Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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Experimental, analytical, and numerical study of ballistic limit and energy

absorption of thin aluminium plate against projectile impact
Libin Thampya, *, Alagu Akash Kb, Sivagangai Thillaisekara
a
SIMCRASH center, Department of Aeronautical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai 603103, India
b
UG Scholar, Department of Aeronautical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai 603103, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this research work, Experimental and numerical study of the impact behavior of thick aluminum plate was
Ballistic limit done.12 mm spherical projectile is impacted at various velocities such as 93 m/s,108 m/s 122 m/s and 126.9 m/
Residual velocity s. Permanent deformation, ballistic limit, residual velocity and energy absorption at each velocity conditions
Permanent deformation
were observed. Numerical simulations were done using ANSYS LS DYNA. Recht and Ipson model was used to find
Impact behaviour
ANSYS LS-DYNA
the residual velocity of the project to determine the residual strength. Both residual velocity and damages were
observed for experimental and numerical analysis. From the result, it is found that Numerical analysis is highly
correlated with the experimental and analytical data.

1. Introduction
In today’s world, metallic structures which are thin in the shapes of
plates and shells are frequently employed in a variety of engineering
applications, including fabrication work for locomotives, automobiles,
ships, and other aircraft. Metallic structures are exposed to different
kinds of impact loading which causes structural damage and leads to
sudden failure. These kinds of localised deformation lead to catastrophic
failure which are more likely to be brought on by the crack propagation
and fracture process. To build such structures in a way that damage can
be reduced, a thorough understanding of impact phenomena is neces­
sary. In this context, the literature has examined how thin plates react to
projectile impact by altering the projectile’s geometry, mass, hardness
and the angle at which bullet impacts the target, as well as the target’s
thickness, material, configuration, and strength [1], did experimental
and numerical analysis on aluminium plate of thickness 1 mm impacted
by a blunt and hemispherical nose shaped projectile and investigated the
ballistic limit. The permanent deformation caused by hemispherical was
greater than the blunt shaped projectile but it penetrates by forming a
plug. (B et al. 2002) studied numerically using LS DYNA and revealed
that lot of kinetic energy is absorbed at the highest impact velocities and
plastic deformation for the projectile becomes severe [1]. [6] Studied
the influence of single-nosed blunt, conical-blunt, single-nosed conical
and single-nosed blunt projectile on 0.82 and 1.82 mm thick aluminium
plates. It is noted that for specified diameter, the projectile with blunt
nose requires more energy to perforate the target than that of a conical
nose. [5] investigated the ballistic limit of aluminium plate with a
thickness of 1 mm and span diameter of 68, 100, 150, 200, 255, 350,
450, 550, 650 and 750 mm stuck by a hemispherical nosed projectile of
diameter 19 mm through experimental and numerical analysis. It was
found that the ballistic limit has significant increase with the span
diameter of the target and monolithic target showed better performance
than layered in contact and spaced target. [12] conducted numerical
analysis on ABAQUS by modelling a 2024 aluminium plate of 1.27 mm
thickness impacted by a 12.7 mm diameter hemispherical steel projec­
tile. The flow and fracture behaviour was predicted using the Johnson-
Cook (JC) elasto-visco plastic material model it was observed that the
target span diameter goes beyond 200 mm, it was seen that the effects of
target boundaries decreased, and an additional increase in span diam­
eter to 360 mm had no effect on the peak force. [4] investigated the
numerical analysis on the energy absorption in radial, circumferential,
tangential and axial direction in monolithic and layered aluminium
1100-H12 of thickness 0.5, 1 and 1.5 mm target which was subjected to
impact at an angle of 00, 300 and 450 with ogive nosed projectile. At
angles of incidence of 00,300 and 450, it was found that the ballistic
resistance of a 1 mm thick monolithic target was 9.1 %, 10.4 %, and 5.7
% greater than the identical double layered in-contact target. [11]
Conducted numerical and experimental analysis on the high velocity
impact of 3 mm diameter aluminium sphere against a thin aluminium
plate of thickness 2 mm and 1 mm. The incidence angle of projectile is at

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rs.21701013@student.hindustanuniv.ac.in (T. Libin), sivagangiaero3161@gmil.com (T. Sivagangai).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2024.02.007
Received 3 August 2023; Received in revised form 7 December 2023; Accepted 6 February 2024
2214-7853/Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th International
Conference on Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering Research and Development.

