic air data instruments as a result of a power
failure is not allowed. Therefore, standby indicators for airspeed and altitude have to be installed
on the aircraft.
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The standby indicators are supplied by separate tubings from separate pitot and static ports. On
some aircraft types this standby pitot static system supplies a third ADC. The output of ADC
number 3 can be used to supply additional systems or to replace ADC 1 or 2 in case of a failure.
In modern digital glass cockpit aircraft you can find AIR DATA MODULEs. They are located
near the static port or pitot tube and convert the air pressure directly into a digital data word. This
saves weight and maintenance costs because the data is sent to the Air Data Computers via thin
wires instead of using tubes. Only the standby instruments still need to be supplied by tubes.
A third Air Data Computer is connected to the standby instruments pneumatic tubing by the use
of Air Data Modules. Another advantage of this system is that the air data computer can now be
integrated with the inertial reference system to the so called ADIRU. You will learn more about
this in the next lesson. On the schematic you can see that the switching of the air data signals is
possible.
The captain can select the data for the indications on the left EFIS either from ADC number 1,
which is the normal source, or from ADC number 3 as the alternate source. The Copilot can select
the data for the indications on the right EFIS either from ADC number 2 as the normal source, or
from ADC number 3 as the alternate source. You can learn more about this switching function in
the lesson about EFIS of unit 31 part 2.
LEAKAGE IN PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS
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In this segment let us start to look at the effect of a leakage in one or both of the pressure lines of
a pitot/static system. We will use this simple system to show the effect upon the indicators. Please
note that the results of a leakage depend on the size of the leakage and if the aircraft cabin is
pressurized or not. For our examples we assume a large leak inside the cabin, like a broken tube.
The cabin pressure can enter the tube via this leak and is distributed to the indicators.
In our first example you can see the effects of a leakage in the static system of an aircraft with an
unpressurized cabin. During flight the pressure inside an unpressurized cabin is slightly lower then
the ambient static pressure, because of the venturi effect. Please note, we ignore the effects of
cabin heating or ventilation. The Altimeter will slightly increase the indicated altitude and the same
happens with the Airspeed indicator which shows a slightly higher indicated airspeed. The Vertical
Speed Indicator indicates a small jump when the leakage happens but then shows correct data.
When this leakage happens in an aircraft with a pressurized cabin, the pressure increases in the
static lines. This means that the Altimeter and Airspeed Indicator decrease their indication. The
vertical speed indication now will depend on cabin rate, which is controlled by the airconditioning
system.
A leakage in the pitot system only affects the airspeed indicator: If the cabin is unpressurized the
airspeed indication will decrease to zero because static and pitot pressure are now nearly the same.
If the cabin is pressurized the airspeed indication is unpredictable, because it depends on altitude
and cabin pressure.
A leakage in the static and the pitot system will cause the following effects on the indicators: The
Airspeed indication decreases because pitot and static pressure tend to be the same. The Altimeter
and vertical speed indication will show the same results as were described for a leakage in the
static system.
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BLOCKED PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
Lets now look at what happens when the static pressure ports of one system are blocked by ice or
other foreign matter. As long as the aircraft flies at a constant altitude with a constant airspeed, for
example during cruise, you will not get any changes in the indication. But what happens when the
aircraft starts climbing? A blocked static pressure system during climb has the following effects:
The Airspeed indicator gets a decreasing total pressure from the pitot tube but the static pressure
inside the blocked tube will be constant. The result will be a decreasing airspeed indication. The
Altimeter will continue to display the same altitude during the climb and the Vertical Speed
Indication will stay at 0.
A blocked static pressure system during descent has the following results: The Airspeed indicator
gets an increasing total pressure from the pitot tube but the static pressure inside the blocked tube
will remain constant. The result will be an increasing airspeed indication. The Altimeter continues
to display the same altitude during the descent and the Vertical Speed Indication will stay at 0.
Lets now see what happens when the pitot tube is completely blocked, for example because of an
inactive anti--ice system. The altimeter and vertical speed indications are not affected by this
failure. When the aircraft climbs with constant speed, the static pressure decreases. The total
pressure inside the pitot system can„t change when the tube is totally blocked. The result is an
increasing indication on the Airspeed indicator which can even go up into the overspeed region.
You can also say that the airspeed indicator reacts like an altimeter. If the pitot tube becomes
totally blocked in cruise and the aircraft continues to fly at the same altitude the Airspeed indicator
will show no changes in indicated speed even if the engine thrust is changed to accelerate or
decelerate the aircraft.
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If the aircraft descends, the static pressure will increase. The total pressure inside the pitot system
can„t change when the tube is totally blocked. So the Airspeed indicator decreases the indication
to a lower indicated airspeed. Again it reacts like an altimeter.
You will get a different reaction if the input port of the pitot tube is blocked but the water drain
hole is still open. In this situation the pitot pressure decreases to the value of the static pressure.
When the input port of the pitot tube is blocked but the water drain hole is still open the airspeed
indication decreases to 0. The altimeter and vertical speed indicators are not affected, because they
only get static pressure.
4. AIR DATA COMPUTER

High performance and jet transport category aircraft pitot-static systems may be more complicated.
These aircraft frequently operate at high altitude where the ambient temperature can exceed 50 °F
below zero. The compressibility of air is also altered at high speeds and at high altitudes. Airflow
around the fuselage changes, making it difficult to pick up consistent static pressure inputs. The
pilot must compensate for all factors of air temperature and density to obtain accurate indications
from instruments. While many analog instruments have compensating devices built into them, the
use of an air data computer (ADC) is common for these purposes on high-performance aircraft.
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Moreover, modern aircraft utilize digital air data computers (DADC). The conversion of sensed
air pressures into digital values makes them more easily manipulated by the computer to output
accurate information that has compensated for the many variables encountered.
Essentially, all pressures and temperatures captured by sensors are fed into the ADC. Analog units
utilize transducers to convert these to electrical values and manipulate them in various modules
containing circuits designed to make the proper compensations for use by different instruments
and systems. A DADC usually receives its data in digital format.
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Systems that do not have digital sensor outputs will first convert inputs into digital signals via an
analog-to-digital converter. Conversion can take place inside the computer or in a separate unit
designed for this function. Then, all calculation and compensations are performed digitally by
the computer. Outputs from the ADC are electric to drive servo motors or for use as inputs in
pressurization systems, flight control units, and other systems. DADC outputs are distributed to
these same systems and the cockpit display using a digital data bus.
There are numerous benefits of using ADCs. Simplification of pitot-static plumbing lines creates
a lighter, simpler, system with fewer connections, so it is less prone to leaks and easier to maintain.
One-time compensation calculations can be done inside the computer, eliminating the need to build
compensating devices into numerous individual instruments or units of the systems using the air
data. DADCs can run a number of checks to verify the plausibility of data received from any source
on the aircraft. Thus, the crew can be alerted automatically of a parameter that is out of the
ordinary.
Change to an alternate data source can also be automatic so accurate flight deck and systems
operations are continuously maintained. In general, solid-state technology is more reliable and
modern units are small and lightweight.
5. WARNING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS

ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM
As you know air traffic control separates the aircraft during flight by clearing them to different
flight altitudes. Therefore it is very important that an aircraft flies only at an altitude which is
cleared by air traffic control, to avoid collisions. Here, for example, the aircraft flies at 15000 ft.
A deviation from this clearance altitude is detected by the Altitude Alert system which alerts the
pilot with a visual and aural alert. The altitude alert system compares the actual altitude delivered
by the air data computer with the clearance altitude from ATC, which the pilot must always select
on the altitude window of the autoflight control panel.
The altitude alert system is normally integrated in the autoflight or central warning system of the
aircraft, but you can also find systems with a separate computer. A typical altitude alert system
alerts the pilots when the aircraft deviates more then 300 ft from the selected altitude. This is called
the deviation mode. The alert consist of a short chime from a loudspeaker in the cockpit
accompanied by a flashing altitude alert light.
In glass cockpit aircraft instead of the light the window around the altitude indication in the PFD
flashes. The visual altitude alert extinguishes if the aircraft returns to the correct altitude. In some
systems it also extinguishes if the deviation becomes more than 900 ft. Before an aircraft is allowed
to climb or descend the pilot must ask ATC for a new clearence altitude which then must be
selected with the altitude knob.
During this selection the altitude alert is inhibited, so the deviation alert will never appear when
the pilot follows the correct procedure. A new altitude selection is not done when during an
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approach the aircraft intercepts the glideslope to start the landing. Therefore in this situation the
altitude alert is inhibited by the system so that the pilot is not confused. Typical altitude alert
systems also give an alert when the aircraft approaches the selected altitude during manual flight.
This is to remind the pilot to level off at the correct altitude.
The alert is inhibited when the autopilot is active, because it does the level off automatically. In
this approach mode the alert is triggered about 900 ft before the selected altitude. It consist of an
short aural alert and a visual alert which now is a steady light or a pulsing altitude window in the
PFD. The alerts stop when the altitude difference becomes less than 300 ft.
OVERSPEED WARNING
Hopefully you remember from a previous lesson that the airspeed indicator shows the actual
indicated airspeed and a speed limit. In jet aircraft this is done by the red and white VMO / MMO
pointer in the airspeed indicator or with the red and black area on the speed tape of the PFD. All
jet aircraft have an independent aural overspeed warning, because of the danger of aircraft damage
during an overspeed.
It is either an aural warning from the cockpit loudspeakers which is triggered by the master warning
system or it is a separate system with a sound like a clacker. The overspeed warning is generated
whenever the airspeed is higher than VMO or MMO. The detection is always independent of the
airspeed indication. The overspeed warning can be tested by activating an individual test button or
via the central maintenance computer.
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STALL WARRNING
Aircraft can only fly if the wing generates sufficient lift, which depends mainly on the wing
geometry, the airspeed and the angle of attack. To keep a constant lift as the airspeed decreases
you must increase the angle of attack or you must change the wing geometry by extending the slats
and flaps. At a certain angle of attack, called the alpha max, the airflow cannot follow the upper
surface of the wing and an airflow separation occurs. This stall condition is very dangerous because
the lift decreases dramatically and the aircraft crashes if not enough altitude is available for
recovery.
Therefore the pilot must be warned early enough before the real stall happens. This is the task of
the stall warning system. A stall warning system compares the actual angle of attack from the alpha
vane with the aircraft specific alpha max. As alpha max depends on the flap and slat position their
actual position must also be taken into account. The comparison is done in a separate computer or
is integrated in another system, like the master warning or the autothrottle system.
Usually two independent systems are used for redundancy. When the critical angle of attack is
reached the system activates a stick shaker motor on the control column. It generates vibrations
that simulate the effect of a real stall to the flight controls. In addition modern aircraft have an
aural warning, like this: In some aircrafts you can also find a stick pusher. It automatically pushes
the control column forward to reduce the angle of attack when a stall condition is detected.
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FLIGHT DATA RECORDER
A Flight data recorder or FDR in short is required by aviation law on all large commercial aircraft.
It records important flight data to evaluate causes of an accident. The first generations of FDRs
just recorded 6 parameters: These are time, heading, altitude, airspeed, vertical acceleration and a
pulse when the push to talk switch is activated. This allowed synchronization of the recorded data
with the data from air traffic control and the voice recorder. Aircraft certified during the last 30
years require a recorder which can record a lot more data, like engine, flight control and system
status. You can see examples on the list, but modern systems can store several hundred parameters.
Modern Flight recorders use two types of storage devices to store the required parameters. One
uses a magnetic tape, which is protected against heat and shocks by insulation and the second type
uses solid state memories like CMOS E--PROMs. Both recorder types don„t need any maintenance
activity, because they only store the data of the last 25 flight hours. The oldest data is constantly
erased and overwritten by new data.
The flight recorder can usually be found in the tail section of the aircraft, here side by side with
the voice recorder. Typically this location is less seriously damaged in a crash. The recorder is
painted bright yellow or orange so it can be easily located at the crash site. To keep the stored data
during a crash the storage device must be protected against high G--loads of up to 1000 gs and
high temperatures of more than 1000°. You can see the thick insulation protecting the tape on this
photo.
All Flight data recorders have an underwater Locator Beacon, to locate the aircraft under water if
it crashes into the sea. The underwater Locator Beacon transmits an audio signal at 40 khz that can
be picked up by an underwater microphone. The transmission starts automatically when the battery
of the beacon comes in contact with water and continues for a minimum of 30 days. The
underwater Locator Beacon and the flight recorder can withstand depths of more than 3000 m.
The flight recorder starts recording automatically at the beginning of the flight and stops at the
end. Typical switching signals come from the engine oil pressure switch or an airspeed signal. A
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test switch in the cockpit allows a test of flight recorder operation on the ground by bypassing the
start conditions. Modern systems can be tested via the CMC. Modern flight recorders store the
data in a digital format. All signals from the aircraft systems go first to a flight data acquisition
unit.
This unit combines all data to a recordable format and also monitors the recording. In addition the
FDR stores the flight number and the date. It is provided either by the flight management computer
or a Flight Data Entry Panel. Here the flight crew must enter the data manually.
6. GYROSCOPES
INTRODUCTION
As you should remember from lesson 1, in aircraft, there are several indicators which need gyro
signals for their indication. Vertical gyros or VG in short, provide the attitude indication for the
Attitude Director Indicator or ADI. A directional gyro, or DG in short, provides the heading
reference signal for the horizontal situation indicator, or HSI in short and radio magnetic
indicators, RMI in short. A rate gyro is used for the rate of turn indication.
The same type of indications are found in modern glass cockpit aircraft. These aircraft have an
electronic flight instrument system, EFIS, which uses electronic gyros, like laser gyros. They will
be introduced to you in the lesson on inertial stabilized systems. Also, from earlier lessons you
should remember that these aircraft have a standby horizon which uses a vertical gyro like the
artificial horizon in small aircraft types.
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GYRO PRINCIPLE
A gyro is a rotating mass which keeps the direction of its axis constant as long as no force acts on
it. This gyro stability depends on 3 factors:
- First its mass, which is evenly distributed around the spin axis
- secondly the rotational speed
- third the distance between the axis and the center of the mass.
An example of a gyro is our planet Earth, which has travelled around the sun for millions of years
with no significant change of its spin axis direction. The stability of the Earth comes from its very
high mass and large diameter. But aircraft equipment has to be as small and light as possible.
Therefore, to have enough stability, aircraft gyros must spin at very high speeds of up to 22000
rpm/min.
When you apply a force to a gyro which acts in the direction of its axis, it will move in that
direction, but there is no change in the direction of the gyro axis. The same happens when a force
acts on the center of gravity of the gyro. A completely different reaction happens to the gyro when
the force tries to change the direction of the axis, for instance by pressing against its axis as in our
example.
When you apply a force which tries to tilt the gyro axis you get a reaction which is shifted by 90°.
This is called gyro precession. For example when you apply a force in the so called plane of
external force it is transferred to the rotating mass and shifted by 90° in the direction of the spin,
here clockwise. This shifted force now tilts the gyro in the plane of precession until the original
force that was applied corresponds with the direction of spin.
The rotating propeller shows the same effect as the gyro described before. The lifting of the aircraft
tail applies a force to the gyro axis. This force is transferred clockwise into the plane of precession,
so the nose would turn to the left, if the pilot did not react. Precession forces are present for all
rotating components, like propellers, turbofan engines and even wheels if they are turning during
gear retraction. This must be taken into account for aircraft design and operation.
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM
A gyro which is mounted to the aircraft structure by bearings, like a propeller or wheel, can only
spin around its axis. So this gyro has just 1 degree of freedom. A gyro with one gimbal has 2 degree
of freedom because the gyro axis can now move in one direction. If the movement of the gimbal
is limited by a spring we get a gyro with just 1,5 degree of freedom. Such a gyro is called a rate
gyro. This is described in a later segment.
A gyro with 2 gimbals has three degrees of freedom. Now the gyro axis is free in all direction. A
gyro with a vertical axis is called vertical gyro or VG. It is used in aircraft as the artificial horizon.
The same gyro type but with a horizontal axis is called a directional gyro or DG. It is used in
aircraft to provide a heading reference signal.
We have now seen that a stable gyro keeps the direction of its axis constant. And this is also true
when the gyro flies with a rocket into space. When the gyro is used as a reference in an aircraft, it
is done so with reference to the surface of the rotating Earth. In the example shown here, a gyro
with 3 degrees of freedom is located at the equator with the axis pointing to the Earth„s center. A
gyro with three degrees of freedom will always keep the direction of its axis with reference to
space. It is therefore called a space gyro. The result is that the gyro axis topples at the equator by
90° in 6 hours or 15° per hour.
This topple is called apparent topple because it only happens with reference to the Earth„s surface
but not with reference to space. The apparent topple is 15° per hour at the equator, and 0° at the
pole. At any latitude you can calculate the apparent topple by multiplying 15° per hour times the
cosine of the latitude. In Hamburg for example, the topple is 9° per hour because the latitude is
53°.
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Now lets have a look at an example of a gyro with a horizontal axis. Located at the equator with a
north pointing axis you will get no change in direction at all/. Located at the pole with a certain
start direction of, for example, zero degrees, you will see that the gyro keeps its direction with
reference to space but the direction in relation to the longitude changes, because of the Earth„s
rotation. The change of gyro axis direction in relation to the Earth„s surface is called apparent drift
and is 15° per hour at the poles.
Generally the apparent drift is calculated by multiplying 15° per hour with the sine of the latitude.
The rate of apparent drift and topple is only accurate if the gyro is at a fixed location. A so called
transport rate must be added or subtracted when the gyro is transported, like during the flight. This
transport rate depends on the direction and speed of transport. Normally it is so small that we can
ignore its effect. The total drift and topple of a gyro which must be corrected during operation is
not only the apparent drift and topple.
Gyros are also affected by something called real drift and topple. This comes from mechanical
inbalances and bearing forces which generate unwanted precessions. For new or overhauled gyros
this real drift and topple is very small, but increases with longer use or incorrect gyro handling. To
use a gyro in aircraft instruments we must eliminate the total effect of topple with a so called
erection system. It controls the gyro axis to keep a constant direction to the Earth„s surface. Either
horizontal for the DG or vertical for the VG. The erection system uses the gravity of the Earth as
a reference signal. Either detected by a moving mass like a pendulum or by liquid level switches.
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VERTICAL GYRO
A vertical gyro is used as the reference in all classical instruments showing an artificial horizon.
In level flight its axis corresponds to the vertical axis of the aircraft, so the aircraft symbol is in
line with the horizon of the indicator. When the aircraft nose moves up, the indicator with the
aircraft reference symbol moves up, but the gyro axis keeps its vertical direction which shows the
new situation of the horizon. When the aircraft nose moves down, the indicator with the aircraft
reference symbol moves down, but the gyro axis keeps its vertical direction which shows the new
situation of the horizon.
During a left turn the indicator with the aircraft reference symbol turns left, but the gyro axis keeps
its vertical direction which shows the new situation of the horizon. During a right turn the indicator
with the aircraft reference symbol turns right, but the gyro axis keeps its vertical direction which
shows the new situation of the horizon.
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You know that a gyro needs a high rotational speed to have enough stability. In small aircraft the
speed is generated by air. The airflow is generated by a vacuum or suction pump which sucks the
cockpit air through the indicator and drives the gyro body which is formed like a small turbine. In
all commercial aircraft the gyros are driven by electric motors. This is more reliable and gives a
stable speed in all flight situations.
To keep the axis of the gyro vertical an erection system is needed. The air driven gyro uses
pendulums to generate an erection force by the airflow. We will not discuss this in more detail
here. Electrically driven gyros use level switches with a conductive fluid which activates a torque
motor when the gyro axis topples. The torque motor brings the gyro axis back to the correct
direction. When the roll level switch detects an incorrect direction of the axis it activates the roll
torque motor, which applies a force to the gyro gimbal. This force generates a corresponding
precession force to bring the gyro back to the correct direction.
The erection system can not work correctly during accelerations which effect the aircraft. Large
longitudinal accelerations, for example during a take--off, create a resultant force which influences
the pitch level switch. During a coordinated turn the resultant force influences the roll level switch.
Wrong indications of the artificial horizon during accelerations must be prevented.
Therefore, the rate of gyro erection is limited to 3° per minute. This rate is sufficient to compensate
the apparent topple of 15° per hour plus any precessions from real topple. On the other hand the
erection rate is so small that during normal turns and accelerations no significant error can build
up. In electrical gyros a faster erection rate with about 20° per minute is activated only when the
gyro is switched on after a long power interruption. Electrical gyros also have erection cutout
switches.
They detect an acceleration in the pitch or roll axis and interrupt the corresponding erection circuit
for as long as the accelerations last. Long acceleration periods like during full turns must be
prevented because the gyro topple cannot be compensated during that time. Therefore, during
holding, aircraft fly racetrack patterns instead of full turns. This gives the erection system after
each half turn enough time to compensate any gyro topple.
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DIRECTIONAL GYRO
A directional gyro has three degrees of freedom and a horizontal axis. The gyro keeps its direction
stable when the aircraft turns its nose. In this example of a directional gyro from a small aircraft
you can see that the indicator scale is connected to the gyro gimble. When the aircraft with the
indicator turns, you can read the changing direction behind the lubber line on the front glass. Many
features of the directional gyro are the same as we have discussed for the vertical gyro. So it is
either driven pneumatically or electrically and it has an erection system which keeps the gyro axis,
in this case, horizontal.
A level switch and a torque motor does this task in the electrical gyro. An important difference of
the DG to the VG is that it drifts. The drift of an air driven DG must be compensated manually by
the pilot by use of a heading set knob. Commercial aircraft use electrical gyros with an automatic
drift compensation. You will see this in lesson 8.
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RATE GYRO
Rate gyros have one gimbal which is limited in motion by a spring. This is called a gyro with 1,5
degrees of freedom. They are used to measure the rate of turn of the aircraft around its sensitive
axis. A turn around the sensitive axis will generate a gyro precession which moves the gimbal
against the spring force. Rate gyros are named after its sensitive axis. A Roll rate gyro has a vertical
spin axis and gimbal bearings in the lateral axis.
35
An aircraft motion around the longitudinal axis will generate a gyro precession against the spring.
A pitch rate gyro has the gimbal bearings in the longitudinal axis and in a yaw rate gyro the spin
axis is parallel to the lateral axis. Pitch rate gyros as well as Roll rate gyros are only used as sensors
for autoflight systems.
The only rate indication you can find in many aircraft is the yaw rate or rate of turn indication. It
uses either a separate indicator or it is integrated in the ADI. The rate of turn indication shows a
full deflection when a complete turn would need 2 minutes -- this is also called a standard turn.
The indication is only accurate when the gyro speed is normal, because the precession force which
acts against the spring depends on the gyro stability, which is proportional to the speed. Therefore
rate gyros are generally driven by electric motors.
The rate of turn indication is always supplemented by a slip indication from an inclinometer, also
called the ball. It shows the pilot the direction of the resultant forces during turn. The ball is made
of metal and its movement is dampened by a liquid. The combined indication of rate of turn pointer
and ball give the pilot information about the quality of a turn. When the ball is centered, it means
that a turn is perfectly coordinated because the vertical axis of the aircraft is parallel to the resultant
force of the turn.
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When the ball moves in the direction of the turn, this means the bank angle is too large for the
actual rate of turn and the aircraft slips. The pilot must increase the turn rate by moving the rudder
in the direction of the ball, here to the right. When the ball moves in the opposite direction of the
turn the bank angle is too small for the actual rate of turn. The pilot must decrease the turn rate by
moving the rudder in the direction of the ball, here to the left.
In small aircraft you often find a turn coordinator instead of a rate of turn indicator. In this
indicator, the rate gyro is turned by 45° so that it is also sensitive to the roll rate. The result, is that
the turn coordinator shows the yaw rate when the bank angle is constant, but shows a roll rate
when the bank angle changes.
7. ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
As you have learned in the last lesson a vertical gyro is used as the reference for the attitude
indication in aircraft, also called the artificial horizon. The vertical gyro is integrated in the attitude
indicator of small aircraft and in the standby horizon of larger commercial aircraft. The artificial
horizon is one of the four most important indications in an aircraft, so it must be available for as
long as possible. Therefore the vertical gyro of the standby horizon is electrically driven by energy
from the aircraft battery system.
The erection system works mechanically. This makes sure that the horizon indication is usable
even after a total loss of electrical power, as long as the gyro runs stable during its spin down time
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of about 20 minutes. The mechanical erection system of a standby horizon uses balls or slowly
turning masses on top of the gyro as you can see here. The masses apply a force to the gyro
assembly when the axis is not vertical. This generates a precession force which returns the gyro
axis back into the vertical position. An erection system can only influence the gyro axis to a
maximum of 3° per minute.
To erect the gyro immediately, for example after power activation, it needs a caging mechanism.
When you pull the caging knob the gimbals are caged and stabilized in the normal position. Please
make sure that the gyro runs with full speed or is stopped completely when you use gimbal caging.
Any intermediate speed may damage the gyro because of the limited stability.
ADI
The main attitude indication in larger commercial aircraft is integrated either in the attitude director
indicator, or ADI for short, or in the primary flight display, or PFD of glass cockpit aircraft. Some
aircraft types use electronic ADIs. This is a display with the ADI image. The attitude for PFD and
electronic ADI come from an inertial reference unit which you will learn about in lesson 9. The
ADI is a complex electromechanical indicator. It has the attitude indication in the center, and flight
director command bars. These two indications give the ADI the name Attitude Director Indicator.
The typical ADI you can see here has many other indications located around the attitude.
The attitude indication is presented by a sphere which can move in all directions. In the center you
can find the fixed aircraft symbol. The pitch and roll flight director command bars are controlled
by the autoflight system which you will learn about in unit 22. This is the integrated turn and slip
indication. The rate of turn pointer is controlled by a yaw rate gyro and shows the turn rate around
the vertical axis. The slip indicator, also called the ball, shows the direction of the resultant gravity
force. See lesson 6 for more information.
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The glideslope pointer shows whether the aircraft flies above or below the glideslope during an
approach. It is controlled by the ILS system, which you will learn about in unit 34. The so called
rising runway appears in the final phase of the landing approach. The vertical movement shows
the distance to the ground, called the radio altitude and the horizontal movement indicates whether
the aircraft flies on the center of the localizer beam or left or right of it. More information about
this in unit 34.
The DH lamp illuminates when the aircraft descends below a preselected distance to the ground,
called the decision height. At this moment the pilot must decide if the visibility is good enough to
continue the landing. The DH lamp is controlled by the radio altimeter which you will learn more
about in unit 34. The fast slow pointer shows the pilot if the aircraft speed corresponds to a
preselected final landing speed, called the V REF. Full up indication would mean that the aircraft
is 10 knts or more too fast.
Usually this indication is controlled by the autothrottle system which you learn about in unit 22.
All indications you have just seen, except the ball and the Decision Height light, are driven by
small electric motors or torque meters. You can see here an example of the drive for the pitch flight
director bar. You can check the correct function of the indications by doing tests in the specific
system. To check the attitude indication you must press the test push button on the ADI.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
In this segment we will concentrate on the signals for the attitude indication on the ADI. These
signals are supplied by a remote vertical gyro which is located in the electric compartment. The
signals come from synchros, on the vertical gyro gimbals, which transfer the pitch and roll angle
into the electrical signal. In addition a gyro valid signal is sent to the ADI when the gyro is
operating with normal speed.
All signals use independent wires. For easier identification in our schematic we have combined all
wires to a single line. The Captain and the First Officer must have their own independent attitude
indications so we need two independent vertical gyros. If one of the two gyros is faulty a switching
restores the attitude indication from a third vertical gyro. This gyro can be transfered either to
captains or first officers ADI to replace a faulty gyro. The attitude information from the vertical
gyros is not only used for the ADIs. It is also provided to other systems like the autoflight system
and the weather radar system.
You will learn why attitude information is needed in the lessons about these systems. Usually the
components are supplied from the Captains vertical gyro. If there is a second system installed, like
a second autopilot, these components are supplied from the first officers vertical gyro. The attitude
reference system has an attitude comparison as an additional safety feature. It compares the two
indicated attitudes by deriving a signal directly from the indication.
If the pitch or roll indications differ by several degrees an alert is triggered by the instrument
warning system. If the aircraft is equipped with primary flight displays instead of ADI„s a message
called “CHECK ATTITUDE”appears on top of the attitude indication on both PFDs. To find out
which of two different indications is correct you always need a third independent source of
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information for comparison. In the attitude reference system, this is either the vertical gyro number
3 or the standby horizon.
8. HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM

HEADING DEFINITIONS
The aircraft heading has always been one of the basic needs for aircraft navigation. It is shown
with a direct reading compass like this standby compass and with a remote compass on the main
instrument panels. The indicated heading is the angle between the aircraft longitudinal axis, which
is shown with the so called lubber line and the direction to the north pole.
True heading is in reference to the geographic north pole, also called true north, or T--N in short,
and magnetic heading is in reference to the Magnetic North pole, also called magnetic north, or
M--N in short. The angle between True North and Magnetic North is called the variation. The
actual variation depends on the position on earth. On a map with lines showing locations with
identical variations, called isogonic lines, you can see that they are not symmetrical, because they
are affected by other magnetic materials inside the earth.
The different variations at different locations are basically no problem, because all navigation
equipment and runway directions as well as all information on maps are based on the magnetic
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heading. Unfortunately the position of the magnetic poles is drifting, so magnetic references, like
runway headings must be updated every few years.
The compass can only use horizontal magnetic field lines to measure the heading. As you can see
here, only near the equator are all magnetic field lines horizontal. In other areas the field lines
decline to the earth„s surface, and this is called inclination. The magnetic field is split into a
horizontal and a vertical component. The result of the inclination shows, for example, that at a
latitude of fifty degrees the strength of the horizontal component has already decreased to fifty
percent and at more than seventy degrees the horizontal component is so weak that it is not useable
for a compass. In the regions near the poles a directional gyro or a inertial stabilized system must
be used. You will see this later.
DIRECT READING COMPASS

A direct reading compass has no elecrical parts, except a light, and contains all parts necessary to
read the magnetic heading. In commercial aircraft it is called standby compass, because the
heading indication is part of the basic T and therefore must always be available even after a total
electrical power loss. The standby compass is usually located at the centerpost between the front
windshields. Here it is readable by both pilots and as far as possible away from foreign magnetic
fields of electrical equipment.
The standby compass has a housing with a glass window. The window has a vertical line in the
center, called the lubber line. The lubber line shows the heading on the turnable compass scale. A
Permanent magnet turns the compass scale into the direction of the magnetic field. The instrument
is filled with a fluid to dampen the compass scale movements. An expansion unit compensates
fluid expansion caused by temperature changes. The Permanent magnet with the compass scale is
kept horizontal by a pivot point bearing to measure the horizontal component of the field.
41
But this only works perfectly when the aircraft flies wings level and at a constant airspeed. Any
aircraft acceleration during speed changes or turns moves the magnet out of the horizontal position.
The result is that the magnet is also influenced by the vertical component of the earth„s magnet
field, which points down on the northern part of the earth and up on the southern part. There is no
influence on the heading indication when you accelerate or decelerate on a flight in northerly
direction, as shown in our example. The vertical field influences the magnet in the same direction
as the horizontal field. The same is true when flying south, because the permanent magnet points
in the same direction.
You can now see what happens when an aircraft flys over the northern part of the earth in an
easterly direction. During a stable flight you always get a correct indication, independent of flight
direction, because only the horizontal field influences the compass magnet. During an acceleration
the compass scale with the magnet tilts forward. Now the vertical magnetic field pulls the north
pole of the magnet down. This turns the compass scale to a lower heading indication. During a
42
deceleration the compass scale with the magnet tilts aft. Now the vertical magnetic field pulls the
north pole of the magnet down. This turns the compass scale to a higher heading indication.
Now lets see what happens when the aircraft flies a turn over the northern part of the earth and the
magnet is influenced by the centrifugal force. When you fly east or west there will be no influence
on the indication, because the horizontal and vertical fields act in the same direction. However
when you fly north or south a turn will disturb the heading indication.
During a stable flight you always get a correct indication, independent of flight direction, because
only the horizontal field influences the compass magnet. During a right turn the compass scale
with the magnet tilts right. Now the vertical magnetic field pulls the north pole of the magnet
down. This turns the compass scale to a lower heading indication that looks like a turn to the wrong
direction.
During a left turn the compass scale with the magnet tilts left. The vertical magnetic field pulls the
north pole of the magnet down. This turns the compass scale to a higher heading indication, that
looks like a turn to the wrong direction. All the described heding indication errors during turns and
accelerations are only true for the northern part of the earth, where the vertical field component
points down. On the southern part of the earth the effect of the vertical field component is inversed
because it points up.
COMPASS COMPENSATION
The direct reading compass is also affected by a magnetic field inside the aircraft, for example,
from electrical equipment which is active during normal aircraft operation. This aircraft magnetic
field changes the direction of magnetic north to the so called compass north. The difference is
called deviation. You can minimize the deviation with small adjustable magnets inside the
compass, called the compass compensation.
A compass compensation provides the values for the adjustment of the compensating magnets. A
compensation must be done for example after aircraft overhaul and when an aircraft modification
would influence the compass indication. A compensation needs a 360° turn of the aircraft on the
ground, far away from all foreign magnetic fields of the airport, for example from buildings.
During the aircraft turn you can identify the direction and intensity of the aircraft
magnetic field because it is constant whereas the magnetic heading changes the direction. During
the compensation the deviation is recorded every 90° of the aircraft swing.
Afterwards correction values, also called coefficients are calculated. The B coefficient is the
difference between the east and west deviations, divided by 2 and the C-- coefficient is the
difference between the north / south deviations, divided by 2. The B correction value of our
example is plus 10° and the C correction value is minus 10°. Note that you must be careful with
the minus signs. The corrections are done by turning the small compensating magnets with a non
magnetic tool into the correct direction.
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For the B correction the aircraft usually stays in an easterly direction and the corresponding screw
is turned as long as the calculated value of in our example plus ten degrees is reached. For the C
correction the aircraft usually stays in a northerly direction and the corresponding screw is turned
as long as the calculated value of in our example minus ten degrees is reached.
An A Correction is only necessary when there is a misalignment between compass and the aircraft
x axis. This gives a parallel shift of the deviation curve. In our example this gives an A coefficient
of 5 as the average value for all 4 measurements. As this error has nothing to do with magnetic
fields the adjustment is done by turning the compass in its mounting.
Often it is not possible to get a complete compensation. The remaining compass error is therefore
measured every 30° during an aircraft turn on the ground and written into a compass deviation
card to be used during flight. For example to fly a magnetic heading of 120° the compass must
indicate 118° in normal mode and 119° when only emergency power is available.
REMOTE COMPASS SYSTEM
A directional gyro, or DG in short, can be used to eliminate the problems with the direct reading
compass. As you should know from lesson 6 the DG provides a stable indication of the direction
independent of short term effects like accelerations. The DG direction must be corrected frequently
because of its drift, which changes the direction relative to the earth by up to 15° per hour. In old
or small aircraft the pilot must make the adjustment manually by the indication of the direct reading
magnetic compass. This must happen during level flight with no accelerations.
To release the pilot from this manual setting the remote compass system was invented. It has an
indicator which receives the stable heading information from the DG. A flux valve automatically
measures the direction of the magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic field is compared to
the heading shown on the indicator and the difference is used to adjust the DG direction with a
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torque motor. The torque generates a gyro precession which changes the DG direction with a
maximum of 2 degrees per minute.
The flux valve transfers the direction of the magnetic field into a proportional electrical signal. It
has an iron core and 3 sensing coils that generate electrical signals whose intensity and direction
depend on the direction of the magnetic field. You should remember from electric fundamentals
that a coil only induces a voltage when the intensity of the magnetic field changes.
Therefore the iron core of the flux valve is frequently saturated by an alternating current in an
excitation coil. Saturated iron has the same magnetic resistance as air so the magnetic field uses
the shortest way and bypasses the three coils. When iron is not saturated it has a magnetic
resistance which is less than one ten thousandth of air, so the magnetic field uses an even longer
way through the iron and the coils. This alternate switching of the magnetic field functions like a
valve. This is the reason for the name flux valve.
The flux valve is installed far away from all magnetic fields of the aircraft, for example in the wing
tips or the wing leading edge or in the vertical fin. Remaining deviations must be compensated.
This is done for example with potentiometers on a remote compensation unit, like the one you can
see here. Compensation provides the values for the A, B and C correction values.
The flux valve can swing inside its housing so that the iron with the sensing coils is usually kept
horizontal by gravity. During accelerations the flux valve will swing so that it is also affected by
the vertical magnetic field. These short term disturbances will not affect the DG because of the
limited torque of the slaving motor. The pilot can monitor the correct function of the system with
a slaving annunciator, because it shows the difference between the indicated heading and the flux
valve signal. When it fluctuates around zero, it shows that the DG has the correct stable direction
45
and the flux valve provides correction signals. Only long term deflections show an error in the
system.
HEADING DISTRIBUTION
The distribution of the heading signals is comparable to the attitude reference system. The main
difference is that both pilots usually get the heading signals from both compass systems indicated.
The HSIs or NDs show the information of their own compass system and the RMIs show the
information of the opposite compass system. The heading is also provided to the autoflight
systems. Compass system one to autoflight system number one and compass system two to
autoflight system 2.
A heading warning flag shows the pilot when the signal is not valid. In this case the pilot can use
the heading transfer switch to connect the user to the other heading sensor or if available to a third
unit.
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CHAPTER 2
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
In the early years of aviation, a compass, a map, and dead reckoning were the only navigational
tools. These were marginally reassuring if weather prevented the pilot from seeing the terrain
below. Voice radio transmission from someone on the ground to the pilot indicating that the aircraft
could be heard overhead was a preview of what electronic navigational aids could provide. For
aviation to reach fruition as a safe, reliable, consistent means of transportation, some sort of
navigation system needed to be developed.
Early flight instruments contributed greatly to flying when the ground was obscured by clouds.
Navigation aids were needed to indicate where an aircraft was over the earth as it progressed
towards its destination. In the 1930s and 1940s, a radio navigation system was used that was a low
frequency, four course radio range system. Airports and selected navigation waypoints broadcast
two Morse code signals with finite ranges and patterns. Pilots tuned to the frequency of the
broadcasts and flew in an orientation pattern until both signals were received with increasing
strength. The signals were received as a blended tone of the highest volume when the aircraft was
directly over the broadcast area. From this beginning, numerous refinements to radio navigational
aids developed.
Radio navigation aids supply the pilot with intelligence that maintains or enhances the safety of
flight. As with communication radios, navigational aids are avionics devices, the repair of which
must be carried out by trained technicians at certified repair stations. However, installation,
maintenance and proper functioning of the electronic units, as well as their antennas, displays, and
any other peripheral devices, are the responsibilities of the airframe technician.
1. RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEM

