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enabling new reactions. This relatively young technology has received a remarkable
amount of attention in the past decade with many reports on what can be done in flow.
Downloaded via UNIV OF NEW ENGLAND on September 29, 2018 at 13:55:43 (UTC).
Until recently, however, the question, “Should we do this in flow?” has merely been an
afterthought. This review introduces readers to the basic principles and fundamentals of
flow chemistry and critically discusses recent flow chemistry accounts.
6.5. Reductions with DIBAL-H 11845 covers reports only where flow enhancements were exper-
6.6. Electrophilic Trapping for Subsequent Cross- imentally observed or easily inferred from the flow conditions
Coupling Reactions 11845 employed. One of the challenges of discussing flow chemistry,
6.7. Miscellaneous Fast Reactions 11847 however, stems from the difference of interests between
7. Temperature 11849 industry and academia. Industrial interests are largely founded
7.1. Heated Reactions below 100 °C 11850 in cost. With the rising cost of energy, energy management is a
7.2. Heated Reactions between 100 and 200 °C 11851 key element in chemical industry.81 For this reason, a reaction
7.3. Reactions above 200 °C 11857 in flow which can reduce energy input might be particularly
8. Traceless Reagents in Flow: Photo- and Electro- interesting from an industrial perspective, however, is likely
chemistry 11860 irrelevant to an academic whose interest likely pertains to yield
8.1. Photochemistry 11860 or convenience.
8.1.1. Photoexcitation of Substrates 11860 Accordingly, industry’s interest in flow chemistry is outside
8.1.2. Singlet Oxygen-Mediated Reactions 11862 the scope of this review unless the impact in a laboratory can be
8.1.3. Photoredox Catalysis 11864 envisioned. For example, multistep syntheses74 or end-to-end
8.2. Electrochemistry 11868 production82 of active pharmaceutical ingredients is currently
8.2.1. Anodic Oxidation 11868 an attractive area in flow chemistry since these processes have a
8.2.2. Cathodic Reduction 11871 lower space-time demand. However, too much time and
9. Feedback Optimization 11872 resources need to be allocated for the production of one
10. Conclusions 11873 compound for this to be useful for the average synthetic lab.
11. Diagram Legend 11874 Therefore, this literature is not included unless one of the steps
Author Information 11874 illustrates a benefit in flow. Additionally, terms like scale or
Corresponding Authors 11874 scaling in the context of this review refers to laboratory scale
ORCID 11874 reactions transitioning from optimization scale to preparative
Author Contributions 11874 scale. For instance, “easy to scale” in this review should not be
Notes 11874 taken as the progress from discovery to pilot and production
Biographies 11874 scales.
Acknowledgments 11874
References 11874 2. WHY RUN A REACTION IN FLOW?
Continuous flow has affected many fields over the last 20 years,
1. INTRODUCTION and the rapid increase in flow chemistry publications has led to
a vast collection of examples with many authors reporting what
The aim of technology is to enhance or facilitate the ability to can be done utilizing continuous flow conditions. As of late,
complete a task. In chemistry, microfluidic equipment emerged scientists have begun to contemplate which tasks should be
as a technology which aimed to enhance a researcher’s ability to done with continuous flow.16,20,83 In an attempt to help
perform chemical reactions since the small dimensions of the chemists address this question, this section summarizes reaction
reactors provided unique control over key reaction parameters. conditions that can be improved and/or intensified by adopting
At one point the flow community seemingly wanted to phase continuous flow conditions. Our discussion of these reaction
out the round-bottom flask,1 and over the past decade, the field parameters pertain to optimization and preparatory quantities,
of flow chemistry has received remarkable attention.2−79 Even and any scaling benefits refer to the transition from
so, flow chemistry is not implemented in every synthetic optimization to preparatory experiments. In addition, a decision
laboratory. Rather, scientists are left sifting through a vast diagram is constructed from these concepts to facilitate a batch
collection of literature which has been poorly indexed and versus flow verdict. A critical analysis of potential obstacles and
scattered throughout reports with generalized flow enhance- overarching goals is presented to show that while many
ment claims. Among these commonly reported benefits are microscale reactions outperform their batch counterparts, the
better mixing, more efficient heat transfer, and easy scale-up. financial and time costs of some processes outweigh the
While these enhancements are generally true, they are benefits flow has to offer.
occasionally reported with little relevance to the topic of the
paper, leaving readers wondering if it is really worth the time to 2.1. Multiphasic Systems
run the reaction in flow. Recently, Whitesides noted that a clear Many relevant chemical transformations involve multiple
interest in new technology was an underlying problem for this phases (gas−liquid, solid−liquid, liquid−liquid, or solid−
flood of information.80 “It is that the devices that have been liquid−gas). For productive reactivity, efficient phase mixing
developed have been elegantly imagined, immensely stimulat- is necessary. In the case of liquid−liquid reactions, methods
ing in their requirements for new methods of fabrication, and exist to combat poor interfacial mixing via phase-transfer
remarkable in their demonstrations of microtechnology and catalysis (PTC) which shuttle reactants from one phase to the
fluid physics, but they have not solved problems that are other. Several disadvantages, however, prevent this method
otherwise insoluble. Although they may have helped the from being applied universally. Therefore, reactor design is
academic scientist to produce papers, they have not yet important for achieving efficient phase mixing. Generally,
changed the world of those with practical problems in microfluidic systems increase surface area to volume ratios due
microscale analysis or manipulation.” to the decreased size of the reactor. In multiphasic systems, the
The aim of this review is to take a critical look at the past five interfacial area plays an important role in phase transfer which
years of literature and summarize which reports exploit can be rate limiting. For this reason, microfluidic systems tend
microfluidic devices in order to improve the state of synthetic to outperform their batch counterparts. For each of these
chemistry in a research laboratory. To this end, this review multiphasic systems, different multiphase flow regimes exist.
11797 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
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Chemical Reviews Review
by the entire column or channel being filled with a solid Table 1. Interfacial Surface Areas for Various Reactorsa
material so that particle movement is restricted. Liquid flow type of reactor interfacial area (m2 m−3)
within this bed is generally plug flow but can be turbulent at 5 mL round-bottom flask (rbf) b
141
higher flow rates. In a fluidized bed reactor, the particles are 50 mL rbfb 66
free-flowing and suspended within the channel by the turbulent 250 mL rbfb 38
flow of the liquid phase. These reactors offer benefits such as tube reactors, horizontal and coiled 50−700
improved heat distribution, however, are not typically used in a tube reactors, vertical 100−2000
laboratory setting as they are still not completely understood gas−liquid microchannel 3400−18000
and optimal conditions are time-consuming to achieve.84 Mixed a
Reproduced from Mallia et al.59 bCalculated for half-filled round-
beds are a combination of a packed bed and a fluidized bed. a 150
The movement of the solid at the bottom of the reactor is bottom flasks when the liquid is static using, v = 3 .
