10

Fallling Film
m Vapo
orizer (E
Evaporrator)

10.1. General
G points

10.1.1. Types of falling

f film evaporato
or

In a falling film evaporator, a thin film of liquid fallls along thee interior
walls off vertical tubbes due to thhe action off gravity. These tubes arre heated
from thee outside, geenerally by coondensing stteam.

A prriori, the solvvent vapor foormed by thee system maay be evacuatted from
the uppper or lowerr parts of thhe device. Two
T possiblee configurattions are
shown in
i Figures 100.1 and 10.2.

Figurre 10.1. Rising

g vapor
254 He
eat Transfer in th
he Chemical, Fo
ood and Pharmaceutical Industtries

Figure 10.2.
1 Descend
ding vapor

10.1.2. Performan
nce

Soluutions are gennerally conceentrated by vaporizing

v thhe solvent (ggenerally
water) with
w no risk to t the solute,, which has very
v low (or zero) volatillity.

Howwever, in cerrtain cases, particularly

p when processsing foodstuuffs, the
componnents responssible for the taste
t and arom
ma of the solution – i.e. fflavors –
have a non-negligib
n ble volatility. The behaviior of fallingg film evapoorators in
this casee will now be examined.

Deviices of this type

t are sommewhat uniqu ue in that theey operate ass if each
elementtary volume of liquid were subject to t discontinuuous vaporizzation. In
classic continuous
c diistillation, thee liquid is in equilibrium with
w the totall quantity
of vapoor present at each theorettical plateau. In a fallingg film evaporrator, the
liquid loocated in a seection of thickkness dZ at level
l Z is onlly in equilibriium with
the masss of vapor, which it haas just produ uced in respoonse to heatting. The
average compositionn of the restt of the vapo or in this seection correspponds to
the stagggering of eleementary valuues in equilib brium with seections of liqquid from
the end of the tube oppposite the vaapor outlet up p to level Z.

Moree precisely, the

t evaporatiion of a quan
ntity dL of water
w leads too:
– connversion of a quantity of solute (w
with index i) yidL to thhe vapor
phase;
– an equivalent solute
s reductiion in the liq
quid phase, d(x
d iL).
 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 255

i.e.:

yi dL = x i dL + Ldx i
Furthermore:
dL dx i dx i
= =
L yi − x i ( E i − 1) x i

where Ei = yi/xi is the equilibrium coefficient of the solute.

After integration between the liquid inlet and outlet, we obtain:

( Ei −1)
x is ⎡ Ls ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
x ie ⎣ L e ⎦

And, according to the definition of the vaporization rate v:

Ls
=1− v
Le

Hence:
(1− Ei )
x is ⎡ 1 ⎤
=
x ie ⎢⎣1 − v ⎥⎦

If the solute i is to be retained in the solution, Ei must be low; in all cases,

it is less than 1, i.e. the solute must have a low volatility.

10.1.3. Advantages of falling film evaporators

Experience and calculations have shown that:

– the time during which the liquid is in contact with the hot tube walls is
very short (around 1 s);
– heat transfer is better in film-based devices than with full tube devices;
– heat transfer operates in the same way whether boiling or simple
heating is used, as vapor bubbles are immediately evacuated by the liquid
256 Heat Transfer in the Chemical, Food and Pharmaceutical Industries

film. In other terms, the void coefficient for convective boiling is zero, and
only convection is involved.

Falling film evaporators are therefore suitable for use with:

– heat-sensitive products, particularly foodstuffs;
– low temperature differences between the solution and the heating fluid.

10.2. Tube wetting

10.2.1. Minimum linear charge

The linear charge is the part of the liquid flow in contact with the
perimeter of the tubes. Ponter et al. [PON 67] developed an expression that
gives the minimum linear charge Γm required for sufficient wetting of the
tube surfaces, i.e. a continuous film:
0.2
0.6 ⎛ ρσ ⎞
3
Γ m = 1.12 µ (1 − cosθ ) ⎜ ⎟ [10.1]
⎝ 4 ⎠

Tests carried out by the authors showed that, for unpolished stainless
steel (the material almost exclusively used for falling film evaporator tubes),
the value of cos θ is in the region of 0.7. This value is attained after a few
minutes of operation. Expression [10.1] may therefore be used with a value
of:

cosθ = 0.7

The surface tension of pure water at 20°C is equal to 0.072 kg s−2, but this
value is reduced at higher temperatures and by the presence of solutes. For
foodstuffs, the following value is generally used:

σ = 0.06 kg s −2

The viscosity (µ) is particularly important in heat transfer calculations.

