Jadavpur University,Kolkata

Control Systems Seminar Report-2023

“Fixed Wing UAV Dynamics and Flight Control”

Submitted by

Name: Sourish Kundu

Department:Electrical Engineering
Class:4th Year 1st Semester
Roll Number:002010801105
Section:A
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Prof.Smita Sadhu,Prof.Tapan Kumar Ghoshal and
Prof.Manasi Das for providing me an opportunity to undertake a project titled
“Fixed Wing UAV Dynamics and Flight Control’ under their guidance and for
providing me unwavered support throughout the duration.

This project helped me understand the various components,dynamic equations

of a Fixed Wing Aircraft and various flight control modes and flight modes
associated with it.

I am also very grateful to my parents,grandmother and my classmates for their

constant support throughout.
Contents

1.Introduction

2.Components Of A Fixed Wing UAV

3.Flight Dynamics and Equations of Motion

4.Types and Modes of Stability

5.Control Scheme of the UAV

6.References
1.Introduction
Within the dynamic landscape of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), Fixed Wing
UAVs have emerged as indispensable tools for a myriad of applications, from
surveillance to environmental monitoring. This project, titled "Fixed Wing UAV
Dynamics and Flight Control," aims to unravel the intricacies surrounding these
aircraft. We embark on this exploration by dissecting the Components of a
Fixed Wing UAV, providing insight into the fundamental elements that
collectively enable their operations. The subsequent section delves into the
nuanced realm of Flight Dynamics and Equations of Motion, shedding light on
the mathematical underpinnings that dictate their airborne behavior. Types and
Modes of Stability are then examined to comprehend how these UAVs resist
disturbances and maintain stability in diverse conditions.
The project's focal point is the detailed examination of the Control Scheme
governing the UAVs' flight, offering a comprehensive understanding of the
mechanisms that guide their trajectory. Through this holistic investigation, the
project endeavors to contribute to the evolving field of UAV technology,
fostering a deeper comprehension of the principles that underlie the design and
control of Fixed Wing UAVs in their pursuit of stable and controlled flight.
In this endeavor, we navigate the complex interplay between aerodynamics,
control systems, and stability, providing a holistic perspective on Fixed Wing
UAVs. By scrutinizing these components and dynamics, the project aims to
enrich our comprehension of UAV technology, contributing to advancements in
autonomous flight and aerial system control.
Furthermore, the project recognizes the evolving role of Fixed Wing UAVs in
diverse industries and emphasizes their significance in advancing technological
frontiers. By elucidating the intricate dynamics and control mechanisms, it
seeks to empower researchers, engineers, and enthusiasts to contribute to the
ongoing innovation in unmanned aerial systems. This exploration fosters a
deeper appreciation for the challenges and opportunities inherent in the field,
thereby encouraging continual progress in the design and operation of Fixed
Wing UAVs.
2.Components Of a Fixed Wing UAV
Fixed Wing UAVs consist of essential components that collaborate to ensure
optimal functionality. The airframe forms the UAV's structural foundation,
housing key elements such as wings, fuselage, and empennage. Propulsion
systems, often electric motors or internal combustion engines, drive the
aircraft. Avionics, including navigation and communication systems, enhance
operational capabilities. Additionally, control surfaces like ailerons, elevators,
and rudders enable precise maneuvering. These components work in concert,
showcasing the integration of mechanical, electronic, and structural elements,
contributing to the reliability and effectiveness of Fixed Wing UAVs in diverse
applications.

Fig1:Components of an Aircraft

So here,we divide all the aerodynamic technicalities into three parts for our
convenience, namely:- i)Moments ii)Forces iii)Angles.

Dividing it into three parts,will be extremely beneficial for us during

application of the various Control Schemes and understanding the various
Flight Control modes,Control Surfaces and Stability modes.
Moments

The moment of an aircraft is defined around the three principal axes of the
aircraft.The moments are further divided into -i)Pitch Moment ii)Roll
Moment iii)Yaw Moment.

Pitch Moment

The pitch moment of a fixed-wing UAV is the rotational motion around its
lateral or transverse axis, influencing the aircraft's nose-up or nose-down
movement. This pivotal dynamic is controlled by elevators, typically located on
the horizontal stabilizer. By adjusting the lift on the tail, elevators play a crucial
role in maintaining pitch stability and enabling controlled ascent or descent.
Understanding and managing the pitch moment are fundamental to achieving
balanced and responsive flight characteristics in diverse operational scenarios.

Fig 2:Pitching Moment of Aircraft

Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/pitch.html
Roll Moment

The roll moment of a fixed-wing UAV involves rotational motion around its
longitudinal or roll axis, influencing the aircraft's banking or roll. Ailerons,
positioned on the wings, play a vital role in controlling the roll moment by
creating differential lift. This dynamic manipulation allows for precise and
controlled rolling movements, contributing to the overall stability and
maneuverability of the UAV. Effectively managing the roll moment is essential
for executing coordinated turns and maintaining the desired orientation during
flight operations.Mastering the roll moment ensures optimal stability and
control, enabling the fixed-wing UAV to navigate smoothly and respond
effectively to pilot commands. In essence, a well-handled roll moment is pivotal
for the fixed-wing UAV's agility, responsiveness, and overall flight performance
in diverse operational scenarios.