Radio navigation systems use the radio signals from ground stations to help the pilot to navigate
the aircraft. Two systems are used for enroute navigation: First the ADF system which is the oldest
system. ADF stands for automatic direction finder. Second the VOR system which is the most
common system. VOR stands for VHF omnidirectional range.
A third radio navigation system is the Instrument Landing System, or ILS in short, which gives
information to land the aircraft in poor visibility. It has three subsystems:
- first the Localizer
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- second the Glide Slope
- and third the Marker Beacon.
A modern version of the instrument landing system is the Microwave Landing System or MLS in
short. It has some advantages over the ILS but, so far, it is not in common use, so we will not
discuss it here. The ADF system has a receiver and antennas and often also a control panel. It
uses radio signals from ground stations to calculate the direction to the station. This direction is
indicated in the cockpit. The VOR system has a receiver, an antenna and often also a nav control
panel. It uses radio signals from VOR ground stations to calculate the direction to the station. This
information is used for the autopilot and is indicated in the cockpit. The Localizer system has a
receiver, an antenna and often also a control panel. It uses radio signals from a ground station to
calculate the lateral guidance to the runway centerline. This is used for the autopilot and for
indication.
The Glide Slope system has a receiver and an antenna. It uses radio signals from a ground station
to calculate the descent path to the touchdown point on the runway for the autopilot and for
indication. The Marker Beacon system has a receiver and an antenna. It supplies visual and aural
indications when the aircraft passes marker beacon transmitters in a specific distance to the
runway.
In this segment we will give you some general information about radio navigation. For this task
we will use 2 different types of chart used by the pilots. First we have a brief look at the ICAO
chart. ICAO stands for International Civil Aviation Organization.
Later we look at the Enroute Charts that are more commonly used on commercial flights. The
ICAO chart is used for flying by both Visual Flight Rules and Instrument Flight Rules. Visual
Flight Rules, or VFR in short, means flying in good weather conditions and with visual ground
references. This is only used by small private aircraft. Instrument Flight Rules, or IFR in short,
means flying without visual ground references, day and night, or in bad weather conditions. These
rules are used by all commercial flights.
IFR flights need aid from radio navigation systems and their ground stations to perform a safe and
economic flight. All types of ground stations have their own symbols on the chart. Here is the
symbol of a VOR station. Adjacent to the symbol is a text box, which contains the name of the
station, the frequency in megahertz and the ident in Morse code. The ground station for the ADF
system, called the Non Directional Beacon or N--D--B in short, has a different symbol but with a
similar text box. Here the frequency is given in kilohertz.
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BASIC OF NAVIGATION
There are some general items of navigation that we have to look at before we go into the specific
radio navigation systems. As you know the aircraft has three axes. When we speak about different
directions it is the longitudinal axis that is the reference. You probably also remember from the
compass system, that the earth has 2 north poles which unfortunately are not at the same location.
One is the geographical north pole and the direction to this pole is called true north or TN in short.
The other is the magnetic north pole where the magnetic fieldlines are gathering. The direction to
this pole is called magnetic north or MN in short. In our example the two directions are 10° apart.
This difference between true and magnetic north is called variation, or var in short. It can be east
or west. The direction in which the nose of the aircraft is pointing is called Heading, or HDG in
short, and is measured clockwise from north. Because we have two north poles we must also have
two headings dependent on the reference. One is called true heading, or TH in short and the other
magnetic heading or MH.
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Track, or TK in short, is the direction in which an aircraft is moving over the earth. It is also
measured from true or magnetic north. If there is no wind the track and the heading are the same.
But if there is wind track is no more the same as heading. The difference between the two angles
is called drift.
Bearing, or BRG in short, is the direction from the aircraft position to an object, for example a
ground station. It is called Relative Bearing, or RB in short, if the reference is the longitudinal axis
of the aircraft. The Relative Bearing is measured in degrees clockwise from the longitudinal axis.
Zero degrees means that the object is straight ahead of the aircraft. True Bearing, or TB in short,
measures from true north and Magnetic Bearing, or MB in short, measures from Magnetic North.
You can calculate the Magnetic Bearing when you add the Magnetic Heading to the Relative
Bearing.
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ADF SYSTEM
The Automatic Direction Finder, ADF in short, is a radio navigation system that receives radio
signals in the frequency band of 190 to 1750 khz, from ground stations. The ADF receiver
calculates the relative bearing and provides it to a Radio Magnetic Indicator, or RMI in short and
to the navigation display. The ADF system also provides an aural output to the aircraft audio
system for transmitter identification.
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Three types of ground stations can be used for ADF navigation. These are Non Directional
Beacons, or NDB in short, used for enroute navigation and Locators which are used for approaches.
These Locators are often located with Marker Beacons, which belong to the Instrument Landing
System. Locators look similar to NDBs but have lower output power and a smaller mast. It is also
possible to use Public Radio Stations, if the position of the transmitting antenna is known.
A typical ADF System has a receiver which is located in the avionics compartment and antennas
which are located on the top of the fuselage, as in this example, or at the bottom. As you have seen
already the receiver tuning is done either from the FMS or from the relevant ADF control panel.
The relative bearing signal from the ADF Receiver is presented on the Navigation Displays and
on most aircraft also on a Radio Magnetic Indicator. With the audio control panel the pilot can
select the ADF system to hear the identification.
The ADF system receives the electromagnetic waves from the ground station with two antennas.
The loop antenna receives the magnetic part of the wave and delivers the loop--signal to the ADF
receiver. The sense part of the ADF antenna receives the electric part of the wave and delivers this
as the SENSE signal to the ADF receiver. The ADF receiver uses both signals to calculate a relative
bearing signal and positions the bearing pointers on the Navigation Display and the RMI.
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You probably know already that turning this receiver type changes the reception strength. During
a 360° turn you get two areas of minimum reception strength and two maximums. So with a loop
antenna like this in the home receiver you can find the direction to the station.
A loop antenna receives the magnetic part of the electromagnetic wave. The signal strength is at
maximum when the coil axis is perpendicular to the direction to the station and is at minimum
when the axis is pointing to the station. This effect is used by the ADF. In order to achieve the
direction to the station you must turn the antenna back and forth until you reach maximum signal
strength at a rather broad angle or minimum signal strength at a much narrower angle. Searching
for minimum signal strength is the better way.
In the old days the loop antenna on aircraft looked like this and the navigator turned the loop with
a crank while listening to the station. The loop was mechanically connected to a pointer on a
compass rose where the direction to the station could be read.
As you probably noticed on the video of the loop antenna in the home radio there are two
maximums and two minimums of the signal strength. This means that with the loop antenna alone
the station could be in two different directions. This fact is also illustrated with this loop antenna
pattern. This ambiguity problem is removed by using a second antenna called Sense antenna. The
Sense antenna has a non-directional pattern. If you combine the signals from both antenna types
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you get a resulting cardioid shaped pattern with a defined null in only one direction. The direction
to the station is now defined without ambiguity.
The ADF antenna on modern aircraft has a fixed integrated design and has one sense and two loop
antennas. The loops are not turnable but consist of two coils wound on a cross shaped ferrite core.
The ADF receiver combines the signals from the two coils to calculate the direction to the station.
The sense antenna is a plate that forms a capacitance with the aircraft structure.
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ADF OPERATION
The ADF System has two modes called ADF and Antenna. In addition a BFO or TONE function
can be selected. In the ADF mode the system is fully operational. It calculates the relative bearing
to the station and the station identifier in Morse code can be heard with the audio system. In the
antenna, or ANT mode, only the sense antenna is active. Therefore you don”t get a relative bearing
indication but the identifier is heard more clearly. This mode is used when the station identifier
reception is weak.
The BFO or TONE function is used if a ground station signal is not modulated with a tone. They
transmit the Morse code by interrupting the carrier wave. To make the code audible a Beat
Frequency Oscillator, BFO in short, inside the receiver superimposes a tone on the received carrier
wave so that the ident can be heard. In most modern glass cockpit aircraft the operation of the ADF
is normally done from the MCDU in conjunction with the Flight Management System. As an
example we take a look at the 747--400 aircraft.
As an alternate to the automatic tuning from the FMS you can select the frequency on the NAV
RADIO page. To select the ANT mode you must enter the letter A after the frequency. If the BFO
function is desired enter the letter B after the frequency. To hear the ground station ident you must
select ADF on the Audio Control Panel and set the volume control to a comfortable listening level.
The relative bearing to the ground station is presented on the Navigation Displays and the Radio
Magnetic Indicator, or R--M--I in short. If you have two ADF systems in the aircraft you can also
find two pointers on the Navigation Display. ADF 1 has a single line pointer and ADF two has a
55
double line pointer. The standard color for ADF is blue. The pointer disappears if the reception of
the tuned ground station signal is too weak. A Warning flag appears if a system failure is detected.
It is an amber box around the ADF text on the Navigation Display. Here a warning flag is shown
for ADF 2.
The EFIS Control Panel controls the Navigation Display in many ways as you probably know
already. Regarding ADF there are two switches. The left switch, called ADF--L, controls the single
pointer of the left ADF system which in other aircraft types is called system number one. The other
switch called ADF “R” controls the double pointer of ADF number 2. In the VOR position of the
switch the bearing pointer is controlled by the VOR system. In the off position the bearing pointers
are erased from the navigation display.
Bearing and heading information is presented on the RMI as well. Like the Navigation Display the
background compass card represents the aircraft heading and the pointers show magnetic relative
bearing to their respective ground stations. The RMI has two selector knobs which have the same
function as the switches on the EFIS Control Panel -- they select either ADF or VOR. As these
pointers are always in view they move to the 3 o”clock position when the signal from the tuned
station is too weak, as you can see here for ADF 2. You can also find ADF warning flags on the
RMI and also a warning flag for the compass system.
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VOR PRINCIPLE
The VOR systems receive, decode and process bearing information from the transmitted VOR
signal. VOR stands for VHF Omnidirectional Range, which means that it uses frequencies in the
VHF band and has both omni and directional transmitted signals. You can compare the VOR
principle with a lighthouse. It has a rotating beam and a flash light which you can see in all
directions. It flashes when the rotating beam points to magnetic north. When you measure the time
between the flash light and the visibility of the rotating beam you can identify the direction to the
lighthouse.
The VOR ground station also transmits two signals. One is the reference signal, transmitted in all
directions, like the flash light of the lighthouse. The second signal is called the variable signal
which corresponds to the rotating beam of the lighthouse. Two types of ground stations are used,
the conventional VOR, and the Doppler VOR. The doppler VOR is more expensive but has a better
performance in areas with a possibility of signal reflections, like near mountains or high buildings.
The VOR receiver compares the two radio signals and, from the difference, calculates the position
of the aircraft relative to the VOR station. This calculated position is called a radial which, in our
example, is 240°. Note that the radials correspond to the degrees of a compass rose so radial zero
points to magnetic north. The indication on the radio magnetic indicator in the cockpit shows the
radial on which the aircraft is actually located with the aft end of the bearing pointer, 240° in our
example. This means that the bearing to the station is always the radial plus or minus 180° , in our
example 060°.
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Note that this bearing indication is independent of the heading of the aircraft. The indication on
the RMI is called the automatic VOR mode. It shows, in our example, that the aircraft nose points
to magnetic north -- as you know this is called the heading -- and that the aircraft just passes the
VOR radial 240, which means that the station is in the 60° direction. The actual track of the aircraft
depends on the wind, so with the wind from west it is for example 10° . This is not shown on the
RMI. The automatic VOR indication on the RMI is repeated on the Navigation Display if the
function is selected. You can see that the color for the VOR indication is green.
A second VOR indication on the navigation display requires a pilot action, therefore it is called
manual VOR mode. It shows the difference between the radial the aircraft is actually located on
and a preselected radial. This difference is called VOR deviation and it is shown by a moving
deviation bar. The selected radial is called the preselected course, or PSC in short, and is either
selected on the MCDU or on the autoflight control panel as you can see here. You will find a
similar indication on the horizontal situation indicators, or HSI in short, on aircraft without an
EFIS.
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The indication on this navigation display shows us the following flight situation:
The aircraft has an actual heading of 273° and it is located on the radial 075 so the bearing to the
VOR station is 255°. The preselected course, or PSC, is 225. The deviation bar shows full right
deflection when the difference between the actual radial and the selected radial is 10° or more.
This means that one dot of deviation corresponds to a difference of 5°. Here the difference is 30°
because the PSC corresponds to a selected radial of 045 as long as we are flying to the station.
Additional VOR--information on the Navigation Display includes station name and TO or FROM
text in the lower right part. Here TO is shown because we are flying to the station.
VOR SYSTEM
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As you can imagine commercial aircraft are equipped with 2 systems. Each system has a receiver
which is located in an avionics compartment and which is tuned either automatically from the FMS
or manually from the relevant NAV control panel. The VOR system also has an antenna which is
located on the vertical stabilizer. You can either find it at the top, as in this example or on the side.
If it is on the side it is called a Flush--type antenna.
The outputs of the VOR receiver go, for display, to the Navigation Display or HSI and on most
aircraft also to a Radio Magnetic Indicator. Outputs are also provided to the autopilot and flight
director of the autoflight system and to the FMS for display on the MCDU and, in some systems,
also for position calculation. The VOR Receiver has also an output to the Audio System. This
allows identification of the VOR station by its Morse code. In addition VOR stations at large
airports also transmit spoken traffic information and weather reports. This is called ATIS, which
stands for Automatic Terminal Information Service.
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

The Instrument Landing System, or ILS in short, provides lateral and vertical position data
necessary to put the aircraft on the runway for approach. The system uses signals from a localizer
and a glide slope transmitter on the ground. It provide outputs to the indicators for display and to
the FMS and autoflight system. The system also has Marker Beacons, which we will talk about
later.
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The Localizer, or LOC in short, ground station transmits 90 and 150 Hz signals for lateral
guidance. These two signals are radiated to produce two directional lobes side by side along the
runway centerline. The left lobe is modulated with a 90 Hz signal and the right lobe with 150 Hz.
The Localizer ground station uses one of 40 channels in the 108.10 to 111.95 Megahertz frequency
range but uses only frequencies with odd tenths.
The transmitter is coupled to an array of directional antennas that radiate the two lobes along the
runway centerline. The transmitter shed and the antennas are located at the end of the runway. An
aircraft flying down the centerline would receive a signal with equal levels of both modulations.
This is shown by the centered deviation pointer on the indicator, here the nav display. If the
Aircraft position is left of the centerline, the 90 Hz signal predominates and the Localizer deviation
pointer deflects to the right, indicating that the runway centerline is to the right. One dot on the
indicator normally shows a one degree offset on the localizer.
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The glide slope ground station transmits two lobes to give a descent path to the touchdown point
on the runway. The upper lobe is modulated with 90 Hz and the lower with 150 Hz. The centerline
where both signals are equal has a slope of 2.5 to 3°. The glide slope ground station uses one of
40 channels in the 329.15 to 335.00 MHz frequency range. The transmitter uses a couple of
directional antennas to radiate the two lobes. The ground station is located beside the runway about
300 m beyond the threshold. When an aircraft flies on the glide slope centerline the glideslope
deviation pointer on the navigation display is centered.
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ILS COMPONENTS
Commercial aircraft have two or even three identical ILS systems installed. Each system has the
following main components:
- antennas
- receivers
- the outputs to indicators and the autoflight system.
The Localizer and glideslope antennas are usually located under the nose radome. Due to the
different frequency ranges the localizer antenna is the larger and the glideslope antenna the smaller
one. In some aircraft the VOR antenna is also used for the localizer system, because of the same
frequency range.
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What you have learned already about receiver tuning is also true for the ILS receiver, but with one
difference. The ILS receiver has two receivers -- one for localizer and one for glide slope. On the
approach chart you can only see information on the localizer frequency, you see no information
about the glide slope frequency. But for each of the 40 localizer channels there is a paired glide
slope channel as shown in the table. When the pilot selects an ILS frequency from the chart the
localizer receiver is directly tuned. In parallel the ILS frequency is translated to the paired glide
slope frequency as shown in the table and the glide slope receiver is automatically tuned to this
channel.
ILS indications on modern aircraft are shown on the Primary Flight Display and on the Navigation
Display as well. ILS deviation output can also be displayed on mechanical indicators like this
standby attitude and ILS indicator and in older aircraft on the HSI and the ADI. ILS displays on
the PFD consist of the tuned frequency or the ground station identifier if it is received. The main
ILS indications are the localizer and glideslope deviations. Localizer deviation is normally
displayed by a magenta diamond deviation pointer on a white, four--dot deviation scale. One dot
equals about 1° of deviation from the runway centerline.
Under certain circumstances at the end of the approach, this display can change to the expanded
two--mark deviation scale. One dot now equals about zero point five degrees of deviation. Glide
slope deviation is displayed by a magenta diamond deviation pointer on a white, four--dot
deviation scale. One dot normally equals zero point thirty—five degrees. This corresponds to two
hundred ft of deviation from the glide slope path at the outer marker.
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MARKER BEACON SYSTEM
The marker beacon system, or MB in short, also belongs to the Instrument Landing System. It
supplies visual and aural indications when the aircraft flies over marker beacon transmitters.
Originally three marker beacons were defined, the outer marker, the middle marker and the inner
marker, but the inner marker is no longer in use. All marker beacon transmitters use a frequency
of 75 MHz.
The outer marker, or OM in short, is located about 7 km from the runway. The transmitted signal
is modulated with a 400 Hz tone. It turns on the blue lamp on the marker beacon panel and it can
be heard with the characteristic morse code identifier of dashes. The middle marker, or MM in
short, is located about one thousand meters from the runway. The transmitted signal is modulated
with a 1300 Hz tone which turns on the amber lamp on the marker beacon panel and it can be
heard with the characteristic morse code identifier of dots and dashes. The aircraft”s height is
normally two hundred feet when passing the middle marker -- this corresponds to the CAT 1
minimum. The inner marker, or IM in short, is located about 300 m from the runway. The
transmitted signal is modulated with a 3000 Hz tone which turns on the white lamp on the marker
beacon panel and it can be heard with the characteristic morse code identifier of dots.
65
The outer marker is often collocated with a locator ground station for the ADF as you can see at
this airport. The red antenna on this photo is the marker beacon antenna. The middle marker here
is located 0,8 Nm or 1100 m from the runway. Note the red Yagi--antenna pointing upwards.
On modern aircraft the receiver is located as a module inside the VOR receiver and operates at a
fixed frequency of 75 mhz. The canoe--shaped antenna is mounted at the bottom centerline of the
aircraft. The output signals of the marker beacon receiver go to the indicators and the audio system.
The modulated tone can be heard in the headset or cockpit speaker when marker is selected on the
audio control panel. Instead of the three lights you saw before, the marker indication on modern
aircraft is integrated in the PFD. Depending on the received modulation the letters OM, MM or
IM are displayed.
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2. RADAR SYSTEM
OVERWIEW
In this lesson you will get an overview of the following radar systems. The Low Range Radio
Altimeter, or RA in short, the distance measuring equipment or DME in short and finally the
Weather radar system, abbreviated with WXR. They are called radar systems because their
transceivers work with a frequency above one Ghz.
The radio altimeter system has a receiver and 2 antennas. It measures the aircraft height over the
ground. The height information is indicated for example in the Primary Flight Display and is also
used for other systems like the autoflight system.
The Distance Measuring Equipment system has an interrogator and one antenna. It measures the
distance between the aircraft and a ground station. This distance is indicated for example on the
Naviation Display.
The Weather radar system has a transceiver and one antenna. It provides information about
location and severity of bad weather. You can find the indication on a seperate display or on the
Navigation Display.
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RADIO ALTIMETER SYSTEM
The function of the Radio Altimeter is to measure the vertical distance from the aircraft to the
ground. This distance is called the height, but the term radio altitude is also used. The height is
only indicated when it is below 2500 ft, so the system is mainly used during takeoff, approach and
landings. Therefore the system is also known as the low range radio altimeter system or LRRA in
short.
The Radio Altitude is measured in the following way:
First the transmitter part of the transceiver generates a radar signal which is transmitted to the
ground by an antenna. The signal is partially reflected on the ground and then after a certain time
received by a second antenna. The receiver now calculates the time delay by comparing the
transmitted and received signal. The result is converted into the height signal for the user.
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We will now take a closer look at the radio altimeter system components. The system is usually
double but here we will only show you a single system build up. The Transceiver generates a Radar
signal in the frequency range between 4200 to 4400 MHz with a power of about 100 mW. The 2
flush skin type antennas are mounted at the bottom of the fuselage. They are identical and therefore
interchangeable.
RADIO ALTIMETER INDICATION
We will now have a look at the output signal of the radio altimeter system. The height can be
indicated to the pilots in different ways, either on conventional indicators or integrated in the
primary flight display. In addition the signal is delivered to other systems such as the Ground
Proximity Warning System, T--CAS, WEATHER RADAR and autoflight systems. Modern glass
cockpit aircraft use the PFD for the height indication.
Below 2500 feet the height is displayed as a digital number in the lower part of the attitude
indication. When the height decreases an analog indication is added to the digital number. This is
a horizontal bar which moves up as the aircraft descends. It touches the horizon at touch down. A
total loss of the radio altimeter replaces the digital indication by a red “RA” label.
In older aircraft types you find an ADI instead of the PFD, but many ADIs also have a height
indication, called the rising runway. It appears at the bottom of the ADI when the radio altitude
decreases below a certain height and reaches the aircraft symbol at touchdown. The rising runway
is replaced by the RUNWAY flag if there is a radio altimeter failure.
Classical radio altimeter indicators show the height in analog form, with a pointer on a scale or
with a moving tape behind a fixed aircraft symbol. When the height is above 2500 ft the pointer
hides behind a mask and the tape shows a black background. If there is a failure in the RA system
a red warning flag comes into view in both indicator types. In modern aircraft the radio height is
not only indicated -- it is also announced by the radio altitude callout system using an artificial
voice.
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DESCISION HEIGHT
All radio altimeter systems allow the selection of a DECISION HEIGHT. The decision height, or
DH, selection is made by turning a selector knob either on the instrument or on a remote control
panel. In modern aircraft the decision height is inserted into the MCDU. The selected decision
height is indicated either with a Decision height cursor in the Radio Altimeter indicator or as a
numeric indication on the PFD. When the actual height of the aircraft reaches the selected decision
height during the approach a voice gives an aural alert: At the same time the height indication
changes from green to amber and the label DH is added to it. At this moment the pilot must decide
if the visibility is sufficient for a landing, or if a go around maneuver must be initiated. On older
and smaller aircraft types the pilots are alerted by a chime and the illuminated DH lamp on the
indicator when the decision height is reached.
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