Expression [10.1] shows that Γm is proportional to µ. Falling film
evaporators are only used with products with a viscosity of less than
0.3 Pa s. Above this limit, scraped surface devices should be used.
 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 257

EXAMPLE 10.1.–

ρ = 1,000 kg m−3 µ = 0.01 Pa s g = 9.81 m s−2

σ = 0.06 kg s−2 cosθ = 0.7

0.2
⎡1000 × ( 0.06 )3 ⎤
Γ m = 1.12 × 0.01(1 − 0.7 )
0.6
⎢ −8
⎥
⎢⎣ 10 × 9.81 ⎥⎦

Γ m = 0.1 kg m −1 s −1

Using a value of µ = 0.3 Pa s, without changing any of the other

quantities, the linear load would be 30 times higher.

10.2.2. Maximum linear load

Falling film evaporators are sometimes used to concentrate products that

generate high levels of fouling. The rate of fouling is reduced if the shear
stress of the wall, i.e. the linear load Γ, is increased.

However, the thickness of the liquid film increases as Γ increases, and, to

avoid restricting the flow of vapor in the tube, a limit of 3 kg m−1 s−1 should
be respected for a viscosity of 0.10 Pa s. This corresponds to a film thickness
δ of 2.5 mm. Finally, the limiting criterion for Γ is:
δ = 0.0025 m
As we shall see, δ increases following µ2/3, giving the following
inequality:
µ < 0.3 Pa s

(presuming that the internal diameter of the tube is greater than or equal to
0.035 m).

In practice, to increase the linear load, the concentrate is partially

recycled in the upper part of the tube.
258 Heat Transfer in the Chemical, Food and Pharmaceutical Industries

10.3. Vapor velocity in the tubes

10.3.1. Rising current for vapor

In cases where vapor is evacuated upward, the acceptable velocity is very

low in order to avoid disturbing the liquid film and blocking the device.

Diehl and Koppany developed a method for calculating the maximum

velocity. This method may also be applied to vertical tube condensers used
as dephlegmators, i.e. in which non-condensed elements are brought to the
top, traveling in the opposite direction to the falling condensate film.

The first step in this method is to calculate the critical diameter of the
tube:
σ
dc =
3.15

dc: critical diameter (m)

σ: surface tension of liquid (N m−3)

Tubes used in practice generally have an internal diameter di greater than

the critical diameter.

Next, we calculate coefficients F1 and F2:

If di/dc < 1 F1 = (di/dc)0.4

If di/dc ≥ 1 F1 = 1

F2 is a function of WV/WL at the vapor outlet point.

WV: vapor flow (kg s−1)

WL: liquid flow (kg s−1)

When the vapor exits and the liquid enters, WV/WL = v and F2 = v0.25.
Quantity v is the vaporization rate.

σ
First case : F1F2
ρv
> 2.5 (ρ v : bulk density of the vapor (kg.m −3 ) )
 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 259

The blockage velocity is thus:

σ
VE = 1.22F1F2
ρv

σ
Second case : F1F2 < 2.5
ρv

1.15
⎡ σ⎤
VE = 1.06 ⎢ F1F2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ρ v ⎥⎦

EXAMPLE 10.2.–

ρv = 0.051 kg m−3 (saturated water vapor at 40°C) di = 0.051 m

σ = 0.07 N m−1 WV/WL = 0.2

0.07
dc = = 0.022 m
3.15

From experience, we know that if the selected tubes have an internal

diameter of at least 0.035 m, this diameter is always greater than the critical
diameter. The highest possible value of σ is 0.07, corresponding to pure
water.

F2 = 0.2 0.25 = 0.67

F1 = 1 ( di > d c )
σ 0.07
F1F2 = 1 × 0.67 × = 0.78 < 2.5
ρv 0.051

VE = 1.06 × 0.781.15 = 0.80 m.s −1

This velocity is considerably lower than the value of 60–100 m s−1 which,
as we shall see, is acceptable if the vapor flows in the same direction as the
falling film.
260 Heat Transfer in the Chemical, Food and Pharmaceutical Industries

10.3.2. Descending current for vapors

In cases where the vapor circulates in the same direction as the liquid
film, i.e. downward, a value of 20 may be used for the kinetic factor F:

F = VB ρ v = 20kg1/ 2 .s −1 .m −1/2

VB: velocity of vapor in tubes (m s−1)

ρv: vapor density (kg m−3)

Thus, for saturated water vapor at 40°C, i.e. at the end of a multiple effect
evaporation process, we obtain:

20
VB = = 90 m s −1
0.051

10.4. Heat transfer

10.4.1. Partial transfer coefficient: tube side

The method presented below was developed by Wilke [WIL 56].