Fig 2:Pitching Moment of Aircraft

Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/roll.html
Yaw Moment

The yaw moment in a fixed-wing UAV refers to the rotational motion around its
vertical axis, influencing the aircraft's heading or direction. This critical
dynamic is pivotal for directional control and stability during flight. The control
surface responsible for managing the yaw moment is the rudder, typically
located on the vertical stabilizer.
The rudder exerts force on the tail of the UAV, creating a side force that induces
yaw motion. By deflecting the rudder, the pilot or autopilot system can control
the yaw moment and thus alter the direction in which the UAV is pointing. This
control is essential for executing coordinated turns, stabilizing the aircraft
during crosswinds, and maintaining a desired heading during various flight
conditions.
Effective management of the yaw moment ensures the fixed-wing UAV's ability
to respond promptly to changes in direction, enhancing its overall
maneuverability.

Fig 3:Yawing Moment of Aircraft

Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/yaw.html
Forces

The main forces that a fixed wing UAV can experience are -i)Lift ii)Thrust
iii)Drag iv)Sideslip Force.These forces play an important role in modelling
and simulation of the aircraft.

Lift Force

Lift force is a fundamental aerodynamic phenomenon crucial for the flight of

aircraft. It is the force that acts perpendicular to the relative motion of the
aircraft through the air, opposing the gravitational force and allowing the
aircraft to ascend. Lift is generated primarily by the wings' airfoil shape and the
angle of attack, the angle between the chord line of the wing and the oncoming
air.
The airfoil shape creates a pressure difference between the upper and lower
surfaces of the wing. As air flows over the curved upper surface, it accelerates,
creating lower pressure, while the slower-moving air beneath the wing results in
higher pressure. This pressure difference generates lift according to Bernoulli's
principle.
Additionally, lift can be influenced by factors such as wing area, air density, and
velocity. The lift equation, often expressed as Lift = 0.5 * Cl * ρ * A * V^2,
involves the coefficient of lift (Cl), air density (ρ), wing area (A), and velocity
(V) squared.
Pilots control lift by adjusting the angle of attack and manipulating control
surfaces like ailerons and elevators. Lift is essential for takeoff, maintaining
altitude, and executing maneuvers. Understanding and managing lift force are
critical aspects of aviation, contributing to the safe and efficient operation of
various types of aircraft.

An important concept regarding the Angle Of Attack(AoA) is highlighted

here.We will look into that,in the later parts of the document.
 Fig 4:Lift Force on an Aircraft
Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/lift

Angle of Attack

The angle of attack (AoA) is a pivotal parameter in aerodynamics, defining the

angle between an aircraft's wing or airfoil and the oncoming air. This angle
significantly influences lift and drag forces, affecting the aircraft's overall
performance. Pilots adeptly adjust AoA during flight to control the aircraft's
attitude, maneuverability, and response to different flight conditions. Beyond a
critical point, an excessive AoA can lead to a stall, compromising lift and
potentially causing loss of control. Engineers meticulously consider AoA in
aircraft design, and precise AoA control is vital for optimal efficiency, stability,
and safety in various aviation applications, from commercial flights to military
operations.
The relationship between angle of attack (AoA) and stalling is crucial in
aviation. Stalling occurs when the AoA exceeds a critical value, causing airflow
separation from the aircraft's wing or airfoil. As the AoA increases, lift initially
rises, but beyond the critical point, the smooth airflow over the wing breaks
down, resulting in a sudden loss of lift. Stalling is a perilous condition that can
lead to an uncontrolled descent. Pilots must carefully manage AoA during
takeoff, landing, and maneuvers to avoid stalling. Understanding and
recognizing the critical AoA is paramount for maintaining safe and controlled
flight, emphasizing the importance of pilot training and aircraft design
considerations.

Fig 5:AoA vs Lift Relation

Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/incline.html

The lift vs. Angle of Attack (AoA) graph is a fundamental representation in

aerodynamics, illustrating how the lift force generated by an airfoil or wing
changes with varying angles of attack. Here's an explanation of the typical lift
curve:
1.Initial Increase in Lift: At low angles of attack, the lift is relatively
low. As the angle of attack increases, the lift force also increases. This
initial section of the graph demonstrates the proportional relationship
between lift and AoA.
 2.Optimal AoA: There is an angle of attack at which the lift is
maximized. This point represents the most efficient configuration for
generating lift and is crucial for takeoff and climbing during flight.
3.Stall Point: Beyond the optimal AoA, the lift begins to decrease rather
than increase. The point where lift sharply drops off is known as the stall
point. This occurs because the airflow over the wing becomes separated,
leading to a loss of lift and potential aerodynamic stall.
4.Critical AoA: The angle of attack at the stall point is the critical angle
of attack. It's the maximum AoA that an airfoil can achieve before
experiencing a stall. Pilots must be aware of and avoid reaching this
critical AoA during flight.
5.Post-Stall Region: After the stall point, the lift continues to decrease. In
this region, the airfoil is in a stalled condition, and the aircraft may
experience a significant loss of control.