Please cite this article as: Thampy Libin et al., Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2024.02.007
T. Libin et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

performance of thin aluminium plates against blunt-nosed projectiles

and observed drastic increase in ballistic impact as target thickness in­
creases. The energy absorption behaviour of a thin aluminium hemi­
spherical shell against the impact of an ogive-nosed projectile was
statistically measured by [7]. In his opinion, Al-7075 aluminium alloy
plates have the greatest ballistic limit compared to Al-1100, Al-6065,
and Al-2024 plates. Through the use of experimental and computational
techniques [2], examined the impact of target thickness on the ballistic
resistance of thin aluminium plates against ogive-nosed projectiles. It
was found that thicker plates absorb more energy, resulting in less
damage to the plates [15]. Many researches are going on in ballistic
impact, small number in researcher are studying the ballistic impact

Table 1
Mesh dependence study of target plate.
S. Mesh Number Number Impact Residual velocity (m/s)
No size of of nodes velocity
Experimental Numerical
(mm) elements (m/s)

Fig. 1. Fixture with bolt and nut. 1 0.2 490,000 492,804 126.3 72 72.4
2 0.25 313,600 315,844 72.44
3 0.5 78,400 79,524 57.8
00 and 320. The numerical simulation is done using ANSYS LS-DYNA 4 1 19,600 20,164 21.269
code by modelling the plate and firing the projectile with 4000 m/s. It
was observed that the three-dimensional smooth particle hydrody­
namics method has higher potential to reproduce debris cloud at hy­ Table 2
pervelocity impact. [10] did experimental study on rubber tyre Material properties of aluminium 1100-H12 [13].
fragments hitting on the aluminium alloy plate with length, breadth and
Modulus of elasticity, E (GPa) 70
thickness as 300 mm, 300 mm and 10 mm impacted at a velocity of 135
m/s. The test had been conducted to find the gross deformation of the Poison’s ratio ϑ 0.3
Density, ρ (kg/mm3) 2.7 × 10− 6
projectile during the test and dynamic strain in the plate. [3] did
Shear modulus G (GPa) 26.9
experimental investigation on the effects of low velocity impact on Yield stress, A (GPa) 0.167
AA5083-H116 aluminium plates by a cylindrical blunt-nosed projectile B (GPa) 0.596
and evaluated the effects of anisotropy, dynamic strain ageing, and Strain rate constant C 0.001
thermal softening on the aluminium alloy. It was found that the strain n 0.551
M 0.859
rate effect had a significant influence on fracture predictions when it was Tmelt (K) 893
included to the constitutive relation and fracture criterion [8]. [6] T0 (K) 300
investigated the impact loading of aluminium-rubber composite mate­ Specific heat,Cp (J/kg − K) 910
rial by impacting it with velocity of 75, 101, 144 and 168 m/s. In Pressure cutoff, PC (Pa) − 1.5 × 109
addition to that a numerical study had been performed using finite Ref. Strain rate EPSO(s− 1 ) 1
D1 0.0261
element code ANSYS LS-DYNA to understand the high energy loading
D2 0.263
condition. It was observed that by having more layers of rubber in­ D3 − 0.349
creases energy absorption of the composite and better performance were D4 0.247
observed on composite specimens which has rubber as its front ply. [9] D5 16.8
used calibre armor-piercing bullets made of two kinds of steel and
tungsten carbide to evaluate the ballistic resistance of 6061-T6
aluminium plates with thicknesses of 101.6 mm, 76.2 mm, and 25 Table 3
mm. The ANSYS LS-DYNA code is used for the numerical simulation, and Mechanical properties of projectile.
it was shown that the friction effect and core sabot interaction have a Density, ρ (kg/mm3) 9616
complex impact on how the bullet behaves during penetration. Using a Youngs modulus (GPa) 210
finite element code LS- Dyna [13,14], examined the ballistic Poison’s ratio ϑ 0.3

Fig. 2. Finite model of target plate and projectile.