The following quantities are used:

1) Reynolds number:
4Γ
Re =
µL

Γ: linear load of the liquid (kg m−1 s−1)

µL: average viscosity of the liquid (Pa s)

2) Thickness of the film:

Re < 1600
1/3 1/3
⎛ 3µ 2 Re ⎞ ⎛ µ2 Re ⎞
δ=⎜ L2 ⎟ = 0.91⎜ L2 ⎟
⎝ 4ρ L ⎠ ⎝ ρL g ⎠
 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 261

ρL: bulk density of the liquid (kg m−3)

g: acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s−2)

Re > 1600
1/3
⎛ µ2 ⎞
δ = ⎜ 2 L ⎟ × Re8/15
⎝ ρL g ⎠

3) Prandtl number of the liquid:

C Lµ L
PrL =
λL

CL: thermal capacity of the liquid (J kg−1.°C−1)

λL: thermal conductivity of the liquid (W m−1°C−1)

Depending on the value of the Reynolds number, the following

relationships may be used to calculate the Nusselt number:

1) Re < 1,600 (laminar flow)

Nu = 0.0293Re0.533 Pr 0.344

2) 1,600 < Re < 3,200

Nu = 0.000212Re1.2 Pr 0.344

3) Re > 3,200
Nu = 0.00181Re0.933 Pr 0.344

Any value of Nu found to be below 1.88 will be rejected and replaced by

a value of 1.88.

The partial transfer coefficient αi inside the tubes, i.e. on the film side, is
written as:

λ
αi = Nu
δ
262 Heat Transfer in the Chemical, Food and Pharmaceutical Industries

EXAMPLE 10.3.–

Γ = 0.08 kg m−1 s−1 µL = 10−3 Pa s

ρL = 1,000 kg m−3 CL = 4,180 J kg−1°C−1

λL = 0.46 W.m−1.°C−1

4 × 0.08
Re = = 320
10−3
1/3
⎛ 10−6 × 320 ⎞
δ = 0.91⎜ 6 ⎟ = 0.29 × 10−3 m
⎝ 10 × 9.81 ⎠

4180 × 10−3
Pr = = 9.81
0.46

Nu = 0.0293 × 3200.533 × 9.10.344

Nu = 2.13

0.46
α= × 2,13
0.29 × 10−3

α = 3 378W.m −2 °C −1

NOTE.–

The following table shows values of α (in W m−2°C−1) obtained by

applying Wilke’s method and taking extreme values of Γ and µL:

Γ (kg.m–1.s–1) 0.08 3

µ (Pa.s)

10–3 3,378 7,782

0.3 432 226

 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 263

For a low linear load and a relatively high viscosity, the value of
coefficient α is not excessively low. This is one of the advantages of the
falling film system.

10.4.2. Overall transfer coefficient

This coefficient is obtained by adding the series resistances:

1 1 e 1
= + +
U αi λ α e

αi: coefficient on film side (W m−2°C−1)

αe: coefficient on exterior of tubes (W m−2°C−1)

e: thickness of tubes (m)

λ: thermal conductivity of tubes (W m−1.°C−1)

EXAMPLE 10.4.–

αi = 3,500 W m−2.°C−1 αe = 4,000 W m−2.°C−1

λ = 17.5 W m−1°C−1 e = 0.0012 m

1 1 0.0012 1
= + +
U 3 500 17.5 4 000

= 1650 W m −2 .°C−1

10.5. Distribution plate

10.5.1. Description

A perforated plate is placed above the uppermost tubular plate. The holes
in this plate open onto the space between the tubes.
264 Heat Transfer in the Chemical, Food and Pharmaceutical Industries

If the tubes are laid out in a triangular formation, holes will be situated on
each side of the triangle and in the center of the triangle, giving 2.5 holes per
half-tube, or 5 holes per tube.

The distribution plate should be covered by several centimeters of liquid

in order to compensate for any horizontal tilt. A relationship exists between
the flow rate and the diameter of the holes. This relationship may take one of
two forms, depending on the viscosity of the liquid.
1) Viscosity of less than 50 centipoises:
The unit flow Qu per hole is:

π
Qu = 0.62 d o2 2gh
4

i.e.:
1/ 2
⎡ 4Q u ⎤
do = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ π × 0.62 2gh ⎥⎦

EXAMPLE 10.5.–

Qu = 1.32 × 10−5 m3.s−3 h = 0.04 m

1/ 2
⎡ 4 × 1.32 × 10−5 ⎤
do = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ π × 0.62 2 × 9.81 × 0.04 ⎦

d o = 0.055 m = 0.5 cm

2) Viscosity of more than 50 centipoises:

An equivalent length Le is calculated before applying the expression of
laminar flow rate in a tube.

