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Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation

Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors: Estimating
Exposures during Vessel Filling Operations
For vessels being filled with liquid, volatile emissions
are generated from two sources. These sources are:
✓ Evaporation of the liquid (we have already derived
its equation in the last section)
✓ Displacement of the vapor in the vapor space by
the liquid filling the vessel

The net generation of volatile is the sum of the two sources:

𝑄𝑚 = 𝑄𝑚 1 + 𝑄𝑚 2
where
(Qm)1 represents the source resulting from evaporation and
(Qm)2 represents the source resulting from displacement.
𝑀𝐾𝐴𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡
The source term (Qm)1 is computed using 𝑄𝑚 1 =
𝑅𝑇𝐿

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Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation

Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors: Estimating
Exposures during Vessel Filling Operations cont’d (1)
(Qm)2 is determined by assuming that the vapor is completely saturated with the volatile. An
adjustment is introduced later for less than saturated conditions.
Let:
Vc be the volume of the container (volume),
rf be the constant filling rate of the vessel (time–1),
Psat be the saturation vapor pressure of the volatile liquid,
TL be the absolute temperature of the container and liquid,
ρv be the density of the volatile vapor
Therefore, rf Vc is the volumetric rate of bulk vapor being displaced from the drum
(volume/time) and rf Vc ρv is the mass rate of volatile displaced from the container
(mass/time).
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑀
Using the ideal gas law, 𝜌𝑣 =
𝑅𝑇𝐿
and hence, 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑀
𝑄𝑚 2 = 𝑟𝑉
𝑅𝑇𝐿 𝑓 𝑐

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Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation

Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors: Estimating
Exposures during Vessel Filling Operations cont’d (2)
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑀 φ = 1 for splash filling
For less than saturation
𝑄𝑚 2 = 𝜙𝑟𝑓 𝑉𝑐 (filling from the top of a
conditions,, let φ represent this 𝑅𝑇𝐿
container with the liquid
adjustment factor; then,
splashing to the bottom),
φ = 0.5 for subsurface
filling (by a dip leg to the
The net source term resulting bottom of the tank),.
from filling is then
𝑀𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑄𝑚 = 𝑄𝑚 1 + 𝑄𝑚 2 = 𝜙𝑟𝑓 𝑉𝑐 + 𝐾𝐴
𝑅𝑇𝐿

If this source term is

substituted to compute the 𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡
vapor concentration (in ppm) 𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝜙𝑟𝑓 𝑉𝑐 + 𝐾𝐴 × 106
𝑘𝑄𝑣 𝑃
in an enclosure resulting from
a filling operation and
For many practical situations the evaporation
assumption that T = TL
term KA is much smaller than the
displacement term and can be neglected.
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Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation

Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors: Estimating
Exposures during Vessel Filling Operations - Example
Railroad cars are being splash-filled with toluene. The 10,000-gal cars are being filled at
the rate of one every 8 hr. The filling hole in the tank car is 4 in. in diameter. Estimate the
concentration of toluene vapor as a result of this filling operation. The ventilation rate is
estimated at 3000 ft3/min. The temperature is 77 °F and the pressure is 1 atm. The
saturation vapor pressure of toluene is 0.0371 atm. 𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡
Solution 𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝜙𝑟𝑓 𝑉𝑐 + 𝐾𝐴 × 106
𝑘𝑄𝑣 𝑃
The molecular weight of toluene is 92. The mass transfer coefficient is estimated using
water as a reference

The area of the filling hole is

The evaporation term is then

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Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation

Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors: Estimating
Exposures during Vessel Filling Operations – Example, cont’d

For splash filling the nonideal filling factor φ is 1.0.

The displacement term is then

As expected, the displacement term is much bigger compared to the evaporation term

The concentration is then computed using k as a parameter:

The actual concentration could range from 69 ppm to 344 ppm, depending on the
value of k.
To reduce concentration, subsurface filling, φ = 0.5 is recommended. The
concentration range is then reduced to 35–172 ppm (still above TLV-TWA)
What are other measures to be done to reduce concentration? 31

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

✓ After potential health hazards are identified and evaluated, the appropriate control
techniques must be developed and installed. This requires the application of
appropriate technology for reducing workplace exposures.