Drag Force

Drag force is a resistance force that acts opposite to the relative motion of an
object moving through a fluid, such as air or water. It is a fundamental concept
in aerodynamics and fluid dynamics, influencing the performance and
efficiency of vehicles, aircraft, and various objects in motion.Drag force, a
pivotal aerodynamic factor, is calculated using Fd=0.5×Cd×ρ×A×V2. This
equation incorporates the drag coefficient (Cd), air density (ρ), reference area
(A), and velocity (V). Parasitic drag components, form and skin friction,
contribute to the total drag, as does induced drag, represented by Di
=π×b×e×ρ×V2L2. The complex interplay of these factors influences the
efficiency and performance of vehicles, aircraft, and objects moving through
fluids across diverse engineering application.Drag force, a critical factor in
aerodynamics, opposes an object's motion through a fluid. Parasitic drag
includes form and skin friction, while induced drag arises with lift production.
Understanding these components aids engineers in designing streamlined
vehicles, optimizing shapes to minimize drag, and enhancing overall efficiency
in applications ranging from sports equipment to spacecraft and aviation.
 Fig 6:Drag Force on an Aircraft
Source:https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/what-is-drag/

The relationship between Angle of Attack (AoA) and drag is crucial in

understanding an aircraft's aerodynamic performance. As AoA increases,
initially, drag rises due to increased airflow resistance. However, beyond a
certain point, excessive AoA can lead to flow separation, resulting in a
significant increase in drag, potentially causing a stall. Pilots must balance AoA
to optimize lift for efficient flight while avoiding the critical angle that induces
excessive drag.

Fig 7:AoA vs Drag Force on an Aircraft

Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/inclind.html
Lift Force
Lift is a fundamental aerodynamic force crucial for flight, generated by an
aircraft's wings or airfoils. It opposes gravity, allowing aircraft to ascend. Lift is
created through the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of
an airfoil as it moves through the air. The Bernoulli principle explains this
phenomenon, stating that faster-moving air above a wing creates lower
pressure, resulting in upward lift. Factors influencing lift include angle of
attack, airspeed, airfoil design, and wing shape. Pilots manipulate these factors
to control lift, ensuring optimal performance and safe flight. Understanding lift
is central to aviation, aerodynamics, and aerospace engineering.Efficient lift
design is critical for various vehicles, from airplanes and helicopters to drones.
Engineers continually refine wing shapes, explore advanced materials, and
employ computational simulations to enhance lift characteristics. In aviation,
lift plays a pivotal role in determining an aircraft's takeoff, maneuverability, and
overall performance, shaping the trajectory of flight.

Fig8:Lift in a Fixed wing UAV

Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/lift1.html
Factors Affecting Lift

Several factors influence the generation of lift in aerodynamics:

1. Angle of Attack (AoA): The angle between the chord line of the airfoil
and the oncoming air affects lift. Increasing AoA initially increases lift
until the critical angle, leading to a stall.
2. Airspeed: Lift is directly proportional to the square of the airspeed.
Higher speeds generally result in increased lift.
3. Airfoil Shape: The design of the airfoil significantly impacts lift.
Different shapes and profiles affect lift characteristics.
4. Wing Area: A larger wing area generally produces more lift, considering
other factors remain constant.
5. Air Density: Lift is influenced by air density; higher density results in
greater lift.
6. Aspect Ratio: The ratio of wingspan to average chord length influences
lift. Higher aspect ratios often reduce induced drag and improve lift
distribution.
7. Flaps and Slats: Extendable surfaces on the wings, like flaps and slats,
can alter the wing's effective shape, enhancing lift during takeoff and
landing.
8. Wing Loading: The weight supported by the wing per unit area affects
lift. Lower wing loading often leads to better lift performance.
9. Velocity Distribution: Uneven air velocity around the wing affects lift.
Smooth airflow is crucial for optimal lift generation.
 Fig9:Factors affecting lift
Source:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/factors.html

Parts Of A Fixed Wing UAV

Fig10:Parts of a fixed wing UAV

Source:https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/airplane-parts-function/
1. Fuselage:
• The central body of the aircraft, housing the cockpit, passengers,
cargo, and essential components.
• Provides structural integrity and aerodynamic shape.
2. Wings:

• Principal lifting surfaces that generate aerodynamic lift.

• Varied designs, including main wings, flaps, and slats for different
flight phases.
3. Empennage:
• The tail section, consisting of the horizontal stabilizer, elevator,
vertical stabilizer, and rudder.
• Controls the aircraft's pitch and yaw.
4. Engines:
• Propulsion systems, such as jet engines or propellers, providing
thrust for forward motion.
• Positioned on the wings or fuselage.
5. Landing Gear:
• Supports the aircraft during landing, takeoff, and ground operations.
• Comprises wheels, struts, and other components.
6. Avionics:
• Electronic systems and instruments for navigation, communication,
and flight control.
• Includes radios, GPS, autopilot, and navigation displays.
7. Cockpit:
• Enclosed area for the pilot and crew to operate the aircraft.
• Houses controls, instruments, and navigation equipment.
8. Ailerons:
• Control surfaces on the wings, near the trailing edge.
• Control roll by moving in opposite directions.
9. Elevators:
• Located on the horizontal stabilizer.
• Control pitch, adjusting the aircraft's nose up or down.
 10.Rudder:

• Attached to the vertical stabilizer.