Now let us have a look at the Distance Measuring Equipment or DME in short. The system operates
in a frequency range of 962 to 1213 Mhz and measures the slant distance from the aircraft to
ground station. The actual distance to the station above the ground therefore depends on the aircraft
altitude and the slant distance to the station.
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The DME system measures the distance to the ground station by transmiting a signal to the
groundstation, called the interrogation, and by counting the time it takes to receive a reply signal.
This time is proportional to the distance which is indicated in nautical miles on a digital readout.
The DME ground station is either paired with a VOR or a localizers ground station. Therefore the
DME is automatically tuned when you select the corresponding VHF NAV frequency. There are
different ways to show on a map if there is a DME attached to a VOR ground station. Some maps
show a channel number which is associated with a VOR. Another way is to add the letter D in
front of the VOR frequency, as we can see on the map with the Arlanda VOR. A different example
is the AROS VOR which has no attached DME station.
We will now take a closer look at the DME system components. The interrogator, which is located
in the electronic compartment, generates the signal for transmission and makes the distance
calculation. The DME antenna transmits the interrogator output signal and receives the ground
station reply signal. It is located at the bottom of the fuselage. Note that the antenna for the DME
system is identical to the antenna for the ATC Air Traffic Control systems, because both systems
work in the same frequency range.
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Finally lets have a look at different DME indications. On all modern aircraft you can find the DME
distance on the RMI. Aircraft with Electronic displays show the DME distance on the Navigation
display and for a localizer DME also on the Primary Flight Display. The numeric presentation is
replaced by dashes if the DME system doesn”t get any reply signal. The indication is replaced by
an amber DME warning box or it is completely erased if there is any failure in the DME system
detected.
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WEATHER RADAR SYSTEM
The weather radar or WXR system presents a map type display of the weather conditions in front
of the aircraft. The system operates on the same principle as an echo. It transmits pulses to a 180°
area forward of the aircraft and the objects in this region, like water droplets, reflect the pulses
back. The weather radar system analyzes the echoes and shows the result on the navigation display.
For example different signal intensity gives different colors. Additional functions show land
contours and even turbulences and windshear events can be detected.
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A typical weather radar system has a transceiver, an antenna and a control panel. The output of the
system is shown on the navigation display. The antenna assembly is located in the nose radome
and includes the antenna and the antenna pedestal. The antenna is moved plus and minus 90
degrees by the azimuth motor. The elevation scan motor keeps the antenna horizontally
independent of the aircraft attitude. The stabilization signal for this function comes from the
inertial reference system or vertical gyro. The motor can also be manually influenced by the tilt
knob on the control panel.
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Two types of antennae are used to obtain the required narrow beam. They are the flat plate antenna
and the parabolic reflector type antenna. The flat plate type is more efficient than the parabolic
reflector and is therefore the most common antenna on modern weather radar systems. Another
advantage of the flat plate antenna is that it has less side lobes than the parabola type. These side
lobes would lead to nuisance targets. The weather radar transceiver generates the radar pulses and
analyzes the echoes. The pulse power which is send to the antenna varies between 60 kw in old
systems and 100 w in modern systems. The energy is guided to the antenna by wave guides. To
keep the distance short the transceiver is located near the forward pressure bulkhead.
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WEATHER RADAR OPERATION
On the weather radar control panel we can select the different modes of operation. With the WX
mode, which stands for weather mode, you will get the colored image on the nav display. Red
areas show very heavy rainstorms, yellow is used for intermediate levels and green for moderate
levels. On the nav display you can also see the location of the poor weather in relation to the
aircraft heading and the distance to the aircraft. To do this you must select a range on the selector
of the EFIS control panel and calculate the distance to the colored area.
With the next position on the weather radar control panel you can add turbulence information to
the weather mode. In turbulence the water droplets circulate and therefore also have a movement
in the longitudinal axis. This means that the frequency of echoes increases when the targets move
towards the aircraft and decreases as the targets move away from the aircraft. This effect is also
called the doppler effect. The area of turbulences is shown on the display in magenta.
Another mode on the control panel is the map mode. It is used to show echo information from the
ground. With the tilt knob the pilot adjusts the tilt level of the antenna to get the best presentation.
A sensitivity adjustment is possible with the gain knob. Note that the actual mode and tilt selection
is always shown on the nav display.
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Another function of modern weather radar systems is called Predictive windshear, or PWS in short.
A windshear is very dangerous because an aircraft which passes through it, first gets a strong head
wind which changes in a very short time to a tail wind. When the pilot is not warned early enough
and does not correct the increasing lift during the headwind period the aircraft will lose lift
dramatically during the tailwind period and probably stall. The detection of windshear is similar
to turbulence, but the radar searches for patterns in the echoes.
A windshear is detected if the nearest echoes give an increasing frequency and the echoes further
away give a decreasing frequency. When a windshear is detected the crew typically gets the
following indications: A windshear symbol, called the icon, is added to the nav display. This
display has red and black bars in the critical area with additional yellow bars which go from the
edges of the symbol to the compass rose. This shows the heading which the pilot should avoid.
The warning is accompanied by a red windshear message on the PFD and the ND and an aural
warning which depends on the aircraft location. During approach it sounds: Windshear ahead Go
Around.
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3. TRAFFIC CONTROL&WARNING SYSTEM
ATC TRANSPONDER FUNCTION
The Air Traffic Control system, or ATC in short monitors and controls air traffic. To do this the
system needs information about the position of all aircraft in the area. The primary radar of the
ground station only gives echoes for each aircraft similar to the weather radar system, but ATC
needs more information to distinguish between the different aircraft. Therefore the ground station
secondary radar sends interrogation signals to all aircraft which are responded to by an ATC
transponder in the aircraft.
The ATC transponder can reply in three different modes, named mode A, mode C and Mode S:
In MODE A the transponder transmits an aircraft identification code which is a four digit number.
The pilot receives this number from ATC via voice communication and selects it on the ATC
control panel.
In MODE C the transponder transmits the barometric altitude of the aircraft which it receives from
the air data computer.
MODE S is an advanced system which will helps ATC to control increasing traffic in the future
and which is needed for the traffic alert and collision avoidance system, or TCAS in short, which
you will see later. The mode S transponders send individual messages in reply to selective
interrogations from the ATC ground station and from other aircraft. The selective interrogation is
possible because aircraft that are equipped with mode S transponders have a unique airframe
address code. This code is given by the authorities during certification of the aircraft and is set on
a program switch module in the avionic compartment.
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The Air Traffic Controller receives the following information about each aircraft; the aircraft
position, shown by an aircraft symbol, and the flight track, shown as a series of dots. These dots
are the so called historical plots, which show the aircraft position at the previous radar scans.
Adjacent to the aircraft symbol the aircraft identification number is shown. For scheduled
commercial flights the ground station automatically transfers the code to the flight number.
On the ATC screen you can also see the barometric altitude as a flight level below the aircraft code
or flight number. An arrow after the flight level shows when the aircraft is climbing or descending.
Finally the aircraft ground speed is shown. This is calculated by the ground station computer and
not reported from the aircraft.
ATC TRANSPONDER SYSTEM
In this segment we will look at the main components of a typical ATC transponder system. The
ATC transponder is located in the avionics compartment. All ATC transponders worldwide receive
the ATC interrogations on a frequency of 1030 Mhz and reply on 1090 Mhz. ALL ATC
transponders have one antenna at the bottom of the aircraft. It is identical to, and interchangeable
with the DME antenna, because they have the same operating frequency. You can see the 3
identical antennas on the photograph.
Mode S transponders also have a top antenna to allow communication with the TCAS systems of
other aircraft at a higher altitude. The ATC transponder system also has a control panel in the
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cockpit, which is also used to control the TCAS system. You will learn about TCAS later in this
lesson.
Commercial aircraft usually have two independent transponders, but only one works at a time.
With this switch the pilot selects the transponder to operate. With this altitude source switch the
pilot selects the air data system which delivers the barometric altitude signal for MODE C. The
display window shows which transponder system is in use, here number 1, and the selected
identification code given by the ground controller. It can be between 0000 and 7777, but three
codes are reserved for special functions.
The pilot can select the identification code which is given by the ATC ground controller, using
these two selector knobs. The ident pushbutton is momentarily pushed by the pilot when ATC ask
for confirmation of aircraft identification. This gives a Special Position Identification, or SPI, on
the ground controller screen. With the mode selector the pilot can select different modes of
operation. STANDBY means that the transponder is ON but replies are inhibited. This is the
normal mode on the ground. In this position the transponder replies only to MODE A or mode S
interrogations, but the altitude reporting of MODE C is inhibited. In this position the transponder
is fully operative and replies to all interrogations.
When you turn the mode switch on the ATC panel out of the standby position the transponder will
reply to the ATC interrogations. You must therefore note that three identification codes must never
be selected on the ground, because they are emergency codes. These are: 7500, which identifies a
Hijacking, 7600 for Radio failure and 7700 if the aircraft is in an emergency. A test of the ATC
transponder system on the ground can be done by pressing the test pushbutton on the panel. During
this test all components are tested, but no replies will be transmitted. As usual you will find all test
instructions in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
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TCAS INTRODUCTION
The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System, or TCAS in short, is designed to protect the
airspace around a TCAS equipped airplane. The function of TCAS is to determine the range,
altitude, bearing and closure rate of other aircraft which are equipped with an ATC transponder.
TCAS monitors the trajectory of other aircraft to determine if there is any danger of a collision and
provides the pilots with aural and visual advisories for a vertical avoidance maneuver.
TCAS monitors up to 50 aircraft and puts them into one of four groups:
Resolution advisory group, RA in short, Traffic advisory group, TA in short,
Proximate traffic or other traffic.
TCAS forms two protected areas around its own aircraft: the Resolution advisory and the Traffic
Advisory protected areas. These areas represent the time until the target will be at the closest point
of approach to the TCAS airplane, CPA in short. This protected area is called the tau area.
The TA and RA times vary with the altitude. For example at 7000 ft the RA time is 25 sec to CPA
and the TA time to CPA is 40 sec. If a target aircraft reaches the TA--TAU--area TCAS gives an
aural traffic warning. When the target aircraft reaches the RA--TAU--area, an aural resolution
advice advisory alert assisted by visual indicators indications is provided.
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Aircraft which do not belong to the RA and TA groups are grouped into Proximate or other traffic.
Proximate traffic means that an aircraft with a relative altitude separation of less than 1200 ft is
inside a six nautical miles radius of the TCAS aircraft. Other traffic indicates aircraft at a distance
of more than six nautical miles or that have a relative altitude separation of more than 1200 ft.
TCAS ARCHITECTURE
A typical TCAS system has the following main components. A TCAS Computer which is located
in the Avionics compartment, two antennas which are used for transmission and reception, one at
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the top and one at the bottom of the aircraft. Finally a combined ATC and TCAS control panel,
which you have already seen in the ATC system.
The TCAS computer communicates via the antennas with the ATC transponders of other aircraft,
so it uses the same two frequencies as the ATC transponder. It transmits interrogations on 1030
Mhz and receives the replys on 1090 Mhz. The two TCAS antennas consist of four electronically
controlled elements. This gives the antenna a directional characteristic so that the computer can
calculate the direction to an intruder.
The TCAS computer also communicates with its own ATC transponders via a data bus. It also
needs information from other aircraft systems, such as the altitude from the air data computer the
height from the low range radio altimeter and the heading usually from an inertial reference unit.
To complete the system architecture the TCAS computer also provides output signals to the
indicators like the EFIS displays and to the loudspeakers for aural alerts.
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TCAS OPERATION
To detect traffic conflicts TCAS continuously transmits interrogations to other aircrafts. The
strength of the interrogation pulses are changed in many steps and therefore called whisper and
shout interrogations. This allows TCAS to identify an intruders characteristics, for example,
distance and direction. When the intruder ATC transponder replys it is added to a TCAS Roll Call
List so that it can be tracked.
Intruders equipped with a MODE S transponder don”t wait for an interrogation. They transmit
permanent signals, called squitter signals, which contain, for example, their own aircraft address
code. These aircraft are also added to the roll call list. Using the address code, TCAS can now
selectively interrogate the MODE S transponder of this intruder aircraft and ask for more
information.
The TCAS computer now uses the received data to calculate if the other aircraft is on a possible
collision course. If it is, it also calculates traffic coordination maneuver data. This data and the
position data are sent to the display system and an aural alert sounds if the warning level is reached.
If the intruder also has TCAS, the two TCAS computers communicate with each other using the
MODE S transponders.
Both TCAS computers calculate an escape path which is exchanged and coordinated. This sets up
an air--to--air MODE S data link between the two aircraft. In the next segment we look at the
TCAS indications and aural alerts.
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TCAS INDICATIONS
Let us now have a look at the TCAS indications on the navigation display. To add TCAS
indications to the ND display you must press the Traffic, or TFC push button on the EFIS control
panel. As you can now see on the ND, TCAS has been switched off. You have to start the TCAS
functions on the ATC/TCAS Control Panel by selecting TA ONLY or TA/RA. The mode selector
on the ATC/TCAS control panel is now in the TA/RA position and four types of symbols could
be displayed on the ND, depending on the traffic that is currently in the area.
All four symbols show an altitude separation between the aircraft, shown in hundreds of feet. A
plus sign indicates if the traffic is above, and a minus sign indicates if traffic is below our aircraft.
A vertical up--pointing arrow shows if the traffic is climbing, and a down--pointing arrow shows
aircraft descending with a rate more than or equal to 500 ft per minute. TCAS also calculats
resolution advisories which you will see later.
Other traffic is shown by a hollow diamond with the altitude, both in white. In this example the
traffic is 1400 ft above us at a distance of about 20 Nm. Proximate traffic is shown by a solid
diamond with the altitude, both in white. In this example the other aircraft is 900 ft below and
descending at more than 500 ft/min. The distance is about 5 Nm. A Traffic advisory is shown by
a solid circle with the altitude, both in amber. In this example the intruder is 200 ft below with a
climb rate of more than 500 ft/min. The distance is about 25 Nm. A Resolution advisory is shown
by a solid square with the altitude, both in red. This intruder is 1000 ft below with a vertical speed
of less than 500 ft/min. The distance is about 12 Nm.
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When a traffic advisory, TA, occurs, the aural alert TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC can be heard in the
cockpit. This alert tells the flight crew to monitor the display for intruder traffic. During a
resolution advisory, RA, two types of aural alert are possible. These are a Preventive action RA
and a Corrective action R--A. The preventive action RA occurs when the present vertical speed
achieves a safe altitude separation from the threat aircraft. When this happens the aural advisory
is MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED -- MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED. This message tells the
flight crew to maintain the recommended vertical speed, shown in green on the vertical speed
indicator. In the red range there is a high risk of traffic conflict.
The Corrective action RA occurs when the altitude separation is not safe. Here we show you two
examples of aural alert that tell the flight crew to take a corrective action to avoid a possible
collision: The aircraft must climb with a vertical speed inside the green area of the indication.
A REDUCE CLIMB aural alert tells the flight crew to reduce the rate of climb. David, yet another
alternative phrase! This aural alert tells the flight crew to reduce the rate of climb.
On the control panel you can find a second TCAS mode which can be selected, the TA only mode.
In this mode, no aural or visual resolution advisories are calculated. Additionally, the red symbols
are also hidden on the ND. As you can see only the traffic symbols are displayed on the ND and
aural traffic advisories are generated.
To end this segment on TCAS indications, we will look at the test possibilities. This example is
from a Boeing 737 new generation airplane, but you should note that testing methods may differ
according to aircraft type. You can start a self--test from the ATC/TCAS control panel or from the
TCAS computer front panel test switch. If the test is successful, the following indications will be
displayed on the navigation display: A cyan TCAS TEST message, a red TRAFFIC message and
