Pitot-static systems[edit]

Instruments which are pitot-static systems use air pressure differences to determine speed and
altitude.

Altimeter[edit]
Main article: Altimeter

The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference between the
pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure obtained
through the static system. The most common unit for altimeter calibration worldwide
is hectopascals (hPa), except for North America and Japan where inches of mercury (inHg) are
used.[2] The altimeter is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain
accurate altitude readings, usually in either feet or meters. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules
expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The
opposite effect occurs when descending. With the advancement in aviation and increased altitude
ceiling, the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. Hence when
the needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360-degree operation of the pointers was
delineated by the appearance of a small window with oblique lines warning the pilot that he or she is
nearer to the ground. This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence of air
accidents caused by the confusion in the pilot's mind. At higher altitudes, the window will disappear.
[1]:3–3

Airspeed indicator[edit]
Main article: Airspeed indicator

The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air. Knots is the
currently most used unit, but kilometers per hour is sometimes used instead. The airspeed indicator
works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot tube relative to the ambient static
pressure. The indicated airspeed (IAS) must be corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature
in order to obtain the true airspeed (TAS). The instrument is color coded to indicate important
airspeeds such as the stall speed, never-exceed airspeed, or safe flap operation speeds.[1]:3–7 to 3–8

Vertical speed indicator[edit]

Main article: Vertical speed indicator
The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer, or rate of climb indicator) senses changing air
pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute,
meters per second or knots.[1]:3–8 to 3–9

Compass systems[edit]
Magnetic compass[edit]
Main article: Compass

The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. Errors include Variation, or the
difference between magnetic and true direction, and Deviation, caused by the electrical wiring in the
aircraft, which requires a Compass Correction Card. Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip
Errors. While reliable in steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing,
descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field. For this reason,
the heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation, but periodically calibrated against the
compass.[1]:3–9 to 3–13, 3–19

Gyroscopic systems[edit]
Attitude Indicator[edit]
Main article: Attitude indicator

The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's relation to the horizon.
From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level (roll) and if the aircraft nose is pointing above
or below the horizon (pitch).[1]:3–18 to 3–19 Attitude is always presented to users in the unit degrees (°).[citation
needed]
 The attitude indicator is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions
of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or
its power fail.
Schempp-Hirth Janus-C glider Instrument panel equipped for "cloud flying". The turn and bank indicator is top
centre. The heading indicator is replaced by a GPS-driven computer with wind and glide data, driving two
electronic variometer displays to the right.

Heading indicator[edit]
Main article: Heading indicator

The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG) displays the aircraft's heading
in compass points, and with respect to magnetic north when set with a compass. Bearing friction
causes drift errors from precession, which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the
instrument to the magnetic compass.[1]:3–19 to 3–20 In many advanced aircraft (including almost all jet
aircraft), the heading indicator is replaced by a horizontal situation indicator (HSI) which provides the
same heading information, but also assists with navigation.

Turn indicator[edit]
Main article: Turn and slip indicator

These include the Turn-and-Slip Indicator and the Turn Coordinator, which indicate rotation about
the longitudinal axis. They include an inclinometer to indicate if the aircraft is in Coordinated flight, or
in a Slip or Skid. Additional marks indicate a Standard rate turn.[1]:3–20 to 3–22 The turn rate is most
commonly expressed in either degrees per second (deg/s) or minutes per turn (min/tr).[citation needed]

Flight director systems[edit]

Main article: Horizontal situation indicator
Main article: Attitude indicator § Attitude Direction Indicator
These include the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) and Attitude Director Indicator (ADI). The HSI
combines the magnetic compass with navigation signals and a Glide slope. The navigation
information comes from a VOR/Localizer, or GPS. The ADI is an Attitude Indicator with computer-
driven steering bars, a task reliever during instrument flight. [1]:3–22 to 3–23,7–10

Navigational systems[edit]
Very-High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)[edit]

The VOR indicator instrument includes a Course deviation indicator (CDI), Omnibearing Selector
(OBS), TO/FROM indicator, and Flags. The CDI shows an aircraft's lateral position in relation to a
selected radial track. It is used for orientation, tracking to or from a station, and course interception.
[1]:7–8 to 7–11
 On the instrument, the vertical needle indicates the lateral position of the selected track. A
horizontal needle allows the pilot to follow a glide slope when the instrument is used with an ILS.

Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)[edit]

Main article: Non-directional beacon

The Automatic direction finder (ADF) indicator instrument can be a fixed-card, movable card, or

a Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An RMI is remotely coupled to a gyrocompass so that it
automatically rotates the azimuth card to represent aircraft heading. [1]:7–3 to 7–4 While simple ADF
displays may have only one needle, a typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF receivers,
allowing for position fixing using one instrumen