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T. Libin et al.
Fig. 3. Impact of aluminum with spherical ball projectile at various velocity a) 126, b) 122, c) 108 and d) 93 m/s.
with the bolted fixture, this bolted fixture gives going accurate result on
the exposed area as it will constrain all the DOF in all the directions.The
same is compared with Recht and Ipson model and Johnson cook model
[16].
2. Experimental investigation
The tests were performed using a pressurized air gun which consist of
a Pressure chamber of 60 L, a reciprocating compressor, a solenoid
valve, a smooth bore 2.5 m long barrel with an inner diameter of a half
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inch, and a fixture with a thickness of 20 mm. The operating pressure of
the reservoir was 10 bar which was used to propel the projectile to the
target. A ballistic chronograph was placed at the front and back of the
target plate to capture the initial and residual velocity. As per ASTM
standard the specimen were mounted using fixture plates at the front
and rear sides of the target plate with exposed area of 80 mm × 80 mm.
The fixture with M10 Bolts and nuts is used to constrain the six de­
gree of freedom as depicted in Fig. 1.The bullet is fired using a solenoid
valve as a trigger. To study the impact behaviour such as energy ab­
sorption, residual velocity, and ballistic resistance, the pressure inside
T. Libin et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4 [ ]
Impact velocity, residual velocity and ballistic limit obtained during analysis. εf = [D1 + D2 exp D3 σ* ][1 + D4 lnε* ] 1 + D5 Ť (3)
S. Projectile Impact Velocity Residual Velocity (Numerical) Ballistic
No. (m/s) (m/s) limit
Here, Di , i = 1, ⋯, 5 are input constants and the ratio of pressure
divided by effective stress is denoted by σ* .
1 200 175.2 103
2 190 160.99
3 180 148.9 4. Results and discussion
4 170 138.92
5 160 124.99 4.1. Experimental results
6 150 112.25
7 140 96.509
8 126 72.441 The 1100 Aluminium of thickness 1.5 mm plate is taken as targeted
9 122 65.256 plate. The stainless steel projectile of 8.7 g in weight with 12 mm
10 108 31 diameter is impacted the target plate at various velocities such as 93,
11 100 0
108, 122, and 126 m/s. The plate is fixed as per the fixture shown in fig 1
using nut and bolts. The clamped plate along with fixture is fixed normal
the chamber was changed in order to change the velocity of the to the gas gun barrel setup. To measure the velocity of the projectile two
projectiles. chronograph is used before and after the target plate. The highest impact
velocity at which the plate showed the most deformation and the ve­
3. Numerical investigation locity at which the bullet penetrated the target were averaged to
determine the ballistic limit. At impact velocities of 108 m/s, 122 m/s,
The numerical studies were carried out using ANSYS LS- DYNA to and 128 m/s, it was discovered that the residual velocities were 31 m/s,
find the ballistic limit and energy absorption of 1.5 mm aluminium plate 65.25 m/s, and 72.4 m/s.
upon impact by a spherical projectile of 12 mm diameter. The finite The experimental results were shown in Fig. 3.
element modelling of projectile and plate is shown in fig 2. MAT RIGID
was assigned to the projectile due to higher stiffness than the deformable 4.2. Numerical analysis
target and MAT JOHNSON COOK was used for target plate which can
capture high strain behaviour of metals. The material properties for the The plate is model using Johnson cook material model and for pro­
target plate and bullet were shown in Tables 2 and 3. It is very necessary jectile rigid model is used as that the projectile doesn’t deformed during
to find the optimum mesh size which can be used for the analysis. During the experiments. All post and pre-processing numerical analysis was
the analysis, it was found that 0.25 mm was the optimum size which can carried out using ANSYS LSDYNA. For contact Automatic surface to
be carried out and is shown in Table 1. Between the projectile and the surface contact algorithm and found that the residual velocity of bullet
target, the kinematic algorithm was used to simulate the experimental at impact velocity of 108 m/s, 122 m/s and 126 m/s were 31 m/s,
test. AUTOMATIC SURFACE TO SURFACE CONTACT algorithm was 65.256 m/s and 72.441 m/s respectively. The obtained numerical re­
used by considering the plate as slave and projectile as master. The sults are shown in Table 4. The numerical results were found to be
target movement was restricted by constraining all the degrees of slightly higher than the experimental whereas the obtained failure
freedom. The time step used was 1 ms to increase the accuracy of results. modes were in good correlation with the observed results is shown in
The projectile velocity was assigned in the direction using INITIAL VE­ Fig. 4. Based on this confidence the study was extended by changing the
LOCITY GENERATION. The projectile was constrained to move normal impact velocity of the projectile to have better understanding about
to the target which was observed in the experiments. The projectile was different failure which occur upon impact. The side view of 1.5 mm
modelled using three dimensional solid elements available in ANSYS LS aluminium plate impacted by 12 mm spherical projectile at various time
DYNA which consists of 12,096 elements and 14,116 nodes. step are shown in Fig. 6 and petal failure of impacted plate at higher
velocity is shown in Fig. 5.
3.1. Constitutive modelling
4.3. Analytical model
Projectile impact modelling is highly challenging due to the non-
linearity which occurs such as yielding, perforation, spring back, hard­
The Recht and Ipson mathematical model, which is based on the law
ness and shearing, so it is very important to select material property
of conservation of momentum and energy, was used to determine the
which takes all this into effect. The Johnson-Cook material model (MAT-
projectile’s remaining velocity after penetrating the plate. The constants
015) is capable to capture high strain rate phenomenon and large
α and p were discovered by utilising the method of least squares to es­
deformation of the metal which has a constitutive relationship and
timate the residual velocity for 108 m/s, 122 m/s, and 128 m/s.
criteria for fracture. This model gives good co-relation with the experi­
{
mental results due to the projectile on a monolithic plate [13]. The 00 ≤ vi ≤ vbl
material characteristics of Aluminium was integrated numerically by vr = 1 (4)
α(vpi − vpbl )p vi > vbl
using Johnson Cook material model [7].
The flow stress in Johnson cook model is expressed as
where,
σ y = (A + Bεp )(1 + Clnε̇* )(1 + Ť ) (1)
n m
mp
α= (5)
mp + mpl
Such that A, B, C, n and m are user defined input constants, and: εp ,
m
ε̇* , Ť are effective plastic strain, effective plastic strain rate and non- mpl ≈ πrp2 ρt ht (6)
dimensional temperature can be calculated as
T = (T − T room)/(T melt − T room ) Troom ≤ T ≤ Tmelt (2) 5. Comparison of experimental results with analytical and
numerical results.
Due to nonlinearity, obtaining accurate value for flow stress needs
iteration for the increase in plastic strain.
The experimental results obtained for the plate with a thickness of
1.5 mm were used to validate the numerical model for impact