all four different traffic symbols. If the test fails the message TCAS TEST FAIL replaces the TCAS
TEST message and no traffic symbols are shown.
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4. GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM
The purpose of the Ground Proximity Warning System is to warn the flight crew when the aircraft
mistakenly comes too close to the ground. This is done by an aural alert using a synthetic voice,
like this one and there are also annunciator lights in front of the pilot. In some aircraft there are
also alert messages on the primary flight displays.
The basic GPWS system operates automatically when the aircraft height is less than two thousand
five hundred feet. An advanced system is the enhanced ground proximity warning system. It shows
the terrain around the aircraft on the navigation display and gives a warning when the aircraft gets
too near to the terrain. These functions are independent of the radio altitude.
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A typical Ground Proximity Warning System has a digital Computer in the electronic
compartment, different types of alert and warning lights in front of each pilot and a control panel,
in this example called the G P W module. This panel has different switching functions which you
will learn later. The basic Ground Proximity Warning System needs the following main input
signals:
- radio altitude,
- vertical speed,
- glideslope deviation
- gear and flap positions.
The signal sources for the main inputs of the basic GPWS are the radio altimeter, the Air Data
Computer and the glideslope receiver. The enhanced GPWS also needs the exact aircraft position
usually from the flight management system. In the next segment we look at the modes of the
GPWS.
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GPWS MODES
We will now have a look at the modes of the basic ground proximity warning system. Mode 1 is
the ”excessive sink rate” mode. It alerts the flight crew when the aircraft descents below two
thousand five hundred feet with a high vertical speed. In addition to the voice alert the red GPWS
lights illuminates or the Pull Up message appears on the PFD. If the aircraft continues to descend
the aural alert changes to a warning. The alert or warning stops automatically when the dangerous
situation is over.
Mode 2 is called ”excessive terrain closure rate” mode. An alert is triggered when the aircraft
height decreases dramatically, for example when the aircraft approaches rising terrain, like a
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mountain. If the height continues to decrease the alert changes to a warning. The warning stops
automatically when the dangerous situation is over.
Mode 3 alerts the flight crew when the aircraft loses altitude during a take--off. The first step is
the aural alert accompanied by the red lights. If the aircraft continues to sink the aural alert changes
to a warning. The warnings stops automatically when the dangerous situation is over.
Mode 4 becomes active when the aircraft approaches the ground with incorrect gear and flap
positions. For example when the aircraft descends below five hundred feet and the gear is not
extended the aural alert sounds and the red lights come on. Below 250 ft without the correct flap
setting the system will give the flap alert. If, due to technical problems, the aircraft is forced to
land with incorrect gear or flap positions the pilot can inhibit the corresponding alert with a switch
on the GPW module. Here you can see two different types of the GPW module.
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Mode 5 becomes active if the aircraft deviates below the glideslope during an approach below a
radio altitude of 1000 ft. When a critical deviation is exceeded an aural alert sounds and the amber
glideslope light illuminates. It starts with a low volume which can increase when the situation
becomes more critical at lower radio altitudes. The pilot can cancel this alert by pressing the light
to stop nuisance warnings.
The synthetic voice of the ground proximity warning system is also used in some aircraft for the
radio altitude callouts, which you have seen in Lesson 2. An aural alert can also happen if the bank
angle of the aircraft exceeds a critical value. These two functions are called mode 6.
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Another optional mode is the mode 7, which warns the flight crew about a dangerous windshear
condition during take off or approach. A dangerous windshear happens when the headwind
changes rapidly into a tailwind. GPWS detects this situation by comparing the true airspeed from
the air data computer with the ground speed from the inertial reference unit.
EGPWS FUNCTIONS
In this segment we will have a look at the additional functions of an Enhanced G P W S. The first
function provides a Terrain display on the navigation display. This is called the terrain Awareness
function or T A in short. It shows the terrain structure around the aircraft using green, yellow and
red dots. To create this map the E G P W S computer compares the actual aircraft position
calculated by the FMS or GPS with a world wide terrain database stored inside the GPW computer.
The navigation display can only show either the terrain or the weather radar image, therefore it is
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necessary to switch to the required image. Usually the pilot can manually switch between the
images on the ND.
An automatic ND image switching happens when the ground proximity warning system or the
weather radar detects a critical situation. The terrain image is selected automatically when the
GPWS detects a terrain threat. This is called the pop--up function. The weather image is selected
automatically when the weather radar system detects a windshear situation without a terrain threat
from the GPW system. The EGPWS can detect a terrain threat in two ways. First, in the terrain
awareness mode, it gives a caution alert when the aircraft is due to reach the terrain in the next 60
sec.
On the ND amber blocks show the area with the potential terrain conflict and an amber terrain
message is also displayed. In addition the aural alert sounds. The terrain and the message change
to red on the ND when the aircraft position is only 30 sec from the terrain. In addition the red
GPWS light illuminates or pull up is displayed on the P F D accompanied by a new aural warning.
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The second enhanced GPWS mode is the Terrain Clearance Floor mode or T C F mode in short.
In this mode the computer compares a minimum height around the runway, called the terrain floor
envelope, which is stored in the world wide database with the actual radio altititude of the aircraft.
When the airplane descends through the floor of the envelope the system shows the amber terrain
and message on the N D and an aural alert sounds. If the airplane continues to descend the terrain
and message on the ND become red and the pull up warning sounds.
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Both terrain alerts of the EGPWS can be inhibited by the pilot by opening of the guarded switch
on the GPW module. At the end of this segment we will have a look at the GPWS test. When you
press the test pushbutton on the ground a visual and aural test sequence starts. First the message
TERRAIN TEST appears on the N D followed by a Ground proximity inoperative light on the
panel a Glideslope light and an aural alert.
Next the PULL UP message on the P F Ds appear with the corresponding aural alert. After this the
Windshear message on the P F D comes on with the corresponding aural alert. Finally, to complete
the test there will be a terrain test pattern displayed on the N D with an aural alert. This test can
also be started from the GPWS computer and can have up to six levels of system test. What you
have seen was an example for level one which is a GO or NO GO operational test.
5. GLOBAL NAVIGATION
GPS
The Global Positioning System, or GPS in short, is a satellite--based navigation system that
calculates aircraft position with high accuracy. It uses 21 primary and 3 spare satellites which orbit
about 10900 Nm above the earth. Each satellite completes an orbit once every 12 hours. Each
satellite permanently sends signals which include the time of the transmission. The GPS unit in
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the aircraft calculates the travel time of the signal by comparing the time of the signal reception
with the transmission time.
The travel time gives the distance to the satellite, because radio signals travel at the speed of light.
GPS can calculate the aircraft latitude, longitude and altitude, when the distance to at least four
satellites is available, because it has stored the location of all satellites in their orbits in its so called
almanac.
The GPS offers two services, Precision Positioning Service, PPS, which is only available for
military users and Standard Positioning Service, or SPS in short, which is used in the civilian
sector. It uses a frequency of 1575.42 MHz and has an average accuracy between 15 and 25 meters.
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The SPS accuracy of 15 meters is too low to permit GPS landings, but it can be improved by a
differential GPS, or DGPS in short. DGPS uses a reference station at the airport. It calculates a
position error from the difference between its own accurately known position and the position
which is calculated from the GPS signal. This position error is transmitted to the aircraft to adjust
its own GPS position by the same position error. With this method the accuracy can be increased
to about 3 m.
Now lets take a look at the GPS architecture in the aircraft. Usually two GPS”s are installed. Each
GPS has one top--mounted antenna which receives the satellite signals. The satellite signals are
routed to a GPS unit which is, for example, in a dedicated component near the antennas or inside
the multimode receiver. The GPS unit processes the signals and sends them primarily to the flight
management system for position calculation.
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FANS
The current air traffic management system is based on ground navigational aids, radar and voice
communication. The future air navigation system or FANS in short, uses space based navigation,
such as GPS, and communication, or SATCOM in short, to enhance the communication between
aircraft and air traffic control.
FANS is also known as CNS / ATM which stands for Communication, Navigation and
Surveillance slash Air traffic Management because this describes what the system does. FANS
uses ACARS datalinks to transfer requests and reports between pilot and ATC. These are called
”controller pilot datalink” or C P D L in short. This decreases the risk of misunderstandings.
FANS also improves the situational awareness for the A T C controllers because of automatic
transmission of flight data important for surveillance. This is called Automatic Dependent
Surveillance, or ADS in short, and allows reduction of the separation between aircraft and allows
more direct and therefore shorter routes.
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Now lets have a look at the FANS system architecture. For navigation FANS uses the flight
management system as the main navigation system. A communication management unit or C M
U in short, provides a two way datalink between the communication system and the Flight
Management Computer, for A T C messages and also for Airline operational control or A O C,
messages like flight plans and weather.
The cockpit interface to the FANS functions is via the EFIS & ECAM displays, the printer and the
MCDU. On the M C D U the pilot can switch the datalink to ATC on or off and can inhibit the
Automatic Dependent Surveillance or ADS in short. A new component is the Datalink Control and
Display Unit , DCDU in short. Two D C D Us are located directly above the MCDU”s and these
are used for the ATC messages.
In our example the DCDU screen shows a message from KZAK control who want the pilot to
reduce the aircraft speed. Two D C D U message lights illuminate on the glareshield whenever a
new message from ATC arrives.
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6. INERTIAL STABILIZED SYSTEMS
GYROS
You have learned in the previous lessons how the pilot gets the information about aircraft attitude
and heading from corresponding reference systems. Most actual aircraft types use a combination
of the 2 systems called an inertial stabilized system or platform. The advantage of a platform is
that it not only provides the attitude and heading, it can supply all information about aircraft
rotations around and motions along the three axes from a single unit.
The rotations around the three axes are measured by gyros. These are called the pitch and roll
attitude, and heading and the angular rates are called pitch, roll and yaw rate. The movements
along the aircraft axes are measured by accelerometers. They are called the x, y and z accelerations
as well as the speeds which are calculated by a computer from these values.
Three different types of gyro combination are used to measure the aircraft rotations. One
possibility is a combination of two gyros with 3 degrees of freedom. One gyro measures the
motions around the x and y axes and the second measures the motion around the z axis. Some
platforms use the combination of a vertical gyro to measure the rotations around the x and y axes
and a directional gyro to measure the rotation around the z axis. A second possibility is to use 3
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gyros with two degrees of freedom, one gyro for each axis. In these two examples the platform
can directly provide the output signals.
A third method is to use three rate gyros, one for each axis. You need a computer to calculate the
attitude from the rate signals. The rate gyros can either be mechanical gyros which you can see
here or non-- mechanical gyros which are used very often in modern systems. Different types of
non--mechanical rate gyros are in use, but the laser gyro is the most often used. one. A laser gyro
uses rotating light beams to measure the angular rate.
One light beam rotates clockwise generated by a high voltage between the cathode and anode 1
and reflected by 3 mirrors and a second light beam rotates counterclockwise generated by a high
voltage between the cathode and anode 2. Both light beams have to travel the same distance when
the module stays still. When the module rotates for example clockwise the beam with the clockwise
direction must travel a larger distance than the beam in the counterclockwise direction. With a
comparison between the 2 light beams you can detect the difference in travel time and therefore
the rotational speed of the module because they are proportional.
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ACCELEROMETERS
The motions along the axes of the aircraft are measured with accelerometers. Accelerometers are
the transducers which comprises of mechanical sensing element and a mechanism which converts
the mechanical motion into an electrical output. Using the linear output data from the
accelerometer it is easy to calculate the ground speed with the integral calculation.
An integral calculation of the speed gives the distance which the aircraft has travelled and from
this also the present position of the aircraft.
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GIMBAL PLATFORM
Two different types of inertial stabilized systems are used, the gimbal platform and the strap down
system. The gimbal platform system uses a stable element, called the platform. It carries the gyros,
in our example one gyro for each axis and the three accelerometers. The platform is always
positioned parallel to the earth„s surface independent of the aircraft attitude. This is necessary
because the accelerometers must measure the aircraft accelerations without any influences from
the earth„s gravity. The positioning is done by torque motors which receive a signal from the gyros
when they detect a motion. A remaining problem is that the platform is affected by drift and topple.
However instead of using specific erection circuits the compensation is done by the computer.
It calculates the drift and topple rates because it knows the aircraft position and the characteristics
of the earth, and can adjust the platform with the torque motors. The gimbal platform directly
provides the roll and pitch attitude and the platform heading signal. This is almost the same as the
DG heading which you learned about in lesson 8. These signals come from position sensors which
measure the gimbal positions in respect to the aircraft fuselage. As this system needs only a low
computer performance, but has a very sensitive mechanism it is primarily used in older aircraft
types.
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STRAP DOWN SYSTEM
The strap down system is the modern inertial stabilized system. Here all components are fixed, or
strapped down, to the aircraft structure. An attitude change of the aircraft also changes the position
of all components. The three rate gyros, which are usually laser gyros, measure the rotational speed
around the aircraft axes and the attitude is calculated by the computer using the data from the rate
signals. The three accelerometers are now also affected by the earth„s gravity. For example during
a climb the accelerometer in the x--axis will measure an acceleration even with constant aircraft
speed, because of the effect of the gravity. The correction of the signals is done by the computer.
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ATTITUDE HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS)
The simplest type of inertial stabilized system is the attitude heading reference system or AHRS
in short. You can usually find two of these systems in smaller aircraft types. The system has a main
unit called AHRU which contains the gyros, accelerometer and computer. The unit provides pitch
and roll attitude without any other additional inputs. The magnetic heading is only available when
a flux valve provides the signal of the earth„s magnet field. In this system the flux valve is called
magnetic sensor unit, or MSU in short.
An attitude heading reference system also receives inputs from the air data computer. The true
airspeed is needed to improve the accuracy of the attitude signals. The altitude is used to calculate
the inertial vertical speed. Finally inputs from the VOR and DME systems are needed to calculate
the ground speed and the speed and direction of the wind. The system is automatically operational
when the electrical power is available. The only interface to the operator in the cockpit is a compass
system control unit which has the same function you have learned about in lesson 8.
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INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (IRS)
The inertial reference system or IRS in short is the standard system in todays aircraft generation.
It has an inertial reference unit, IRU in short, which contains all the necessary components. The
gyros are usually non--mechanical gyros, for example laser gyros.
The IRS system has a mode select unit, MSU in short. On this unit you can find the ON -- Off
switches for the system. As you can see from the number of the switches either 2 or 3 independent
systems are installed in an aircraft. Some systems also need an inertial sensor display unit or ISDU
in short for data entry and monitoring. Modern systems donot have an ISDU because all functions
are controlled from the MCDU.
The IRU primarily provides the same output signals as an AHRU. These are the attitude, heading,
ground speed, wind and inertial vertical speed. It also receives the same inputs from the air data
computer. The IRU has a very powerful computer so it can calculate the present position of the
aircraft. For this calculation it needs a 10 minute align phase on the ground. The computer also
knows the magnetic variation. It is stored in its memory for all positions on earth. Therefore, it
does not need a flux valve to calculate the magnetic heading.
The present position calculation is updated during the whole flight using the acceleration signals,
so it can be used by the lateral navigation of the flight management system. You will learn this in
unit 22. This calculation must never be interrupted during flight, therefore the IRS needs backup
electrical power directly from the aircraft battery or from its own battery unit. If the calculation
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was interrupted the attitude is the only remaining output. This is selected with the attitude position
of the mode switch on the MSU.
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