• Controls yaw, allowing the aircraft to turn horizontally.
11.Flaps:

• Extendable surfaces on the wings.

• Increase lift during takeoff and landing.
12.Slats:

• Positioned on the leading edge of wings.

• Improve lift and control at low speeds.
13.Spoilers:

• Panels that disrupt the smooth airflow over the wings.

• Used for reducing lift and assisting in descent.
14.Fowler Flaps:

• Type of flap that not only increases wing area but also changes
shape.
• Enhances lift during takeoff and landing.
15.Trim Tabs:

• Small, adjustable surfaces on control surfaces.

• Fine-tune control settings and reduce pilot workload.

Now,some of these components are the essential components that are

instrumental in controlling the attitude of the aircraft under various
conditions.In the later parts,we will get to see the importance and the actions of
these control surfaces.
Control Surfaces Of an Aircraft

Control surfaces are movable components on an aircraft that the pilot

manipulates to control and maneuver the aircraft. These surfaces play a crucial
role in adjusting the aircraft's attitude and direction. Here are the primary
control surfaces:
1. Ailerons:
• Location: Positioned on the trailing edge of the wings, near the
wingtips.
• Function: Control roll by moving in opposite directions. When one
goes up, the other goes down, causing the aircraft to roll.
2. Elevators:
•Location: Attached to the horizontal stabilizer at the tail.
• Function: Control pitch by adjusting the aircraft's nose up or down.
Both move in the same direction.
3. Rudder:
• Location: Attached to the vertical stabilizer at the tail.
• Function: Control yaw by moving left or right. Helps the aircraft
turn horizontally.

Fig11:Control Surfaces of a fixed wing UAV

Source: http://www.aviation-history.com/theory/flt_ctl.html
3.Flight Dynamics and Equations of Motion

Change in Elevator Angle

Change in Aileron Angle

Change in Rudder Angle

Change in Engine Throttle

The input vector of an aircraft represents the set of control inputs manipulated
by the pilot to direct the aircraft's motion. This vector typically includes control
surface deflections—such as aileron, elevator, and rudder positions—throttle
settings, and other relevant parameters. Aileron deflections control roll, elevator
adjustments affect pitch, and rudder inputs influence yaw. Throttle settings
regulate engine thrust. Together, these inputs form a multidimensional vector
that pilots continuously adjust to navigate the aircraft through the three axes of
motion—roll, pitch, and yaw. Advanced aircraft may incorporate fly-by-wire
systems, where electronic signals interpret and transmit the pilot's input vector,
enhancing precision and responsiveness in steering and stabilizing the aircraft.

In addition to the primary control surfaces, the input vector encompasses

secondary controls like flaps, slats, spoilers, and trim tabs. Flaps and slats
modify lift and drag for takeoff, landing, and maneuvering at different speeds.
Spoilers disrupt airflow for controlled descents, while trim tabs alleviate the
need for sustained manual input, ensuring stable flight. The complexity of the
input vector is further heightened by modern avionics and navigation systems,
enabling pilots to manage autopilots, auto-throttle, and other advanced features.
This comprehensive set of inputs empowers pilots to navigate through various
flight conditions, providing a dynamic and adaptable means of controlling the
aircraft's trajectory, speed, and orientation for optimal safety and performance.

But for simplicity,in this document we will only consider the primary control
inputs.
States of an Aircraft

Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics%20short%20course/HKU
%20shortcourse%20notes/2016%20aircraft%20dynamics%20and%20control.pdf

The state of an aircraft refers to its instantaneous condition in flight,

encompassing key parameters like altitude, airspeed, heading, pitch, and roll
angles. These factors collectively define the aircraft's orientation, motion, and
position in three-dimensional space. Sophisticated avionics and flight
management systems continuously monitor and display the aircraft's state,
providing essential information to pilots for navigation, control, and situational
awareness. Accurate awareness of the aircraft's state is crucial for maintaining
safe and efficient operations, ensuring pilots can respond appropriately to
changes in flight conditions.
In the context of flight control, an aircraft's states encompass crucial parameters
such as pitch, roll, yaw, altitude, and airspeed. These dynamic variables define
the aircraft's orientation, altitude above sea level, and velocity through the air.
Flight control systems continuously assess and adjust these states using pilot
inputs, automated systems, and feedback mechanisms. Stability augmentation
systems enhance control, ensuring smooth flight. Monitoring the states allows
for adherence to desired flight profiles, prompt responses to environmental
changes, and optimal adjustments during various phases of flight. Precise
management of these states is essential for safe, stable, and efficient aircraft
operations.