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T. Libin et al.
Fig. 4. Comparison of failure modes obtained from experimental and numerical analysis of aluminium plate at Various impact velocities.
perforation. For comparison, the acquired numerical results are shown
in Table 4. The failure modes obtained during numerical analysis were
in excellent agreement with the experimental findings, as shown in
Fig. 5. The finite element model somewhat over-predicts the residual
velocities at lower impact velocities, as demonstrated by Fig. 6. The
residual velocity obtained numerically was showing good agreement
with the experimental and analytical values. Based on this confidence,
impact velocities were varied to have better understanding about the
energy absorption of the target plate.
5.1. Residual velocity and ballistic limit
By using ANSYS LS-DYNA, a numerical analysis were done to find the
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ballistic and residual velocities of 1.5 mm metal plates when they are
struck by spherical projectiles. Table 4 and Fig. 7 illustrate the residual
velocity calculated during the numerical study at various impact ve­
locities. The findings showed that the bullet bounces up to an impact
velocity of 100 m/s, indicating that the target plate’s stiffness is greater
than the stress generated, preventing perforation of the target. The
ballistic limit was calculated by taking the average of maximum impact
velocity at which plate doesn’t perforate and minimum velocity at which
it fully penetrates the target. Table 4 displays the ballistic velocity of 1.5
mm thickness against spherical projectile impact at various impact ve­
locities. The velocity drop between 122 and 126 m/s was 7.185 m/s,
which indicates an increase in residual velocity of 11 %. With an in­
crease in starting velocity, it is discovered that the residual velocity
T. Libin et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