1/2 3v / 4 π
restricted, while the top layers are suspended and mixed via the
flowing liquid phase. In the context of this review, packed beds sufficient interfacial areas with vigorous stirring, flow conditions
and mixed beds offer the most convenience, owing to the are advantageous, especially if the end-goal is synthetic scale
limited experience required for their set up and use. preparation.
Many different flow regimes can exist for liquid−liquid Additionally, the increased surface area to volume ratio of
mixtures; however, laminar and slug flow are most commonly microreactors effectively increases mass transfer by 2 orders of
described for reactions in microchips and tube reactors (Figure magnitude, enhancing rates of reactions where mass transfer is
3). Laminar flow occurs when parallel phases do not interrupt rate limiting.20 Additionally, Taylor flow is a type of gas−liquid
each other’s longitudinal flow (Figure 3, top). The Reynolds mixing where the slug flow of gas and liquid adopts a certain
number (Re) is a dimensionless mass transfer coefficient that geometry creating a thin film of liquid on the channel wall,
can be used to predict whether the flow conditions lead to separating the gas from the reactor (Figure 4).86 This internal
laminar flow (eq 1). Low flow rates (Q), viscous liquids (high mixing created within the liquid phase increases mass transfer
11798 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
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Chemical Reviews Review
However, for reactions where Da is greater than 1, the reaction reaction. This regime can lead to side-products or dangerous
is faster than mass transport, causing concentration gradients safety issues such as rapid boiling of solvents, occasionally
within the system. Usually, these gradients have adverse effects resulting in an explosion. The small dimensions of tube reactors
on ideal reactor performance and may affect the overall enhance the performance of these reactions not only with
selectivity of the reaction. For instance, mixing greatly better mixing but also with more efficient heat transfer. An
influences a competitive, consecutive side reaction, where A + overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is commonly applied to the
B → C and C + B → S (Da > 1). Since diffusion is slower than calculation of heat transfer in heat exchangers. In this
the rate of the reaction, A and B will react before achieving application, U can be used to determine the heat transfer rate
homogeneity. Local concentrations of B in proximity to C are (q) where A is the heat transfer surface area and ΔTLM is the
created (Figure 5b, middle), which subsequently react to form logarithmic mean temperature difference (eq 4).
higher quantities of side-product S (Figure 5b, right).
q = UAΔTLM (4)
Table 3. Reaction Time Dependence on Temperaturea 2.3.3. Small Temperature Profile. In both high- and low-
temperature reactions, flow chemistry has an edge over
conventional batch chemistry due to the smaller temperature
gradients derived from chips’ and tube reactors’ large surface-
to-volume. Even with conventional conductive heating and
cooling methods, temperature gradients remain small; however,
reactor material plays a role in heat transfer efficiency and needs
to be chosen accordingly to reduce temperature gradients
between inlet and outlet sections of the reactor (Table 4).
2.4. Photo- and Electrochemistry is transmitted past a length of 0.1 cm from the point of incident
Photo- and electrochemistry have reemerged as sustainable light. This means that even in a 1 cm vial, the majority of the
means for synthesis.104,105 Both of these methods provide reaction mixture is not being irradiated. Even after reducing the
“traceless” reagents in the form of photons or electrons and catalyst concentration 10-fold (0.25 mM), there would be ∼1%
electron holes and benefit from the small dimension of flow of the incident light transmitted to the center of the reaction
reactors as well. Flow conditions offer more efficient and vessel. Lowering the concentration of the catalyst, however, will
uniform irradiation of reactions mixtures for photochemistry, also lower the rate. Unfortunately for batch reactors, this trade-
and for electrochemistry, the small dimensions eliminate the off has serious implications, especially for scaling a photo-
need for supporting electrolytes. While both of these processes reaction.
can be scaled to preparative amounts in batch, scaling can be On the other hand, the dimensions of flow reactors fall
more convenient and reproducible in flow.106,107 Finally, these within the region for sufficient exposure to light. For example, a
branches in combination with other flow chemistry benefits 2.5 mM solution of [Ru(bpy)3]Cl2 in methanol would transmit
prove particularly advantageous (gas−liquid reactions and flash >1% of incident light when flushed through tubing with an
chemistry). inner diameter of 0.02 in. (0.5 mm). This means that the
2.4.1. Photochemistry. Photochemical reactions occur reaction will not be limited by the ability of the reagent or
when light provides energy to trigger a reaction. This includes catalyst to absorb light. In addition to better irradiation, all of
chemistry where the excited state of a molecule decomposes, the other benefits of flow chemistry apply. This is particularly
rearranges, or combines with another molecule but can also the case for biphasic gas−liquid photoreactions, where both
include electron transfer chemistry initiated by the excitation of phase mixing and photon absorption can be limiting. For this
a chromophore (photoredox catalysis). The latter is an reason, flow reactors can be highly beneficial to photochemical
attractive method for organic synthesis, owing to the fact that reactions.
these reactions are mediated by visible light, of which starting 2.4.2. Electrochemistry. Organic electrochemistry is a
materials and products generally do not absorb.104,108 Photo- sustainable method to replace stoichiometric oxidants and
chemistry in general relies on efficient irradiation of the reducing agents for organic transformations. The synthetic
reaction mixture. Starting materials, products, photosensitizers, community is increasingly applying this method for the mild
and photocatalysts, at the point of incident light, can all act as conditions and high chemoselectivity it offers.105 Essentially,
filters reducing the light intensity available for the rest of the electrochemical reactions are redox reactions that are mediated
reaction mixture. According to the Beer−Lambert-Bouguer law by the application of an external voltage via the incorporation
(eq 7), this attenuation of light is dependent on the molar of electrodes in the reaction vessel. Within the reaction media,
attenuation coefficient of the molecule (ε) and the concen- molecules are reduced at the cathode and oxidized at the anode.
tration of the molecule (c). Solid electrodes are most often used, but alternatively packed or
fluidized beds can be used.111 In electrochemical analysis,
A = εcl (7) proper placement of the electrodes is not a problem since the
instrumentation employs small electrodes. In bulk electrolysis
To illustrate how attenuation of light affects a reaction, the % methods, however, the placement is critical. Inconsistent ohmic
transmittance of a common photocatalyst, tris(bipyridine)- drops (or IR drops) produce a nonuniform potential across the
ruthenium(II) chloride [Ru(bpy)3]2+, was plotted against the working electrode which can cause undesired side reactions or
path length for different concentrations (Figure 8). For a ineffective use of the total electrode area.112
typical catalyst concentration (2.5 mM), less than 0.1% of light Another challenge bulk electrolysis faces are high cell
resistances. This is particularly a problem when nonaqueous
solvents are used since they have lower dielectric constants than
water and therefore lower conductivities. As most organic
transformations are performed in an organic solvent,
supporting electrolytes are used to improve the conductivity
of the solution. Since large scale reactions can require one or
more equivalents by weight, this can be costly and is
counterproductive to sustainability.113,114 While some recycla-
ble electrolytes are available, eliminating the need for them
would be ideal. Even with supporting electrolytes, however,
batch scale up can lead to an undesirable evolution of heat
caused by larger distances between electrodes. For these
reasons, scaling electrochemistry, even on a laboratory scale, is
not trivial.