Le = d o ( 0.3 + 0.04 Re )

Vo d o ρ L
Re =
µL
 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 265

128µL Q u Le
ΔP =
πd o4

Vo: output velocity through the hole (m s−1)

ρL: bulk density of product (kg m−3)

µL: product viscosity (Pa s)

EXAMPLE 10.6.–

Qu = 10−5 m3 s−1 µL = 0.1 Pa s

do = 0.005 m ρL = 1,000 kg m−3

10−5
Vo = = 5.12 × 10−1 m.s −1
π
× 0.25 × 10−4
4

0.512 × 0.005 × 1000

Re = = 25.6
0.1

Le = 0.005 ( 0.3 + 0.04 × 25.6 ) = 0.0067 m

128 × 0.1 × 10−5 × 0.0067

ΔP =
π × 0.0625 × 10−8

ΔP = 436 Pa

436
h= = 0.044 m = 4.4 cm
1000 × 9.81

10.5.2. Computerized calculation

As we have seen, the overall transfer coefficient may be expressed as a

function of the linear load Γ. The expression of the required tube length LT
can be shown to be a monotonically increasing function of Γ (although the
coefficient αi is not, itself, a monotonic function of the linear load, and has a
266 Heat Transfer in the Chemical, Food and Pharmaceutical Industries

minimum value). Function LT may be inverted easily using classic numerical

methods, allowing us to calculate the linear load corresponding to a given
tube length LT. In practice, a tube length of 7 m is generally used, as
calculations have shown that tubes of 9 or even 12 m in length do not present
a significant economic advantage.

We can then deduce the internal surface area of the evaporator:

LT WL
Si =
Γ

WL: liquid load (kg s−1)

LT: tube length (m)

Two equations are used to calculate the number and diameter of the tubes
required.

The heat transfer surface is written as:

S = N T LT πdi [10.2]

The cross-section through which the vapor passes is:

Wv π
= N T d i2 [10.3]
ρ v VB 4

Dividing [10.3] by [10.2] and rearranging the result, the internal diameter
of the tubes becomes:

4LT WV
di =
ρ v VBS

And the number of tubes:

S
NT =
πd i LT
 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 267

10.5.3. Vapor pressure drop along the tubes

This pressure loss is calculated using the vapor flow rate at the outlet.
Considering that this rate increases from zero in a linear manner along the
length of the vaporization zone, an elementary integration operation shows
that a factor of 1/3 should be inserted into the pressure loss expression.
Finally:

1 ρ V2 L
ΔP = f v B . v where f = 0.03
3 2 di

EXAMPLE 10.7.–

VB ρ v = 20kg1/ 2s −1m −1/ 2 di = 0.035 m Lv = 7 m

1 202 7
ΔP = × 0.03 × ×
3 2 0.035

ΔP = 400 Pa = 4 mbar

NOTE.–

It is advisable to install a cyclone droplet collector to filter vapor in the

lower part of the tube bundle.

10.6. Dimensioning an evaporator

10.6.1. Tube length (preheating a cold feed)

The corresponding tube length Lp is:

ΓCL δt
Lp =
UΔT

δt: desired preheating (°C)

ΔT: mean logarithmic temperature difference between the exterior and

interior of tubes (°C)
268 Heat Transfer in the Chemical, Food and Pharmaceutical Industries

U: overall heat transfer coefficient (W m−2.°C−1)

CL: specific heat capacity of liquid (J kg−1.°C−1)

EXAMPLE 10.8.–

Γ = 0.21 kg s−1 m−1

CL = 2,508 J kg−1.°C−1

Δt = 5°C

U = 464 W.m−2.°C−1

ΔT = 13.5°C

0.21 × 2 508 × 5
Lp =
464 × 13.5

Lp = 0.42 m

10.6.2. Tube length (vaporization part)

The total liquid load of the evaporator in the upper part of the tubes is
Qv/Λv.

Qv: heat transferred during vaporization (W)

Λ: latent vaporization heat (J kg−1)

v: vaporization ratio

The wetted perimeter is therefore:

Qv 1
×
Λv Γ
 Falling Film Vaporizer (Evaporator) 269

The heat transfer equation may be written as:

Qv Lv
Qv = × × ΔT × U
Λv Γ

Hence the length of tube for this part:

ΓΛv
Lv =
UΔT

EXAMPLE 10.9.–

Γ = 0.56 kg s−1 m−1 U = 1,700 W m−2.°C−1

Λ = 2.1 × 106 J kg−1 ΔT = 20°C

v = 0.2

0.56 × 2.1 × 106 × 0.2

Lv = = 6.9 m
1700 × 20