strength, it shears off and forms a plug with the area similar to that of a
projectile. The tension is caused by the creation of tensile, compression,
and shear stress. The projectile diameter and plug diameter were almost
same, however due to stretching, the thickness of the plug was slightly
less than that of the target plate. After penetration, it was found that the
plug and bullet move at almost the same speed. The stress was dispersed
as circular fringes, which are greater at the impact zone and get smaller
radially as shown in Fig. 8.

5.3. Total energy of the target plate

Upon impact by the projectile on target, the plate slightly stretches

and vibrates, absorbing some of the projectile’s impact energy. When
the impact energy exceeds the threshold energy, the plate shears out and
produces a plug. The radial deformation obtained at target plate is
shown in Fig. 9. The plate strives to restore its former shape due to
elastic behaviour, but because of the locking of stress, it deforms
permanently. The total energy obtained for plate and bullet at various
impact velocities are shown in Fig. 10.

5.4. Velocity and acceleration behavior of the bullet

The perforation mechanism and other factors heavily depend on the

projectile’s velocity. It was found that when the bullet travels at a ve­
locity lower than ballistic velocity, the plate experiences the most
deformation. Remaining velocity is the speed of the bullet after it has
broken through the plate. Since it doesn’t penetrate the target plate
below the ballistic limit, the residual velocity is zero. Because of the shift
in velocity, acceleration was also seen, as illustrated in the picture.
Fig. 11 illustrates how this variance results from the change in velocity
at various impact velocities.

6. Conclusion

Fig. 5. Petal failure of the impacted plate. The ballistic performance of the aluminum plate was investigated. It
is found that at lower velocity ie.93 m/s the spherical bullet is
increases. rebounded. At higher velocities such as 108 m/s, 122 m/s and 126 m/s,
the spherical bullet penetrates and makes spherical shaped damages.

5.2. Mode of failure
Fig. 6 depicts the impact of a spherical bullet travelling at 93 m/s on
a 1.5 mm plate. The plate deforms when the bullet strikes it, creating
stress in the impact zone. When the stress goes beyond the yield
• Numerical analysis also has similar types of damages and it is
correlated with the experimental damages.
• For the lower velocity the damages in both numerical and experi­
mental was Punch, But the spherical bullet attains the rebound ve­
locity which is equal to 40 % of the initial bullet velocity.

Fig. 6. Impact behaviour observed in the plate at different time intervals.

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T. Libin et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 7. Comparison of residual velocity by Experimental, Numerical and Analytical methods.

Fig. 8. Effective stress contour obtained during numerical analysis.

• Form the result and discussion, damages such as rupture, Plate

tearing, Petaling failure are found in higher impact velocity at 126
m/s and same observed in numerical model. During failure of the
simulated model some elements are stretched around the damage
area and at the impact part element failure takes place

This can be extended for higher velocity more than 150 m/s and the
damages can be validated using high speed camera images and SEM
images.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Libin Thampy: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Software,

Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Alagu Akash K: Formal
analysis, Data curation. Sivagangai Thillaisekar: Writing – review &
editing, Supervision.
Fig. 9. Radial deformation vs Impact surface direction.

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T. Libin et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 10. Total energy vs time graph for plate and bullet.

Fig. 11. Acceleration vs time graph for bullet at different impact velocities.

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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence of double-nosed projectile impact on aluminum plates, Int. J. Impact Eng. 54
the work reported in this paper. (2013) 232–245, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2012.11.007.
[7] N. Khaire, G. Tiwari, A. Gurusankar, Numerical study of energy absorption
behaviour of thin aluminium hemispherical shell against projectile impact, Mater.
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[8] A. Khodadadi, G. Liaghat, D. Shahgholian-Ghahfarokhi, M. Chizari, B. Wang,
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