Flow chemistry offers solutions to these problems.40 First,
the associated resistance can be described by eq 8, where I is
the current, Rdrop is the electrolyte ohmic resistance, i is the
current density, d is the distance between electrodes, and κ is
the specific ionic conductivity. The distance between electrodes
and conductivity of electrolytes are directly proportional,
Figure 8. % transmittance109 plotted against the path length for therefore if the distance between electrodes is reduced 10-
[Ru(bpy)3]Cl2 in methanol (ε = 14600 M−1 cm−1).110 The dashed fold, the conductivity of the electrolytes can similarly be
vertical line represents the inner diameter of 0.02 in. tubing (0.5 mm). reduced. For this reason, the small dimensions of flow reactors
% T = 100% × 10(−εcl). permit the removal of supporting electrolytes. As such,
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Batch electrochemistry setups can suffer from unwanted heat reactor temperature can easily be changed and precise control
formation necessitating the use of a heat exchanger. Generally, of the reaction time can be varied via flow rates.
heat exchangers add or remove heat by passing a fluid over a Further analysis of the reaction involves multiphasic systems.
surface. Flow electrochemistry setups are advantageous to batch Generally, flow reactions outperform batch reactions when one
setups because the reaction mixture is essentially a heat of the reagents is a gas. The headspace to solvent ratio is lower
exchanger fluid. The continuous flow of the reaction mixture and pressurizing the reactor increases the solubility of the gas in
over the surface of the electrodes permits operation at quasi- solution. Small-scale pressurized batch reactions are feasible;
isothermal conditions, offering better control over reaction however, preparative scales are not possible or are dangerous.
temperatures. This, in combination with continuous removal of Circumstances involving solids can be broken into three
products and other impurities, can result in higher current categories. First, a batch setup is more convenient when
yields and better product qualities.115 precipitation drives a reaction to completion. Precipitation in
Finally, in the case of gas formation, flow conditions can flow frequently results in the mixer, channel, or pressure
outperform batch setups. Under batch conditions, the regulator clogging. While specialized equipment exists for
formation of gas bubbles on the surface of the electrode can preventing clogging, there is no universal solution to this
lead to temporary or even permanent areas of low conductivity, problem and troubleshooting involves a higher degree of
resulting in the formation of heat and reduced performance. engineering experience. Similarly, the accurate delivery of
Coalescence of gas bubbles in a microreactor has an overall suspensions remains a challenge for laboratory scales with
opposite effect to performance. As gas bubbles grow inside the reagents which are insoluble in the reaction medium. In this
microreactor, gas−liquid slug flow is created, increasing mass scenario, batch reactions are more convenient and reliable. For
transfer by Taylor flow (section 2.1.1.).116 Continuous addition reactions with heterogeneous catalysts, on the other hand, flow
of the reaction mixture forces the slugs through the reactor, conditions are preferred. Packed beds simulate high catalyst
removing the gas which could otherwise be detrimental to the loadings, reducing reaction times and performing especially well
electrolysis. under triphasic conditions.
2.5. Batch Versus Flow Analysis
Likewise, two considerations should be taken into account
for liquid−liquid reactions. In batch, vigorous stirring can
Flow conditions are not the cure-all for chemistry. This section efficiently produce emulsions and the setup is also simpler in
has pointed out that flow is advantageous for certain batch. These emulsions, however, are less homogeneous in
transformations; however, developing a flow process can be terms of droplet size. Therefore, when homogeneous, highly
time-consuming. For this reason, a flow versus batch analysis reproducible emulsions are required, flow conditions are
must be conducted in order to strike a balance between necessary. Fields producing droplets and particles take
convenience and achieving the overall goal. Since a flow versus advantage of flow in particular because narrower size
batch decision is never black and white, to pigeonhole similar distributions can be obtained.117 In flow, there are tortured
reactions as batch or flow would be foolhardy. However, several path reactors which maintain emulsions via turbulent mixing;
generalizations can be made in order to expedite a cost-benefit however, for convenience, a batch reaction is a better starting
analysis. For this decision diagram (Figure 9), discovery and point unless scaling is the issue.
preparative scales are taken into consideration. Other considerations mostly pertain to the reaction’s rate
First, a safety assessment is a suitable starting point. and selectivity. For extremely fast reactions mixing is very
Hazardous materials, heat exchange, and pressurized reactions important. Generally, these reactions are performed in batch by
pose safety hazards in which flow conditions can alleviate or cooling the reactor to a temperature in which no reactions are
nullify risks. Chip reactors, in particular, allow chemists in the occurring, followed by reagent addition. After brief stirring to
discovery phase to work with very small quantities of hazardous reach homogeneity, the reaction mixture is warmed up to a
materials, reducing exposure risks for the chemist. Additionally, temperature in which the reaction can occur. For small scale
built in quenches avoid equipment manipulations, eliminating preparations, batch is convenient. For preparative scales,
human error which can result in spills. Finally, the small however, some reactions are lower yielding due to poorer
dimensions of flow reactors promote efficient heat exchange mixing and/or heat transfer. Generally, in flow, faster mixing
and are conducive to high-pressure conditions, reducing and better heat transfer will benefit the yield of fast, exothermic
dangers involved with runaway reactions and “extreme” reactions greatly. Similarly, selectivity can be enhanced in flow
conditions, respectively. as well. Since flow reactors generally have a narrower
The next question requires an evaluation of one’s over- temperature profile than batch reactors, side reactions close
arching goals. For “safe” reactions that are already reported in in energy to the desired reaction can be reduced or eliminated.
batch, a chemist must decide whether or not literature Additionally, for extremely slow reactions, intensification of
conditions meet a project’s needs. If it is not broken, do not reaction conditions can produce compounds in a timely
fix it. Nonetheless, some discovery scale procedures may not be fashion. While sealed vessels are a convenient small scale
conducive to preparative scales. As such, the immediate goal option, preparative scale high-temperature, high-pressure
should also be taken into consideration. For new trans- reactions are much safer in flow.
formations, it is more convenient to screen reagents, solvents, Finally, reactions which are photochemically or electro-
and additives in batch. All of these variables can be tested chemically driven benefit from flow conditions. The Beer−
simultaneously, whereas they must be done sequentially in flow. Lambert−Bouguer law describes the attenuation of light as path
One exception might be screening conditions where starting length increases. Therefore, reaction mixtures will experience
materials are scarce. Here, small volume chip reactors enable a more uniform irradiation in flow because of the small
chemist to perform and analyze a large number of reactions dimensions of the reactor. If reactions employ gas−liquid
using minimal quantities of a reagent. Additionally, temperature mixtures, flow conditions offer further enhancements. Electro-
and time optimizations are generally easier in flow because the chemistry also benefits from the small dimensions of flow
11804 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
Chem. Rev. 2017, 117, 11796−11893
Chemical Reviews Review
conditions. Since reactions can be carried out without the redesign and optimization steps, however, generally
supporting electrolytes, the cost may be reduced and the struggles to screen continuous parameters effectively. In
purification simplified. Continuous removal of products and addition, only the experiment execution step is expedited and
improved mass transfer can also benefit the product quality. many parameters are tested which are unlikely to work or be
Additionally, scaling the reaction to multiple grams can be more informative.