The inertial navigation system, or INS in short, was the standard navigation system in long range
aircraft before the use of flight management systems. The system has an Inertial navigation unit,
INU in short, as the main component. The INU contains the gyros, and the accelerometer and the
computer. The system also has a mode select unit, MSU in short a control and display unit, CDU
in short and a separate battery unit, BU in short, which provides the DC backup power.
An INS has the same basic functions as an IRS but with an additional navigation computation. It
calculates the present position of the aircraft, like in the IRS. In addition it creates a desired flight
track from all geographic waypoints of the flight. The waypoints must be inserted by the flight
crew step by step into the CDU before the flight. Here you can see an example for waypoint
number 3. The INS always knows if the aircraft is on the desired track or not by comparing the
desired position with the present position.
Any deviation from the desired track is shown on the HSI by the deviation bar. When the autopilot
is switched on it will keep the aircraft on the desired track by a steering command signal from the
INU. In our example it would be a fly right command. Another important item to note is that the
INS does provides the pitch and roll attitude but not the magnetic heading. It provides only a
platform heading signal which needs a compass coupler with a flux valve to generate the magnetic
heading.
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CHAPTER 3
ENGINE MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO ENGINE INDICATIONS

ENGINE INDICATION SYSTEMS
Engine indications are used to monitor the parameters of the engine and its systems. The engine
indications can be divided into 3 groups. First, there are the performance indications that are also
named primary indications. Then there are the system indications that are also called secondary
indications. The third group of indications is used for engine trend monitoring and usually not
shown in the cockpit.
The performance indications are used to monitor the performance and the limits of the engine and
to set the thrust for the different flight phases. The system indications are used to monitor the
operation of engine systems such as the oil or fuel system. They are also used to detect
malfunctions quickly. Engine trend monitoring is done on the ground to detect engine problems at
an early stage. It uses engine parameters that are automatically recorded by the aircraft condition
monitoring system, (ACMS).
ENGINE PERFORMANCE INDICATIONS
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The indication which is always located at the top is used to monitor and set the
engine thrust. Because it is not possible to measure the thrust directly, there are 2 different
indications which give an equivalent value. This is either the rotational speed of the fan, called N1
or the engine pressure ratio. The other performance indications are the engine rotor speed
indications for each rotor system. This means that in addition to N1, there is N2 and, if available,
also N3.
There is also the exhaust gas temperature indication (EGT) and the fuel flow indication. Data for
the indications is gathered by specific sensors or probes. The data is usually electrically transmitted
to the indicators. Sensors fitted to engines with a FADEC system will first transmit the data to the
FADEC system computer. The computer then sends the data to the indicators or display system
and also uses it to control the engine.
ENGINE SYSTEM INDICATIONS
We use the secondary engine indications to monitor the correct operation of engine systems. These
are also called engine system indications. The indications for the oil system monitor the oil
quantity, the oil pressure and the oil temperature. The engine vibration indication shows you any
imbalance that occurs in the rotating parts of the engine. For example an imbalance can be
generated by damage to blades or bearings. The nacelle temperature increases for example when
there is a leakage of hot air in the engine nacelle. The indications on the EICAS generally give the
same information as the indications on the ECAM, although they are shown in a different way.
ENGINE TREND MONITORING
Modern engines are very reliable and economic, but the performance of the engine modules
decrease during their lifetime. To prevent larger performance reductions or even engine problems
during flight you need a monitoring tool that alerts us to a problem at an early stage. This tool is
called engine trend monitoring. The engine trend monitoring is done in the workshop by analysing
engine data that is periodically recorded during flight by the aircraft condition monitoring system.
The ACMS provides this data on a printout from the cockpit printer and it can also usually transmit
the data via the ACARS datalink to the ground. The transmitted engine data is analysed by a
computer system in order to find any parameters that indicate a trend towards a limit. 3 different
analyses are usually done, the thermodynamic analysis, the mechanic--dynamic analysis and the
oil consumption analysis.
The thermodynamic analysis checks the pressures and temperatures along the gas flow path. It also
monitors the feedback signals from the VSV and VBV, the active clearance control and the fuel
flow. The data gives exact information about the condition of the engine components involved in
the thermodynamic process. The mechanic--dynamic analysis mainly checks for failures of the
rotor system. For example imbalances and bearing failures. To do this it checks engine vibration
and rotor speed signals. The oil consumption analysis generates an alert when the oil consumption
exceeds a certain level.
2. ROTOR SPEED INDICATION
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INTRODUCTION
In all engines there is a rotor speed indication for each individual rotor system. There is an N1
indication for the low pressure rotor and an N2 for the high pressure rotor. There is also an N3
indication if the engine has 3 rotors. The engine rotor speed indications are always expressed as a
percentage of a 100% design speed. Now read the N1 value for engine number 2 in the example.
Each rotor speed indication has 3 main parts:
- the sensor
- the data transmission
- the indication.
TACHOMETER GENERATOR
There are 2 different types of sensor which can measure rotor speed on engines. One is the variable
reluctance type sensor. The other is the tachometer generator type which is usually located on the
gearbox. The tachometer generator has a permanent magnet that is driven by the gearbox with a
speed that is proportional to the N2 rotor speed. The rotating magnetic field generates a 3 phase
AC voltage with a frequency that is proportional to the input speed. The frequency is
converted/changed (transferred) back to the speed signal in either a computer or indicator.
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In older generation aircraft there are rotor speed indicators which are driven directly by the voltage
from the tachometer generator. The indicator has a synchronous AC motor that generates a speed
proportional to the input frequency which is the same as the speed of the drive shaft on the
tachometer generator. An eddy current clutch transfers the speed into a proportional torque which
moves the gauge pointer to the correct indication.
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In modern aircraft systems the tachometer generator sends the 3 phase AC voltage to the FADEC
computer where it is used to calculate the speed signal. The tachometer generator also supplies
electrical power to the computer and is therefore also called dedicated generator or control
alternator. In the next segment you are going to learn about the other speed sensor type.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SPEED SENSOR
Now let us have a look at the variable reluctance speed sensor which is normally used to measure
the N1 rotor speed. Can you identify the N1 sensor on the graphic? The variable reluctance sensor
is positioned directly in line with the phonic wheel on the compressor shaft. As you can see phonic
wheels have different shapes, but this is not important. The important thing is that the rotating
phonic wheel alternates metal and air at the tip of the sensor to change the sensor’s magnetic field.)
Because the sensor must be located near the compressor shaft it often needs a long support tube to
make replacement of the sensor possible. You must be very careful during replacement not to bend
or damage the probe.
There are similar sensor types located near the fan blades on some engines. The fan blades are
used instead of a phonic wheel to change the magnetic field of the sensor. You can find There is
also a variable reluctance type sensor on the gearbox which measures the N2 rotor speed. In this
installation a gear in the gear box has the function of the phonic wheel. In all applications a
computer is used to calculate the rotational speed from the sensor pulses. The next segment looks
at rotor speed indications.
INDICATIONS
There are 3 different types of rotor speed indication. A display with a clock type scale, a display
with a moving vertical bar and the classical electromechanical indicator. All 3 indications show
the actual N1 value with an analog and a digital indication. There is always a speed limit indication
which is usually a red line. This is the maximum permitted rotor speed.
When actual N1 exceeds the red limit it can damage the engine. To make this dangerous situation
clear to the pilot the indications on the displays change to red accompanied by warnings from the
central warning system. The maximum exceedance value is recorded and in modern aircraft it also
initiates an exceedance report from the engine trend monitoring. This is used for planning the
necessary maintenance actions.
When N1 decreases below the red limit a red exceedance pointer shows the recorded maximum
exceedance value. Or you just get a red box around the digital readout to show that an exceedance
occurred. You can read the value with the CMC. You can reset the exceedance value when you
finish the necessary maintenance actions any ground maintenance that is necessary. You can reset
the exceedance indication by pressing the corresponding pushbutton in the cockpit. In modern
aircraft this is done automatically with the next engine start.
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When the N1 indication is used to set engine power, then an additional indication is needed to
show the pilot the N1 value for the required thrust. This value is called N1 limit or N1 command
or reference N1. Find the N1 limit indication. The N1 limit or N1 command shows the N1 that is
required for a specific flight phase such as take off or climb. The value is calculated by the flight
management or autothrottle system. There is always an analog indication on the scale and an
additional digital readout. You can also set this value manually with the knob on the lower
indicator. For the displays, you set the value via the flight management system. There is more
detail on this in the avionic course. On some displays you also can find an amber line that shows
the N1 for the maximum available thrust and a blue circle or white line that shows the N1 for the
actual throttle position.
3. EPR INDICATION
INTRODUCTION
You only find an EPR indication on some aircraft/engine combinations. It is always located at the
top of the engine indications, because it is used to set the engine power. The EPR corresponds to
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the engine thrust because it is the ratio of the total pressure at the turbine outlet to the total pressure
at the fan inlet.
Other engine types do not need an EPR indication because the power is set with the N1 indication.
Each EPR indication system has 3 main parts: 2 pressure pickups that are connected by tubes with
a computer, a computer which is either a separate EPR transmitter or part of the FADEC computer
and the indicator, which is located in the cockpit.
PRESSURE SENSOR
To calculate and indicate the EPR you must measure 2 pressures. The pressure is given the name
of the station that detects it. For example the P2 and the P5 pressure. P2 is the total air pressure at
the fan inlet. It is measured by a pressure probe which is located in the fan airstream. Like other
air data probes it is electrically heated to prevent icing. P5 is the total gas pressure at the turbine
exit. This pressure is also sensed by probes or like in this example with small holes in 3 of the
turbine frame struts. The individual pressures are collected by pickups in the turbine frame and
guided by tubes to a common pressure manifold. This gives an average P5 pressure value. The 2
pressure values are passed to the computer for it to calculate the pressure ratio. Shown here is
an EPR transmitter, which is an earlier type of computer. Before the calculation can occur, the
computer must change the pressure into a proportional electrical signal. The EPR transmitter use
electromechanical pressure transducers with, for example, bourdon tubes.
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INDICATIONS
In this segment we will show you 2 different types of EPR indication. Firstly the indication on a
display unit which you find on modern aircraft and secondly a classical electromechanical
indicator on older generation aircraft. You may have noticed that the actual EPR indication is
shown by an analog readout and a digital value. The EPR command has the same function as the
N1 command that you learned in lesson 2. This example shows the EPR required for a flexible
takeoff.
On the classical indicator this value is called the EPR limit which is also shown in both analog and
digital format. You can also set the value manually by pulling the knob. On the display you can
find also 2 indications you have already seen on the N1 indicator. This is the amber line that shows
the EPR for the maximum available thrust and a white circle that shows the EPR that corresponds
to the actual throttle position.
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4. EGT INDICATION
INTRODUCTION
There must be an exhaust gas temperature indication for each engine. The indication is necessary
to monitor the high temperatures in the engine exhaust in order to see when a limit is exceeded.
The highest temperature is directly behind the combustion chamber where the hot gas hits the high
pressure turbine. This temperature is called the turbine inlet temperature or TIT.
Because this temperature can be higher than 1.400 oC, it is not easy to measure the TIT. The
exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is therefore measured at a colder location in the engine either
between the high and low pressure turbine or directly behind the low pressure turbine. This is
possible because the EGT has a direct relationship to the TIT. You can learn more about this in
unit ”Gas Turbine Fundamentals”. Because of the different measuring points you can find
maximum EGT indications between 600 oC and 900 oC. To measure and indicate the EGT you
need:
- temperature sensors
- a means of transmitting data
- a method of indication.
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EGT PROBES
To measure high temperatures you need sensors of the thermocouple type. There are several
thermocouples on the engine, in the example shown here there are 9. They are installed in the
turbine case of the engine. All thermocouples are connected to each other in order to generate a
common temperature value.
The thermocouples for the EGT are always connected in parallel in order to measure the average
exhaust gas temperature. The paralleling is done in junction boxes. To make probe replacement
easier on some engines, the thermocouples are paralleled in groups in parallel junction boxes. All
signals are then combined in the main junction box and transferred to the FADEC system. You
may recall that special wiring is needed from the probes to the cold junction. In our example the
cold junction is located in the FADEC system computer.
INDICATIONS
You are now going to look at 3 different types of EGT indication.
- the display with a clock type scale
- a display with a moving vertical bar
- the classical electromechanical indicator
All 3 indications show the actual exhaust gas temperature in degrees Celsius in both analogue and
digital. They also always show the temperature limit, usually as a red line. This is the maximum
permissible EGT that should never be exceeded. When an EGT red limit exceedance occurs in
modern systems, then you get information which is basically the same as you get when a rotor
speed exceedance occurs.
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On each display there is also an amber line that shows the maximum EGT for the maximum
continuous thrust setting. The EGT is only allowed to exceed the amber line value for a short time
when the engines run at take off or go around thrust.
5. ENGINE VIBRATION MONITORING