Types of Motion of a Fixed Wing UAV

The motion of an UAV can be divided into two categories:-i)Translational

Motion ii)Rotational Motion

Translational Motion

The translational motion of a fixed-wing UAV involves movement along three

axes: longitudinal (forward and backward), lateral (side to side), and vertical
(up and down). Thrust generated by the propulsion system propels the UAV
forward, while control surfaces, including ailerons and elevators, influence
lateral and longitudinal motion. Altitude changes result from adjustments in the
aircraft's pitch and throttle settings.

Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics
The translation equations of motion describe the linear movement of an aircraft
along three axes: longitudinal, lateral, and vertical. These equations are
essential for understanding and predicting an aircraft's translational motion.
For longitudinal motion, the equation typically involves forces like thrust and
drag, as well as moments like pitch. Lateral motion equations consider forces
such as lift and weight, as well as moments like roll. Vertical motion equations
incorporate forces like lift and weight, along with moments like yaw. These
equations integrate parameters like airspeed, angles of attack, and control
surface positions. Solving these equations provides insights into an aircraft's
behavior during straight and level flight, climbs, descents, and turns. They are
fundamental tools in aircraft dynamics and control system design.

Rotational Motion

Rotational motion in aircraft involves the rotation of the aircraft about its three
principal axes: roll, pitch, and yaw. These motions are controlled by the
aircraft's control surfaces and are crucial for maintaining stability and
maneuverability. Here's an overview:
1. Roll:
• Axis of Rotation: Longitudinal axis (nose to tail).
• Control Surface: Ailerons.
• Effect: Aileron deflection causes the aircraft to tilt, resulting in a
rolling motion.
2. Pitch:
• Axis of Rotation: Lateral axis (wingtip to wingtip).
• Control Surface: Elevators.
• Effect: Elevator deflection causes the aircraft to pitch up or down.
3. Yaw:
• Axis of Rotation: Vertical axis (top to bottom).
• Control Surface: Rudder.
• Effect: Rudder deflection causes the aircraft to yaw left or right.
Rotational motion is governed by the principles of torque and angular
momentum. Pilot inputs or automated control systems adjust the control
surfaces, influencing the distribution of these forces and moments to achieve
desired rotations. Understanding and managing rotational motion are
fundamental to safe and controlled flight, allowing pilots to navigate and
respond to changing conditions. Advanced avionics, including gyroscopes and
inertial measurement units, contribute to precise control and stability in
rotational maneuvers.

Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics

The mathematics of rotational motion in aircraft involves principles from

classical mechanics and dynamics. Euler's rotational equations govern the
rotational motion, providing mathematical representations for the moments and
angular velocities around each axis.
1. Roll Equations:
• Ix⋅p˙=(Iz−Iy)⋅q⋅r+L
• These equations describe the rotational motion around the
longitudinal axis, with p as the roll rate, q as the pitch rate, r as the
yaw rate, L as the rolling moment, and Ix, Iy, and Iz as the moments
of inertia.
2. Pitch Equations:
• Iy⋅q˙=(Ix−Iz)⋅p⋅r+M
 • These equations govern the rotational motion around the lateral
axis, with q as the pitch rate, p as the roll rate, r as the yaw rate, and
M as the pitching moment.
3. Yaw Equations:
• Iz⋅r˙=(Iy−Ix)⋅p⋅q+N
• These equations describe the rotational motion around the vertical
axis, with r as the yaw rate, p as the roll rate, q as the pitch rate, and
N as the yawing moment.
These equations represent the conservation of angular momentum and are
essential for understanding the dynamics of rotational motion. Here, p˙, q˙, and
r˙ denote the angular velocities, and L, M, and N represent the moments
generated by control surfaces and external forces. Solving these equations
provides insights into the stability and control of aircraft during rotational
maneuvers. Advanced flight dynamics simulations and control system designs
leverage these mathematical models for accurate representation and prediction
of an aircraft's behavior in flight.

Modelling of the Aircraft

Fig12:Modelling of the Aircraft

Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics
Mathematical modeling of aircraft involves expressing the relationships
between various parameters governing its motion, providing a foundation for
analysis, simulation, and control system design. Key aspects of the
mathematical model include:
1. Equations of Motion:
• Newton's second law forms the basis, expressing the forces and
moments acting on the aircraft in terms of accelerations.
2. Forces and Moments:
• Lift, drag, thrust, and weight are modeled based on aerodynamic
principles, engine performance, and gravitational forces.
3. Aircraft Dynamics:
• Euler's rotational equations describe the rotational motion around
the principal axes, incorporating moments of inertia and control
surface effectiveness.
4. State-Space Representation:
• The model is often represented in a state-space form, including state
variables, input controls, and output responses.
5. Linearization:
• Linearization simplifies the model for small perturbations around a
stable flight condition, facilitating control system analysis.
6. Aerodynamic Coefficients:
• Lift, drag, and other aerodynamic forces are expressed as functions
of angle of attack, sideslip, and control surface deflections.
7. Engine Performance:
• Engine thrust is modeled based on throttle setting, air density, and
other factors, reflecting the propulsion system's characteristics.
8. Control Surface Effectiveness:
• The impact of ailerons, elevators, and rudders is quantified through
control surface effectiveness coefficients.
9. Wind Effects:
• Crosswind and gusts are considered, affecting the aircraft's motion
and stability.
 10.Nonlinear Effects:

• Nonlinearities, like stall behavior and control surface saturation, are

incorporated for more accurate representation.
11.Six-Degree-of-Freedom (6-DOF) Models:

• Comprehensive models account for translational and rotational

motion, enabling a detailed analysis of the aircraft's behavior.
12.Simulation Tools:

• Advanced simulation software, such as MATLAB/Simulink or

aircraft-specific tools, allows engineers to validate and refine
mathematical models.
13.Validation:

• Model predictions are compared with flight test data to ensure

accuracy and reliability in various flight conditions.
Mathematical modeling is integral to aircraft design, flight simulation, and
control system development, offering insights into performance, stability, and
response characteristics across diverse operational scenarios.

Fig13:Separation of Plants
Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics

The separation of an aircraft into longitudinal and lateral systems is a common

approach in control system design. This division facilitates a more focused
analysis and control of the aircraft's motion along its different axes.
1. Longitudinal Dynamics:
• Focuses on the motion along the longitudinal axis, which runs from
the aircraft's nose to its tail.
 • Key variables include pitch angle (θ), pitch rate (q), and
longitudinal velocity (V).
• Control surfaces such as elevators influence longitudinal dynamics.
• Equations governing longitudinal motion include those describing
pitch and velocity changes.
2. Lateral Dynamics:
• Concentrates on the motion along the lateral axis, extending from
wingtip to wingtip.
• Primary variables include roll angle (ϕ), roll rate (p), and lateral
velocity (u).
• Equations governing lateral motion cover roll and lateral velocity
changes.
• Control surfaces like ailerons affect lateral dynamics.

4.Types and Modes of Stability

Stability

The Dynamic Stability of an aircraft can be divided into-i)Longitudinal

Stability ii)Lateral Stability

Dynamic stability in aircraft refers to its ability to naturally return to a steady

state after experiencing disturbances. It involves analyzing the response to
perturbations in pitch, roll, and yaw. Stable aircraft exhibit controlled
oscillations, resisting divergent or uncontrolled motions. Dynamic stability is
crucial for safe and predictable flight, influencing the design of control surfaces
and flight control systems. Engineers assess dynamic stability through
mathematical modeling, simulations, and flight testing to ensure an aircraft's
ability to recover smoothly from disturbances and maintain stable flight
throughout its operational envelope.
Longitudinal Stability

This can be further divided into-i)Phugoid Oscillations ii)Short Time Period

Oscillations

Longitudinal stability in aircraft pertains to its ability to naturally recover from

disturbances in pitch. Positive longitudinal stability ensures the aircraft returns
to its trimmed pitch attitude after a disturbance. This crucial characteristic
contributes to safe and predictable flight, influencing control surface design and
flight control systems for optimal stability along the longitudinal axis.

Phugoid Oscillations

Phugoid oscillations represent a long-period, naturally occurring flight mode in

aircraft, primarily affecting longitudinal stability. This oscillatory motion
involves alternating cycles of climb and descent, driven by variations in
airspeed. Pilots and autopilots manage phugoid oscillations by adjusting pitch
and power to restore equilibrium. Understanding and controlling phugoid
motion is vital for ensuring stable and comfortable flight, as excessive
oscillations can affect passenger comfort and aircraft performance. Engineers
consider phugoid behavior in aircraft design and control system development to
optimize stability and response characteristics.

Fig14:Visualisation Of Phugoid Mode

Source:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225291571
 Fig15:Pitch vs Time in Phugoid
Source:htps://www.researchgate.net/publication/225291571

The time response of a phugoid oscillation in an aircraft is characterized by the

aircraft's behavior following a disturbance, typically a change in airspeed.
Phugoid motion involves a long-period oscillation in pitch, alternating between
climb and descent. The time response is influenced by various factors, including
the aircraft's inherent stability, control system dynamics, and initial conditions.
In a typical time response plot, the phugoid oscillation is represented by the
aircraft's pitch angle over time. The response shows the gradual climb and
descent cycles as the aircraft seeks to return to its trimmed state. The time
response also provides insights into the damping characteristics and frequency
of the phugoid oscillation.

Short Time Period Oscillations

Short time period oscillations in aircraft refer to rapid and relatively quick
variations in attitude or motion, often occurring within a few seconds. Unlike
the phugoid oscillation, which has a longer period, short period oscillations
involve more rapid fluctuations around the trimmed state. These oscillations are
typically associated with pitch dynamics and can be induced by disturbances
such as abrupt control inputs or atmospheric turbulence. Engineers and pilots
carefully analyze and address short period oscillations in aircraft design and
control systems to ensure stability, responsiveness, and safety during flight.
Short period oscillations, with their faster cycles, demand precise control
responses to maintain stability. These rapid pitch variations, often induced by
quick disturbances, necessitate sophisticated control systems and pilot inputs.
Analyzing and addressing short period oscillations are vital aspects of aircraft
design, ensuring safe and comfortable flight experiences while optimizing the
aircraft's dynamic response to varying conditions and inputs.
 Fig16:Visualisation of Short Time Period Oscillation
Source: htps://www.researchgate.net/publication/225291571

The time response of short time period oscillations in aircraft is characterized

by rapid variations in pitch over a brief duration. This response, often
influenced by control inputs or turbulence, is critical for understanding the
aircraft's dynamic behavior. Engineers analyze and refine control systems to
manage and dampen short period oscillations, ensuring stability and
responsiveness during flight.