convenient for flow via simply extending the operation time of Inline and online analytics permit feedback optimization,
the flow process. This is equally the case for photochemistry, accelerating the entire central loop (Figure 10, green).
where the attenuation of light is problematic for large Continuous parameters are conveniently screened in flow.
dimension reaction vessels. The reaction time and the concentration are modulated by the
2.6. Automation solvent and reagent flow rates, and the reactor temperature is
adjusted by a heating or cooling unit. These parameters can be
As technologies become more developed and commercialized,
adjusted in real-time, avoiding the need for the setup of
they may shift from high-cost/limited-benefit laboratory
individual batch reactions. Recent reports on “black box” and
methods to tools for expediting research. While some of
various kinetic optimizations have demonstrated the power of
these processes are being developed mostly for industrial
automated feedback optimizations;120 however, like non-
purposes, others aim to enhance discovery and synthesis for
automated flow processes are unable to effectively screen
research laboratories. Currently, these methods are not practical
discrete variables. Collecting data and determining an optimal
for the average laboratory. Automated feedback optimization
starting point is becoming an important part of cheminfor-
was chosen as an emerging reason to perform flow chemistry
matics. In combination with continuous flow optimization,
since recent progress in this field has shown promise for the
these two fields could expedite black box optimization, saving
everyday chemist. Currently, however, the equipment and
significant time and money for the chemists.
process setup are too costly for the occasional user. These areas
currently target very specific tasks and usually require a larger
3. ANATOMY OF A FLOW REACTION
engineering effort. Even so, this area is showing promise for
reducing the time of reaction optimization. In the previous section, the reasons for performing a process
The scientific method is a thought process for testing utilizing flow chemistry methodologies were presented and
hypotheses and obtaining new knowledge. A reaction discussed based on the characteristics of the respective chemical
optimization follows this method (Figure 10). A researcher transformation. Once the decision for the development of a
continuous process is made, a flow unit suiting the specific
requirements of the transformation needs to be designed.
Developing a novel reaction system in flow, or conducting a
known chemical transformation using this enabling technology,
is not, at least initially, as trivial as utilizing traditional batch
techniques where the respective reagents are simply dissolved
or suspended in a solvent and stirred at a defined temperature
until the limiting reagent is consumed. A continuous flow
process is significantly more complex from a technological
point of view, which may explain why, in the previous century,
this technique was predominantly used only in bulk chemical
processing and engineering sciences. However, around the turn
of the millennium, interest in continuous processing began to
increase in the synthetic chemistry community. This rise
resulted from the considerable advantages offered over
traditional round-bottomed-flask chemistry and/or the access
given to otherwise forbidden or impossible transformations. In
the subsequent years, a plethora of relatively simple and user-
Figure 10. Scientific method and the role of automation. friendly reactor setups have been introduced which are
dedicated for synthetic applications on the laboratory scale
ranging from home-built systems to fully integrated commercial
identifies a target reaction, collects literature on how similar equipment.
reactions were carried out, and creates a hypothesis about the For those who wish to apply this enabling technology and are
best conditions to start the reaction optimization. Currently, a not yet familiar with flow chemistry techniques, a detailed
chemist designs and executes experiments then collects and description of all parts necessary for developing a flow reactor
analyzes data. Depending on the outcome of the original unit will be given in this section. In order to give the reader an
experiments, the chemist changes certain parameters in order to idea of the potential of such devices, the key features of each
test their effects on the desired outcome. These parameters can component will be discussed in detail with a particular focus on
be categorized as continuous or discrete. Continuous their applicability in synthetic organic chemistry. This review
parameters include the reaction time, temperature, and will not discuss fully integrated commercial flow reactors. For
concentration, while discrete parameters are variables such as recent contributions which cover this topic, see Glasnov and
solvent, catalyst, or ligand. Recently, high-throughput exper- Darvas et al.76,121
imentation (HTE) has accelerated the discovery of new Flow chemistry is a modular technique which provides a
reactions and drugs by increasing the number of experiments, toolbox for synthetic chemists. A typical continuous flow setup
in particular, screening of discrete parameters.33,119 HTE for synthetic applications can be broken down into eight basic
provides researchers with a vast amount of data, accelerating zones: fluid and reagent delivery, mixing, reactor, quenching,
11805 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
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Chemical Reviews Review
Figure 11. Zones of a standard two-feed continuous flow setup. For definitions of the individual flow elements, see the diagram legend at the end of
the review.
pressure regulation, collection, analysis, and purification (Figure control is, in most instances, achieved by pressure-driven flow
11). techniques (hydrodynamic pumping), where a pressure differ-
First, a fluid and reagent delivery system is necessary to ence between the inlet and the outlet of the reactor unit is
accurately feed the respective substances into the flow system. created.8,76 In other words, the fluid delivery system always
These feeds are combined in the next module by a dedicated needs to be able to surpass the pressure set by the pressure
mixing device before entering the reactor unit where the regulation module (section 3.6), and different methods are
chemical reaction occurs. This core unit is directly connected to available for the delivery of homogeneous and heterogeneous
a quenching module, which allows for accurate control of the solutions as well as gases (vide infra).
residence time. Elevated pressure regimes are easily achieved 3.2.1. Liquid Delivery. The vast majority of flow chemistry
with a pressure regulator, usually located immediately before reactor units incorporate at least one liquid delivery unit.
the final collection of the product stream. In addition, several Depending on the flow rate, the system pressure, and the
tools for analysis,120,122−125 as well as continuous purification nature of the liquid phase, three different types of pumps are
modules can be implemented.126 Importantly, all of these commonly utilized (Figure 12).129
individual parts can be arranged interchangeably and
repetitively, resulting in an infinite number of possible
modifications. Highly complex multistep sequences can be
applied to natural product synthesis or on-demand production
of pharmaceuticals.32,82
3.1. Connecting Flow Zones
Standardized connections between zones make interchange-
ability a strength of flow chemistry. Generally, the connections
between the different basic zones consist of tubings and
nonwetted parts, such as nuts and ferrules used to securely
attach the tubing to each respective unit. In most cases, all the
components required for connecting the modules are identical
to those used in standard HPLC devices and are therefore
readily available.