INTRODUCTION
A very important secondary engine indication is the indication for engine vibration. It enables you
to identify a rotor imbalance which can be the first sign of engine damage. The main parts of the
engine vibration monitoring system are, as follows; the indication in the cockpit which you have
just identified. This shows the level of vibration usually in units from 0 to about 6. Then on the
engine there are one or two vibration sensors which deliver electrical signals to a computer. This
computer collects and filters the vibration data for indication and engine trend monitoring. The
computer is, for example, sometimes called the engine vibration monitoring unit or EVMU for
short.
VIBRATION SENSORS
The engine vibration sensors are accelerometers that measure the radial acceleration of the engine.
You usually find 2 sensors on each engine. One sensor is located in the compressor area, for
example, near the N1 rotor shaft and a second sensor is in the turbine area. For example, on the
turbine frame. Two different types of accelerometer are used on engines. One type is the
electromagnetic accelerometer and the other one is the piezoelectric—crystal type sensor.
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The electromagnetic sensor has a permanent magnet that is hold in the center by 2 springs . A fixed
coil surrounds the magnet. When there is a vibration, the coil moves up and down together with
the sensor housing. However the magnet stays almost still due to its inertia force. The difference
in motion between the coil and the magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the coil, like in a
generator.
A piezoelectric crystal generates a voltage when you apply a force to the crystal. In this sensor the
force is applied by an inertia mass which presses the crystal against the base plate when the sensor
is accelerated. The vibration sensors give a signal to the monitoring unit with a voltage that is
proportional to the level of acceleration. and a frequency that is equivalent to the vibration
frequency. The monitoring unit filters and analyzes these signals from the accelerometers for
indication and trend monitoring.
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VIBRATION INDICATIONS
In older aircraft types there is one engine vibration indicator for each engine. The indicated value
depends on the selection of two switches. One switch selects the turbine or inlet vibration sensor
and the other switch selects a filter for a high or a low frequency. The vibration indication on
modern aircraft is automatically controlled by the monitoring unit, therefore you will not find any
manual switching.
In this example of an ECAM display there are 2 indications for each engine. One indication shows
units of vibration for the N2 rotor system and one for the N1 rotor system The monitoring unit
generates the 2 indications from a single sensor signal. This can be done by comparing the
frequency of the vibration signal and the 2 rotor speed signals. Usually only the forward sensor is
used for this indication, but the monitoring unit is able to switch to the aft sensor when the forward
sensor fails.
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6. FUEL FLOW INDICATION
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
The fuel flow indicating system provides 2 different indications for the pilot: The actual fuel flow
to the engines which is in kg or tons per hour and the fuel used since the engine was started. This
is in kg or tons. The fuel flow indication allows you to monitor the performance and economic
operation of the engines. The engines usually have the same power setting and therefore each flow
indicator should also show identical fuel flow.
The fuel used indication shows the mass of fuel which was burned since the last engine start on
ground. This allows to compare the performance of the different engines. It also gives a redundant
information for the actual fuel quantity. You can calculate the actual fuel quantity by subtracting
the amount of used fuel from the amount of fuel in the tanks at takeoff. The fuel used indication is
usually automatically reset to 0, when the engine master switch is switched to on and the aircraft
is on the ground. To generate the fuel flow and fuel used indications there needs to be a fuel flow
transmitter on each engine. and then a calculation has to be done. The calculation in modern
systems is usually done by the FADEC system computer. In the next segment we show you how
the fuel flow transmitter works.
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FUEL FLOW TRANSMITTER
The fuel flow transmitter measures the mass flow of fuel between the fuel control unit and the fuel
nozzles. There are different types of fuel flow transmitter, but their operation is always based on a
basic law of Physics; force is equal to mass times acceleration. All transmitter types measure the
force which is applied by the mass of fuel. In the transmitter type shown here the fuel mass turns
a turbine against a spring and the deflection angle is measured. To get the force you must accelerate
the fuel. This is done here by an impeller that rotates continuously. driven by an electric motor.
The mass of fuel is proportional to the turbine angle because the acceleration of the fuel is constant.
A position transducer, such as synchro or LVDT measures the turbine angle and sent it to the
indicator. The indicator shows the fuel flow directly. and also calculates the fuel used value by an
integration of the fuel flow rate.
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Modern fuel flow transmitters do not need an electric motor with a power supply. They use the
fuel itself to generate the acceleration. In this transmitter type the fuel flow turns a small turbine.
The rotating turbine also drives a drum and an impeller which is located inside the drum. Both are
coupled by a spring. The fuel drives the turbine, drum and impeller with a speed that is proportional
to the volume of fuel.
Behind the turbine the fuel passes through a fixed straightener that stops all possible fuel spin. The
straightened fuel then passes through the rotating drum without affecting the rotation of the drum.
Then the fuel hits the impeller blades. The force of the fuel delays the rotation of the impeller until
this braking force is compensated by the force of the spring. The angle between the rotating drum
and the rotating impeller is proportional to the mass fuel flow.
The transmitter measures this angle with 2 coils in combination with 4 permanent magnets. 2
magnets are located on the drum and 2 are located on the impeller. When a magnet passes the coil,
it induces a voltage pulse in the coil. In our example this happens twice for each rotation. With no
fuel flow the angle is zero and therefore the magnets on the drum and the impeller pass the coils
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at the same time. When there is fuel flow, the impeller magnet is delayed by an angle in proportion
to the fuel mass. When this happens the pulse from the impeller coil is also delayed. The FADEC
system computer now calculates the time between the 2 pulses, which is proportional to the mass
fuel flow. An integration of the fuel flow value gives the required fuel used information.
7. ENGINE OIL MONITORING SYSTEM

OIL QUANTITY INDICATION
The oil quantity transmitter in the tank sends the information via a computer, which performs the
measurement, in this example called the engine interface unit (EIU), to the display units in the
cockpit. The oil quantity transmitter is normally installed at the top of the oil tank. This allows the
transmitter to be changed without draining the tank. 2 types of transmitter are used the capacitance
type transmitter, the reed switch type transmitter.
Here you see the capacitance type transmitter. The upper part has the electronic components for
the capacitance measurement and an electrical connector. The lower part, which is immersed in
the oil, has 2 concentric tubes. These are the 2 plates of the capacitor. The reed type transmitter
has a metal tube with a float inside and a multi switch assembly.
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The metal tube has holes to let the oil in from the tank so that the float can move up and down with
the oil level in the tank. The float assembly has permanent magnets, which activate an internal
switch assembly. The multi switch assembly has a ladder of reed switches connected by resistors.
The magnet in the float always closes the switch nearest to it.
When, for example, the oil tank is full, then the float is at the upper limit of its travel. The magnet
in the float assembly causes the top switch in the ladder to close. In this situation the resistance in
the electrical circuit is at its minimum, and this gives maximum output voltage from the
transmitter. You have seen that when the oil level falls, the float also falls. The switch nearest to
the float closes and all other switches open. The electrical resistance in the circuit changes with
the switch that is closed and this gives a corresponding output voltage from the transmitter.
OIL PRESSURE INDICATION
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The oil pressure transmitter is connected to the oil supply line and to the oil tank vent line. The
transmitter senses the pressure difference between the total oil pressure in the oil supply line and
the vent pressure in the oil tank. Oil pressure information is sent from the oil pressure transmitter
to the engine interface unit, which performs the measurement and then to the display unit in the
cockpit.
OIL PRESSURE SENSOR

There are two main types of oil pressure transmitter: the bourdon tube type, the strain gage type.
LOW OIL PRESSURE SWITCH
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An additional pressure switch is used in the engine oil system to initiate a low oil pressure warning.
The pressure switch is also connected to the oil supply line and the oil tank vent line. If the oil
pressure decreases below the limit, the low oil pressure switch closes, a signal is sent to the flight
warning computer, and a warning message appears on the display unit in the cockpit. Note also,
that the engine low oil pressure warning is always accompanied by an acoustic warning in the
cockpit.
Here you can see the location of the oil pressure transmitter and the low oil pressure switch on an
engine. In this example they are installed on the fan case in the ten o’clock position. You can see
where each is connected to the oil supply line and the oil tank vent pressure line.
OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATION
The location of the oil temperature sensor in the lubrication system depends on the engine type.
The sensor can be found in the scavenge system, where it senses the hot oil temperature upstream
of the oil cooler, or it can be found in the pressure system, where it senses the temperature of the
cooled oil. Oil temperature information is sent from the oil temperature sensor to a
computer, which performs the measurement and then to the display unit in the cockpit. There are
2 main types of oil temperature sensor: the thermocouple, the thermistor.
OIL CONTAMINATION MONITORING

As you already know, the engine oil carries particles from the bearings and the gears to the filters
in the lubrication system. You can monitor the quantity, the size, and the type of material of these
particles to get some indication of the internal wear of lubricated engine parts. A process called
Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program, or SOAP for short, is used to find out about internal wear of
lubricated engine components. 7.
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This SOAP analysis can find particles in the oil, which are so small that they can not be caught by
the oil filters. These particles range in size from 0.001 mm to 0.02 mm. It is important to monitor
the concentration of these particles in the oil to identify increased wear at an early stage.
Many particles indicate increased wear and knowledge of the material helps to identify the engine
part with increased wear. Oil samples for SOAP are taken from the oil tank at regular intervals and
sent to the laboratory for analysis. The scavenge oil filter element catches larger particles which
are of a size of more than 0.015 mm. These particles can be removed and sent for analysis. The
problem with this is that the filter element is not changed very often and each filter inspection takes
time.
Magnetic chip detectors are an easier and less time consuming method to get information about
the condition of the oil. Magnetic chip detectors catch metal particles which are attracted to the
magnet. They can be easily removed and the condition can be checked. The magnetic chip
detectors can be manually checked at fixed intervals or on some modern aircraft they can be
electronically monitored and removed when necessary.
129
Here you see an electronically monitored chip detector, installed in the scavenge oil line. This chip
detector has 2 magnets at its tip. The resistance between the 2 chip detector magnets is monitored
by the electronic control unit. The resistance decreases when particles connect with the magnets.
When the resistance between the magnets gets below the limit, the electronic control unit sends a
maintenance message for the post flight report.
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CONTENT

Chapter 1 – FLIGHT CONTROL INSTRUMENTS

FLIGHT CONTROL INSTRUMENTS

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

4. AIR DATA COMPUTER

5. WARNING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS

7. ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM

8. HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM

DIRECT READING COMPASS

1. RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEM

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

ENGINE MONITORING INSTRUMENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO ENGINE INDICATIONS

2. ROTOR SPEED INDICATION

5. ENGINE VIBRATION MONITORING

7. ENGINE OIL MONITORING SYSTEM

OIL PRESSURE SENSOR

LOW OIL PRESSURE SWITCH

OIL CONTAMINATION MONITORING

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