Fig17:Time Response of Short Time Period Oscillation

Source:htps://www.researchgate.net/publication/225291571

This time response aids in evaluating the aircraft's ability to quickly return to its
trimmed state after disturbances. Engineers utilize mathematical modeling,
simulations, and flight testing to refine control algorithms, enhancing the
aircraft's capacity to efficiently and safely handle short period oscillations,
contributing to overall flight stability and performance.
Lateral Stability
Lateral Stability can be further divided into -i)Spiral Instability ii)Dutch Roll

Spiral Instability

Spiral instability in aircraft refers to an uncontrolled and divergent rolling

motion, typically induced by yawing moments. It manifests as a continuous,
increasing turn, potentially leading to a loss of control. This phenomenon arises
when the aircraft's lateral and directional stabilities are compromised. Engineers
address spiral instability through careful design of control surfaces, wing
geometry, and yaw damping systems. Understanding and mitigating spiral
instability are crucial for ensuring the safety and stability of the aircraft during
various flight conditions and maneuvers.

Fig18:Visualisation of Spiral Instability

Source:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qszrrd_y5ak&list=PLdC7sNflIkCY6OhSrKnTSx-dLtiJ4rZPN&index=4

Spiral instability in aircraft refers to an uncontrolled and divergent rolling

motion, typically induced by yawing moments. It manifests as a continuous,
increasing turn, potentially leading to a loss of control. This phenomenon arises
when the aircraft's lateral and directional stabilities are compromised. Engineers
address spiral instability through careful design of control surfaces, wing
geometry, and yaw damping systems.
Dutch Roll
Dutch Roll is an oscillatory lateral motion in aircraft, characterized by a
combination of roll and yaw. It typically results from inadequate lateral
stability. Engineers employ control system adjustments and aerodynamic
refinements to suppress Dutch Roll, ensuring stable and comfortable flight by
mitigating the unwanted lateral motions.This lateral instability, known as Dutch
Roll, can lead to passenger discomfort and pilot challenges. Engineers
implement yaw dampers and other control measures to counteract Dutch Roll
tendencies, enhancing lateral stability. Thorough analysis using simulations and
flight testing helps refine these measures, contributing to safer and more
controlled aircraft operations in diverse flight conditions.

Fig19:Visualisation of Dutch Roll

Source:htps://www.researchgate.net/publication/225291571
The time response of Dutch Roll in aircraft refers to the aircraft's behavior
following a disturbance that induces oscillatory lateral motion involving both
roll and yaw.

Fig19:Time Response of Dutch Roll

Source:http://www.stengel.mycpanel.princeton.edu/MAE331Lecture15.pdf
5.Control Scheme
The control scheme of an aircraft is a multi-tiered system encompassing
primary, secondary, and automated controls. Pilots manipulate primary controls
—aileron, elevator, and rudder—to influence roll, pitch, and yaw. Automated
systems, including autopilots and fly-by-wire technology, contribute to stability
and navigation. These systems integrate feedback loops and control algorithms,
responding to sensor inputs for dynamic adjustments. Secondary controls like
flaps and slats aid in specific flight phases. The overall control scheme ensures
a harmonized interaction between pilot inputs and automated systems,
optimizing the aircraft's performance, stability, and safety across a diverse range
of operational conditions.

Fig20:Control Scheme of the UAV

Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics
The control system can be divided into three subparts-i)Stability Augmentation
System ii)Control Augmentation System iii)Autopilot

tability Augmentation Systems (SAS), Control Augmentation Systems (CAS),

and Autopilot Systems are integral components of modern aircraft. SAS
enhances stability by automatically adjusting control surfaces. CAS
supplements pilot inputs, mitigating adverse conditions. Autopilots offer
automated flight control, enabling the aircraft to follow predetermined routes
and maintain specific attitudes. These systems integrate sensors, actuators, and
sophisticated algorithms, enhancing flight safety, precision, and operational
efficiency. Their seamless collaboration ensures a balanced combination of pilot
control and automated assistance, contributing to overall flight performance.

hese systems collectively provide a robust framework for optimal aircraft

control, addressing various flight conditions and enhancing the overall
efficiency and safety of aviation operations.
Pitch Axis Stability Augmentation System

Fig21:Pitch Axis Control System

Source: https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics

The Pitch Axis Augmentation System (PAAS) is a critical component in aircraft

stability, primarily focusing on controlling pitch motion. It incorporates several
key elements to enhance stability and improve handling characteristics.
Gyroscopes and accelerometers provide crucial sensor data, detecting
deviations from desired pitch attitudes. The Flight Control Computer processes
this information and commands the actuator system, including the elevators and
horizontal stabilizer, to counteract disturbances. The actuation mechanism may
involve hydraulic or electromechanical systems, translating electronic
commands into precise control surface adjustments. PAAS works seamlessly
with other systems, such as autopilots, contributing to a comprehensive flight
control architecture that ensures a balanced and stable pitch axis during various
flight phases.
Lateral Stability Augmentation System