The dimensions and composition of the tubing are crucial
since it is in direct contact with the reagent stream. Physical
parameters like the desired system pressure and chemical
compatibility must be considered. In general, for low and
medium pressure applications (<30 bar), inert perfluorinated
polymers (PTFE, PFA, PEEK, and FEP) are adequate. High-
pressure processes (e.g., reactions far above the boiling point of
the reaction medium or reactions using supercritical solvents)
require more robust materials such as stainless steel or special
alloys.17,27,127 For specific applications, especially in case of
microfluidic reactor units and lab-on-a-chip devices, more
sophisticated interfaces may be necessary. These devices are
beyond the scope of this review and have been discussed
elsewhere.3,128
3.2. Fluid and Reagent Delivery
Precise control over the movement of fluids is important for a
continuous flow process; it not only regulates the residence Figure 12. Principle components of liquid pumps commonly used in
time but also influences the stoichiometry if two or more flow chemistry. (a) HPLC pumps. (b) Syringe pumps (single and
reagent streams are combined in a subsequent mixing unit. This dual). (c) Peristaltic pump.
mixers) or special flow arrangements to induce chaotic mixing mixing process and often require micromixers in order to
by eddy formation.5,138 obtain the best possible result; type B reactions, occurring
Another micromixing technique involves splitting each between 1 s and 10 min, can also benefit from microstructured
stream into multiple segments followed by rotation and devices, but mixing is not as crucial; and for type C reactions
recombination (split and recombine, SAR). By repeating this where the reaction time is greater than 10 min, mixing is not
procedure several times, a multitude of small segments is important, and such reactions should be only considered for
created with the effect of shortening the diffusion distance.5,138 flow if a continuous process would provide other advantages
Alternatively, multilamination type micromixers are commonly such as process intensification or increased safety.
used for mixing-controlled reactions (Figure 14). In these 3.3.2. Multi-Phase Reactions. Biphasic liquid/liquid or
gas/liquid reactions are extremely appealing for continuous
applications as a high interfacial area can be generated. In
general, the same junctions or micromixers are used as for
single-phase reactions, with T- or Y-mixers being most
common for laboratory scale flow devices. Once combined,
the type of flow patterns (section 2.1) depend on the channel
characteristics, respective fluid(s) properties, and the flow rates
of the two phases.
Figure 14. Multilamination mixers operate through the splitting of The slug flow arrangement commonly generated creates
streams into a multitude of smaller laminae, vastly increasing the toroidal currents in each slug providing enhanced mixing and
interfacial areas to enhance diffusive mixing. increased mass transfer (section 2.1). If the flow rate of one
fluid is significantly faster than the other, annular regimes can
microstructured devices, the liquid feeds are split into a high be observed (section 2.1). With gas/liquid phases, more
number of small streams, which are then allowed to interact, specialized designs such as falling-film microreactors and gas
greatly increasing the contact area and thus facilitating diffusion permeable membrane reactors are available, combining mixing
(Scheme 3).5 and reaction modules.59 The latter has become an increasingly
An example exploiting multilamination mixing, and an popular technique, as a homogeneous (saturated) solution of
excellent example of mixing in general, was given by Yoshida the respective gas in the reaction medium is obtained which can
and co-workers in 2005.139 During their study on the mixing be easily handled in subsequent downstream processes.30
controlled Friedel−Crafts acylation of reactive aromatics with Among several different designs, the commercially available
N-acyliminium ions, the authors observed relatively low yields “tube-in-tube” setup developed by Ley and colleagues is the
for the monoalkylated product 2a with a T-shaped micromixer most widely used.50
(36%) and even with an SAR mixing unit (50%, Table 5). In principle, this device consists of a gas-permeable Teflon
AF-2400 membrane tubing (inner tube) that is fixed within
Table 5. Effect of Different Micromixers on the Friedel- larger impermeable tubing (outer tube) (Figure 15). These
Crafts Acylation N-Acyliminium Ions tubes are separated by T-pieces allowing for an independent
feed of both channels. Only gaseous reagents can pass the
membrane, which can either react with substrates in the liquid
phase or simply saturate the solvent for subsequent use. Jensen
and co-workers recently communicated a quantitative model Chip reactors are usually machined from silicon, glass,
for predicting gas and substrate concentration profiles in the ceramics, or stainless steel by specialized techniques and, in
tube-in-tube gas addition unit. Despite the aforementioned strong contrast to coil-based reactor systems, such systems
advantages, the authors concluded the general applicability of often incorporate a mixing section within one microfabricated
the device is limited due to the low gas loading, insufficient unit (Figure 17).153 Recent advances in 3D printing have made
radial mixing, and heating characteristics.141
Finally, active mixing techniques are used for multiphase
reactions predominantly when solids are generated during the
mixing of two streams to avoid clogging.135,136 In many
instances, the most straightforward way to overcome such
blocking issues is by submerging the mixing unit in an
ultrasonic bath.142 Ultrasonication or mechanical agitation is
also commonly used for reactions in which the precipitate is
slowly formed in the reactor unit.143−148 Moreover, active
mixing by magnetic stirring in a specialized device has been
applied to solid/liquid and liquid/liquid/gas reactions by the
Ley group.149,150
Figure 17. A silicon chip reactor with an integrated mixing section.152
3.4. Reactor Unit
This is core unit of every flow system where the chemical such integrated reactor design fast, convenient, and easy.154
reaction occurs. The reactors can generally be divided into The choice of material depends both on chemical compatibility
three main types: chip, coil, and packed bed reactors (Figure and type of chemistry. Photochemical transformations can be
16). performed when the chip is constructed from a light permeable
material such as glass.64 Additionally, certain materials allow for
the immobilization of a catalyst on the channel wall, providing
access to reactions which are heterogeneous. As an illustrative
example for the versatility of chip reactors, Boyle and co-
workers fabricated a glass chip reactor for the production and
utilization of singlet oxygen (1O2).155 The surface of the
channel was functionalized with a free amine via silanization.
An isothiocyanate-functionalized porphyrin was subsequently
reacted, resulting in a photosensitizer-functionalized channel
wall (Scheme 1). The proof of concept study nicely
or 1/16″ and various inner diameters (0.01″, 0.02″, 0.03″, dedicated, resealable end pieces which incorporated a filter frit
0.04″, 1/16″, etc.). The selection of the right material depends (Figure 19).
on the respective application (Table 6).
Figure 22. Working principle of (a) preset and (b) adjustable back
pressure regulators.