✓ The two major control techniques are

- Environmental controls: reduces exposure by reducing the concentration of
toxicants in the workplace environment (e.g. enclosure, local ventilation,
dilution ventilation, wet methods, and good housekeeping, … etc)

- Personal protection: prevents or reduces exposure by providing a barrier

between the worker and the workplace environment. This barrier is usually
worn by the worker, hence the designation “personal” and usually called
Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Industrial Hygiene Methods (1)

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Industrial Hygiene Methods (2)

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Ventilation
✓ For environmental control of airborne toxic material the most common method of
choice is ventilation. Ventilation systems are composed of fans and ducts.
✓ The major disadvantage of ventilation is the operating cost. Substantial electrical energy
may be needed to drive the potentially large fans and these operating costs need to be
considered when evaluating alternatives.
✓ Ventilation is based on two principles: (1) dilute the contaminant below the target
concentration, and (2) remove the contaminant before workers are exposed.

Which is better?

Negative vs positive pressure ventilation

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Ventilation Equipment

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Dilution Ventilation
✓ If the contaminant cannot be placed in a hood and must be used in an open area or
room, dilution ventilation is necessary.
✓ Unlike hood ventilation, where the airflow prevents worker exposure, dilution
ventilation always exposes the worker but in amounts diluted by fresh air.
✓ Dilution ventilation always requires more airflow than local ventilation; operating
expenses can be substantial.

Table 3-15: Nonideal Mixing Factor k for Various Dilution Ventilation Conditions

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Ventilation: Example
Xylene is used as a solvent in paint. A certain painting operation evaporates an estimated
3 gal of xylene in an 8-hr shift. The ventilation quality is rated as average. Determine the
quantity of dilution ventilation air required to maintain the xylene concentration below
100 ppm, the TLV-TWA.
Also, compute the air required if the operation is carried out in an enclosed hood with an
opening of 50 ft2 and a face velocity of 100 ft/min. The temperature is 77°F and the
pressure is 1 atm. The specific gravity of the xylene is 0.864, and its molecular weight is
106.

Solution
The evaporation rate of xylene is

For average ventilation and a vapor concentration of 100 ppm, k = 1/8 = 0.125 (Table 3-15)

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Ventilation: Example, cont’d

For a hood with an open area of 50 ft2, using

assuming a required control velocity of 100 ft/min

The hood requires significantly less airflow

than dilution ventilation and prevents worker
exposure completely.

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Personal Protective Equipment (without Respirators)

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Personal Protective Equipment (Respirators)
Respirators are routinely found in chemical laboratories and plants. Respirators should be
used only
• On a temporary basis, until regular control methods can be implemented
• As emergency equipment, to ensure worker safety in the event of an accident
•As a last resort, in the event that environmental control techniques are unable to
provide satisfactory protection
Respirators always compromise worker ability. A worker with a respirator is unable to
perform or respond as well as a worker without one.

Exposure Type of Respirator

Dust Mouth and nose dust mask
Chemical vapors Mouth and nose with chemical cartridge
Chemical vapors Full face mask with chemical cartridge
Chemical vapors Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
and dusts
✓ Each respirator has limitations. So the choice of the right respirator (with
the right chemical cartridge is essential)
✓ If respirators are used improperly, they do not provide the needed
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protection.

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Industrial Hygiene: Control Head Protection

Personal Protective Equipment Examples (1)

Hearing Protection

Eye Protection

Face Protection

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Industrial Hygiene: Control

Personal Protective Equipment Examples (2)
Torso/Body Protection

Hand Protection

Foot & Leg Protection

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Assignment 3

Problems # (Look in Appendixes for missing data): 3-13; 3-14; 3-19; 3-20; 3-24; 3-33

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