Fig22:Lateral Stability Augmentation System

Source: https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics

The Lateral Stability Augmentation System (LSAS) is integral to aircraft

control, focusing on managing lateral motion and roll stability. LSAS employs
sensors like accelerometers and gyroscopes to detect deviations from desired
roll attitudes. The Flight Control Computer processes sensor data and issues
corrective commands to control surfaces like ailerons and spoilers. Actuation
systems, often hydraulic or electromechanical, translate electronic signals into
precise adjustments, counteracting disturbances and enhancing lateral stability.
LSAS works in tandem with other control systems, such as SAS and autopilots,
to provide a comprehensive solution for managing lateral dynamics. This
collaborative approach ensures the aircraft's stability, responsiveness, and safety
across a range of flight conditions.

LSAS's integration into the broader flight control architecture contributes to

seamless coordination between lateral and longitudinal control systems. This
comprehensive approach optimizes aircraft stability and responsiveness during
various maneuvers and environmental conditions, enhancing overall flight
safety and performance.
Pitch Attitude Control

Fig23:Pitch Attitude Control

Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics

Pitch attitude control is a fundamental aspect of aircraft stability, focusing on

regulating the aircraft's nose-up or nose-down orientation around its lateral axis.
This control is crucial for maintaining desired pitch angles during different
flight phases. The primary control surfaces involved in pitch attitude control are
the elevators, which are typically located on the horizontal stabilizer. Pilots,
through manual inputs or automated systems, adjust elevator positions to
achieve and maintain the desired pitch attitude. Advanced flight control
systems, including Pitch Axis Augmentation Systems (PAAS) and autopilots,
play a pivotal role in managing pitch attitude by processing sensor data and
issuing precise commands to the elevators. Pitch attitude control is essential for
achieving balanced flight, optimizing aerodynamic performance.

Pitch attitude control is essential for stable flight, allowing pilots or automated
systems to manage the aircraft's nose-up or nose-down orientation and optimize
overall flight performance.
Altitude Hold Autopilot

Fig24:Altitude Hold Autopilot

Source:https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics

An altitude hold autopilot is a critical feature in modern aircraft, ensuring

precise control of the aircraft's vertical position. This system maintains a
specified altitude by automatically adjusting the aircraft's pitch, throttle, and
other relevant parameters. It relies on altitude sensors, typically using
barometric pressure, to continuously monitor and compare the current altitude
with the pre-set target. The autopilot then commands adjustments to the
aircraft's control surfaces, engines, or other flight control systems to maintain
the desired altitude. Altitude hold autopilots contribute significantly to flight
safety, reducing pilot workload during climbs, descents, and level flight. They
are integral components of advanced avionics, providing a stable and efficient
means of controlling aircraft altitude in various phases of flight, contributing to
smoother and more precise navigation.

This automated system enhances flight efficiency, allowing pilots to focus on

other critical tasks. The altitude hold autopilot optimizes fuel consumption,
reduces pilot fatigue, and ensures adherence to assigned altitudes, contributing
to overall flight safety and operational reliability.
6.References
[1] https://lewisgroup.uta.edu/2016%2003%20March%20HKU%20robotics
%20short%20course/HKU%20shortcourse%20notes/2016%20aircraft
%20dynamics%20and%20control.pdf

[2]https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane.

[3]Valentin Penev et.al.,Institute of Mechanics – Bulgarian Academy of

Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria Flight Dynamics and Model Based Control for Fixed
Wing UAV Demonstrator.9TH EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR
AERONAUTICS AND SPACE SCIENCES
(EUCASS).DOI:10.13009/EUCASS2022-4660.

[4]Amber Israr, Eman H. Alkhammash, Myriam Hadjouni, "Guidance,

Navigation, and Control for Fixed-Wing UAV", Mathematical Problems in
Engineering, vol. 2021, Article ID 4355253, 18 pages, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/4355253

[5]Haiyang Chao, Ying Luo, Long Di, Yang Quan Chen, Roll-channel
fractional order controller design for a small fixed-wing unmanned aerial
vehicle,Control Engineering Practice, Volume 18, Issue 7,2010,Pages 761-
772,ISSN 0967-0661,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conengprac.2010.02.003.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967066110000389).

[6]Frank, Adrian & McGrew, James & Valenti, Mario & Levine, Daniel &
How, Jonathan. (2007). Hover, Transition, and Level Flight Control Design for
a Single-Propeller Indoor Airplane. 10.2514/6.2007-6318.

[7]Dynamic Modeling of Fixed-Wing UAVs. A. Noth, S. Bouabdallah and

R. Siegwart et al.
http://www.sky-sailor.ethz.ch/docs/Dynamic_Modeling_of_Fixed-
Wing_UAVs_(12.05.2006).pdf.