4.2. Common Problems processes, (ii) particulate fouling due to accumulation of solids
In flow chemistry, as in every experiment, there are things on the channel surface, (iii) chemical reaction fouling via
which can go wrong. This section gives a brief overview of deposition of materials resulting from chemical reactions, and
common mistakes and pitfalls during continuous flow processes (iv) corrosion fouling.176 Some of these processes, such as
which usually can be avoided. corrosion and chemical reaction fouling can be avoided by
Various process conditions can be changed for the using materials which are inert to the corresponding reagents or
development/optimization of a continuous flow process. In conditions.176 Crystallization and particulate fouling events, on
the case of a simple, completely homogeneous reaction the other hand, are less easily handled. Droplet reaction
involving two separate reagent streams, these would be the techniques can minimize particle−wall interactions and
two respective flow rates (ν1, ν2) and reagent concentrations suppress fouling.7,176−178 Additionally, “in situ cleaning” via
(c1, c2), the reactor volume (V), the temperature (T), and the ultrasonication can be used to tackle reactor fouling during a
system pressure (p) (Figure 26). chemical reaction.145,176 On the other hand, more difficult
clogging issues may require specialized reactors such as the
agitated cell reactor (section 3.4.5).147 To avoid clogging at the
BPR, an additional solvent may be introduced in order to
dissolve the precipitate after the reactor unit. Alternatively, Parr
bomb collection vessels can be employed when dissolution is
not feasible or desirable.163,164
Figure 26. Adjustable conditions for a simple two-feed flow process. The following sections highlight the advances reported in the
past five years exploiting flow chemistry to enhance reactions.
These reports were selected based on the batch versus flow
Notably, varying some of these conditions may entail other decision diagram (section 2.5). The schemes summarize the
parameter changes. For instance, if a single flow rate is altered equipment used to carry out each transformation, and a legend
but all other parameters stay constant not only will the of the flow components can be found at the end of this review.
stoichiometry be different but also the final concentration and
the residence time. Consequently, it is sometimes not clear 5. MULTIPHASIC REACTIONS
which of the parameter changes cause the desired or undesired
change in the process outcome, which is significant for Multiphase reactions involve the combination of two or more
optimization. Usually, the reactor volume (V) can be changed immiscible phases. Mass transfer is often the rate-determining
without altering other conditions if the reactor material and step in this class of reactions, and therefore, such trans-
inner diameters are kept constant. Temperature changes may formations can benefit from micro- or mesofluidic flow devices.
require adjustments of the pressure if processes are conducted The improved interfacial area is the main reason for doing such
above the boiling point of the reaction medium. Special care transformations in a continuous flow regime. Importantly, in
has to be taken in the case of processes where gases are used or many cases, this reason overlaps with other strategies (high
generated since pressure changes affect the solubility of gases temperature/pressure, safety, etc.) to improve the respective
and consequently can influence the residence time. process. In this section, multiphase literature examples are
Before starting any flow process, the user should understand discussed.
the system limitations of all units in order to avoid equipment 5.1. Gas−Liquid Reactions
troubles. Problems and reproducibility issues are often related
to the pumping system. Many syringe and peristaltic pumps are Laboratory-scale batch approaches involving gaseous reagents/
not capable of working at high system pressures, and severe reactants are usually carried out using a round-bottomed flask
problems such as stalling can occur. Piston pumps, on the other equipped with a septum and a balloon containing the respective
hand, function well under high pressure, however, may give gas. These reactions are often inefficient as they suffer from a
irreproducible results at lower flow rates. Moreover, small small interfacial area and are restricted to the boiling point of
particles, bubbles, and variations in the liquid phase can affect the reaction solvent or atmospheric pressure if no dedicated
check valves and wetted parts, interrupting or stopping fluid pressurizable stirred reactor is available. For these reasons,
delivery. Priming the pumps and filtration of the liquid phase chemical reactions involving gases can be generally seen as one
can reduce the risk of these problems. Sample loops for reagent of the ideal classes of transformations for continuous flow
injection can assist with overcoming such issues. Various chemistry.59
commercially available pumping systems come with an The solubility of the gas in the reaction medium can be
integrated monitoring system capable of detecting incorrect significantly increased in flow by placing the system under
pumping or stalling and are helpful for troubleshooting pressure (section 2.1). By using dedicated tools such as mass
unsuccessful or irreproducible experiments. flow controllers or tube-in-tube mixing units, accurate and
The operation of a flow reactor, especially at higher reproducible dosing of the gas into the continuous flow reactor
pressures, can lead to leaking, which not only causes pressure makes handling easier and enables the user to precisely regulate
fluctuations but also imposes severe safety risks when using the reaction stoichiometry. Toxic gases such as CO35 and
toxic and hazardous reagents. Therefore, connections should be explosive gas−liquid mixtures such as organic solvents with
carefully checked before starting a flow reaction. O266,179−181 pose safety hazards. These risks can be minimized
One of the main limitations for continuous processing is in flow mode as reactions are scaled over time rather than over
fouling and/or clogging of the flow unit, which can happen at volume, meaning the amount of dangerous reagent(s) exposed
virtually any place in the flow device.46 Fouling of flow reactor to the reaction conditions is considerably less in flow than in
units can be, depending on its origin, classified into (i) batch. Moreover, highly reactive or toxic gaseous reagents such
crystallization fouling as a result of crystallization or freezing as phosgene or diazomethane can be generated on-demand and
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Chemical Reviews Review
subsequently used in downstream processes, avoiding their High conversions for several aryl iodides were obtained at
storage and transportation.59 100 °C within 37.5 min at a back pressure of 6.9 bar utilizing
Consequently, a plethora of gases has been extensively Pd(OAc)2 in combination with Xantphos, Et3N, and MeOH.
utilized in continuous flow mode. As mentioned in section Less reactive aryl bromides necessitated a different solvent (1,4-
3.3.2, the tube-in-tube gas loading tool for saturating the liquid dioxane), higher back pressure (15 bar), and hydrazine to
stream with a gaseous reagent or mass flow controllers in facilitate the Pd(II) reduction. Even still, electron-rich
combination with mixing units are predominantly used for bromobenzene derivatives suffered from low conversions.
laboratory applications. Slug flow patterns generated with an Further modifications of the reaction conditions enabled the
MFC are the predominant regime unless otherwise stated. Gas/ methoxycarbonylation of vinyl iodides (r.t. instead of 100 °C)
liquid reactions involving photochemical activation will be and intramolecular coupling reactions (no additional nucleo-
discussed in section 5. phile, addition of hydrazine) in the continuous flow mode. By
5.1.1. Carbon Monoxide. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a changing the nucleophile from methanol to amines, several
colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas which is extremely toxic, amides were synthesized in good-to-excellent yields in the
even at low concentrations. Nevertheless, this hazardous gas is presence of 10 mol % hydrazine. Furthermore, the authors
an important C1 building block offering the possibility to install adapted the reactor setups for the utilization of water and
a carbonyl group into organic molecules via the transition metal gaseous MeNH2, showcasing the modularity of their flow
catalyzed formation of two new σ-bonds.182−184 Various approach.
research groups have evaluated the feasibility of continuous While safer than batch protocols, Ley’s conditions still
flow chemistry as a safe and efficient tool for catalytic required pressurized CO canisters as a gas source. An
carbonylation reactions using gaseous CO35,185−191 and CO alternative approach is the on-demand generation of CO
surrogates.150,192,193 from surrogates such as 2,4,6-trichlorophenyl formate192 or
A very general procedure for continuous palladium-catalyzed oxalyl chloride.150 Arguably, the most sustainable CO source is
carbonylations was presented by Ley and co-workers using a formic acid, which can be dehydrated in the presence of sulfuric
tube-in-tube gas loading tool in combination with a coil reactor acid.194 This strategy was applied to the continuous Koch-Haaf
(Scheme 3).190 The initial design suffered from precipitation of reaction of adamantols195 and Pd-catalyzed Heck carbon-
ylations.193 The latter example was first carried out in a two-
Scheme 3. General Flow Approach for Palladium-Catalyzed chamber batch reactor invented by the Skydstrup group
Carbonylations Using a Tube-in-Tube Gas Loading Tool (Scheme 4a).196 This reactor unit enables an ex situ generation
the proof-of-concept study demonstrated that the presented particles most likely originating from imprecise temperature
flow approach may be a promising option to scale the chemistry control and/or local overheating. Moreover, a comparison of
developed in the dual-chamber reactor. different coil reactors (i.d.: 1 or 0.5 mm) showed significantly
Fukuyama et al. described a continuous synthesis of dienol better results for the reactor with a smaller inner diameter,
silyl ether 13 from (1-trimethylsilyl)allyllithium 14 and CO via rationalized by the smaller segments and thus an increased
a 1,2-anionic silicon shift (Scheme 5).197 In the optimized flow interfacial area. The turnover numbers were reported to be
relatively low, however (>5 in flow compared to <1 in batch).
Scheme 5. Generation of 1-Silylallyllithium Intermediates 5.1.2. Carbon Dioxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a very
Followed by Gas-Liquid Carbonylation and Inline attractive building block not only because it is widely abundant
Quenching and inexpensive but also since it is nontoxic and nonflammable.
It is however only a weak electrophile, thus requiring strong
nucleophiles for noncatalytic transformations.199 As such,
several groups have investigated the use of CO2 with Grignard
reagents 162,200,201 and organolithium compounds in
flow.202−204 Kupracz et al. developed a continuous synthesis
of the antidepressant amitriptyline.205 The key step in this
synthetic route is the synthesis of dibenzosuberone 18 from 1-
bromo-2-(bromomethyl)benzene 16 (Scheme 7). The reaction
Scheme 8. Catalytic Synthesis of Cyclic Carbonates from filled packed bed reactor. A residence time of 45 min for the
CO2 and Epoxides in Continuous Flow first step and 40 min for the carboxylation was sufficient for the
synthesis of several cyclic carbonates from the corresponding
styrenes or aliphatic olefins. The main limitation of the protocol
is that polar olefins/epoxides which are miscible with water are
not compatible with the membrane separation strategy.
Moreover, analysis of the organic and aqueous phases after
the epoxidation step revealed similar rhenium concentrations in
both, preventing the authors from developing an efficient
recycling strategy.
Carbon dioxide can be utilized to convert photochemically
generated α-amino nitriles into N,N-unsubstituted hydantoins
which have a number of applications as, for example, herbicides
or fungicides (Scheme 10).209 Initial experiments at room
followed by an anionic oxidation step. Depending on the Kappe and co-workers used a mixture of hydrazine hydrate
substrate, the solvent was important for high conversion. While and O2 in a high T/p environment for the reduction of olefins
2-picoline gave the best results in a mixture of dimethoxyethane in flow (Scheme 14a).218 Oxidation of hydrazine yields a highly
and THF, 3-picoline was oxidized smoothly in DMPU/THF.
The 4-substituted analog, on the other hand, worked equally in Scheme 14. Continuous Generation of Diazene and Its
both solvent systems. Utilization for the Reduction of (a) Alkenes, (b) Artemisinic
Pure oxygen has been used to study a catalyst-free oxidation Acid 21, and (c) Thebaine 24
of aldehydes at room temperature in a coil reactor unit
(Scheme 12).212 The reaction is known to take place in three
Scheme 15. Pd-Catalyzed Aerobic Oxidation of 14- Scheme 17. Aerobic Anti-Markovnikov Wacker Oxidation in
Hydroxymorphinone in Continuous Flow Flow
5.1.4. Ozone. The oxidative cleavage of unsaturated and azides to give the corresponding nitro compounds
molecules via ozonolysis is a powerful technique with a (Scheme 21).243 Importantly, HOF·MeCN has a half-life of
plethora of synthetic applications.233 Nevertheless, safety just 4 h, which makes its continuous generation from water and
concerns force chemists to look for alternative synthetic fluorine potentially interesting for other applications.244
strategies. Flow reactors provide an opportunity to tame this
reaction, as presented by the Ley lab during the early Scheme 21. On-Demand Synthesis of HOF·MeCN
development of the tube-in-tube gas addition unit.234 Later,
Gavriilidis and co-workers used a coil reactor setup and a wavy-
annular regime for the ozonolysis of several alkenes to obtain
moderate-to-excellent yields of the desired aldehydes in
seconds (Scheme 19).235,236 The scope was expanded to
delivered Cl2, which was extracted with CHCl3 in a liquid− Scheme 26. Palladium-Catalyzed Mizoroki-Heck Couplings
liquid slug flow regime. A membrane separator was used to of Aryl Iodides and Ethylene
obtain a solution of Cl2 in CHCl3 which was used for the direct
chlorination of silanes and the selective oxidation of secondary
alcohols using an in situ formed chlorine-pyridine complex.
While excellent conversions and selectivities were observed for
the latter transformation, the isolated yields were relatively low
after purification.
Hessel and colleagues used gaseous HCl for the chlorodehy-
droxylation of alcohols at elevated temperatures and pressures
(Scheme 24).247 Special care had to be taken to eliminate by adding the electron rich tert-Bu3P·HBF4 ligand salt. During
an extensive optimization study, the authors realized that
Scheme 24. Chlorodehydroxylation of Alcohols Using addition of substoichiometric amounts of tetrabutylammonium
Gaseous HCl iodide and Cy2NMe improved the conversion significantly
leading to a reaction time of 20 min at 130 °C and 20 bar. With
the optimized conditions in hand, several (hetero)aryl iodides
were converted into the corresponding styrene derivatives in
good-to-excellent yields and selectivity. Aryl bromides, on the
other hand, gave poor conversions under all tested conditions.
To increase the versatility of their methodology, the authors
moisture from the gas delivery system to avoid corrosion. This further telescoped their flow system for the synthesis of
was achieved through the rigorous purging of the system with asymmetric stilbenes via a subsequent Mizoroki-Heck reaction
nitrogen. In the final process, neat alcohols were mixed with the using the resulting styrenes from the first reaction. This
dry HCl gas in a T-mixer and subsequently heated in an ETFE sequential cross-coupling procedure uses the same catalyst/
coil reactor at 120 °C and 10 bar. After 10−15 min, the ligand/base mixture in both steps and allowed for the synthesis
reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature before of a small stilbene library in good-to-moderate overall yields.
depressurization. Importantly, 1.2 equiv of HCl, controlled via The authors further expanded the styrene formation by a
the MFC apparatus, were sufficient in all cases. subsequent continuous, Rh-catalyzed hydroformylation using
5.1.6. Hydrogen. Hydrogenations are frequently used in Syngas (CO/H2) in a semicontinuous process.249 More
organic chemistry. However, the majority of hydrogenation recently, the same group coupled the biphasic Mizoroki-Heck
reactions are carried out in the presence of a heterogeneous reaction with an anti-Markovnikov Wacker oxidation.250 The
catalyst in a gas−liquid−solid reaction. Nevertheless, hetero- intermediate acetaldehyde of the Wacker was further used for
geneous catalysts usually do not allow for asymmetric the semicontinuous synthesis of an important precursor to the
reductions, and more sophisticated homogeneous metal active pharmaceutical ingredient sacubitril.
complexes have to be used. A flow example used a tube-in- 5.1.8. Ammonia. Ammonia is commonly utilized as an
tube gas loading tool (Scheme 25).248 After screening several aqueous solution (i.e., ammonium hydroxide) or dissolved in
organic solvents such as MeOH and THF. However, the range
Scheme 25. Asymmetric Hydrogenation in Continuous Flow of solvents in which NH3 is commercially available is limited,
and the concentration diminishes rapidly upon opening the
bottle. Moreover, the volatility of ammonia may strongly affect
the efficiency in a batch reaction. Aware of these disadvantages,
Cranwell et al. used gaseous NH3 in the continuous synthesis of
pyrroles via condensation with 1,4-diketones in a Paal-Knorr
reaction (Scheme 27).251 A solution of the respective substrate
time, and the temperature of the gas loading unit (Figure the reagents which limit their applicability. To tackle this
27).252 disadvantage, Kim and co-workers utilized a home-built chip
reactor, where a PDMS membrane was sandwiched between
two reactor channels (Scheme 29).256 A solution of diazald was
On the basis of these results, the authors developed a simple, mixed with aqueous KOH, entering the lower channel of the
continuous two-step procedure for the synthesis of the anti- reactor unit. Since PDMS is extremely hydrophobic, only
inflammatory agent fanetizole 35 (Scheme 28). To start, CH2N2 can pass the membrane where it reacts with acetic acid
36. The productivity of the system was quite low, with an
Scheme 28. Two-Step Procedure for the Synthesis of output of 2.88 mmol methyl acetate per day. Moreover, many
Fanetizole with NH3 nonpolar solvents are not compatible with PDMS due to
swelling of the material.
Solvent limitations were solved by Kappe and co-workers
utilizing the tube-in-tube gas loading tool instead of the dual
channel reactor (Scheme 30).257 Similar to the PDMS
NaNO2.259 Additionally, they published an alternative, a Scheme 32. Activation of Carboxylic Acids by in Situ
semicontinuous tube-in-flask reactor in which diazomethane is Generated Phosgene for Amide Couplings
generated in a gas permeable coil reactor which is placed in a
flask containing the respective reaction mixture.260,261
Similarly, Lehman published a continuous multistep
procedure for the generation of diazomethane from NMU
and utilized it in a liquid−liquid membrane separator instead of
a gas permeable membrane (Scheme 31).262 The semi-
or overcoming general shortcomings associated with batch of the catalysts. At high substrate concentrations (0.5 M),
chemistry.271,272 significant amounts of leached Pd (12−28%) were detected in
5.2.1. Heterogeneous Catalysis Involving Metals. the collected reaction mixtures for all catalysts during long run
Catalysis on metal surfaces or by using metallic nanoparticles experiments (110−170 min) at elevated temperatures (100−
and organometallic complexes plays an important role in 120 °C). Consequently, chemical conversions steadily
organic chemistry and is used for a broad range of important decreased over time in several cases.
transformations. Palladium currently reigns as one of the most By analyzing the FiberCat 1001 catalyst after the flow
popular elements for catalytic applications as it facilitates process, the authors realized that Pd is gradually moving
various powerful carbon−carbon and carbon−heteroatom through the packed bed reactor during the continuous process,
couplings, with significant impact in academia and industry.273 leading to a visible change in the homogeneity of the packed
Generally, in these reactions an aryl(pseudo)halide reacts with bed (Figure 28). This is attributed to heterogeneous Pd(0)
a coupling partner with the aid of a Pd catalyst. Depending on
the coupling partner, several variations exist including the
Suzuki-Miyaura (organoboron), Mizoroki-Heck (alkene), and
Negishi (organozinc) coupling reactions. Not surprisingly,
numerous continuous flow protocols for Pd-catalyzed cross-
coupling reactions have been developed involving both
homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.22
Packed beds of palladium (nano)particles supported on inert
materials, immobilized Pd-complexes, and functionalized chip/
coil reactors have been used to study Suzuki-Miyaura,274−280
Mizoroki-Heck,281,282 Sonogashira,283,284 and Negishi285,286
coupling reactions in flow. However, since the mechanism of
all cross coupling reactions involves palladium in at least two
different oxidation states [Pd(0)/Pd(II)], leaching of the
catalytically active material from the support frequently occurs.
In fact, several groups have proposed that a leached Pd species
may be responsible for catalysis.287−289 In a critical assessment
on metal leaching during Pd-catalyzed coupling reactions in
flow, Cantillo and Kappe concluded that this phenomenon
limits the application of packed bed reactors, and a Figure 28. Content of a used Fibrecat 1001 packed bed reactor.
homogeneous metal (pre)catalyst in combination with a Different Pd concentrations and colors of the material were observed
suitable ligand may be the better option.37 depending on the region in the flow path. Reprinted from ref 159.
Nevertheless, such chemistries can benefit from flow Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society.
applications in packed bed reactors or similar solid−liquid
systems as the higher effective molarity of the catalyst increases
reaction rates. In this vein, the Kappe group executed a detailed species transforming into a “soluble” Pd(II) complex. After the
continuous flow study on leaching resistance of four reductive elimination, Pd(0) is redeposited on the support
commercially available heterogenized Pd-supported catalysts leading to a constant migration of Pd along the packed bed.
(polymer-bound Pd Tetrakis, FiberCat 1001, EnCatTPP 30, However, an optimization of the reaction system with SiliaCat
and SiliaCat DPP-Pd) for Suzuki-Miyaura and Mizoroki-Heck DPP-Pd resulted in stable conversions for both reactions over
reactions using different solvents and bases (Scheme 33).159 110 min using an optimized solvent system (THF/EtOH/
The system was stabilized until steady state conditions were H2O), a lower temperature (80 °C), K2CO3, and a lower
reached for obtaining reliable information on the performance substrate concentration (0.25 M). Nevertheless, metal leaching
(1−7%) was still observed as analyzed by ICP/MS. Not
surprisingly, a further reduction of metal leaching could be
Scheme 33. Continuous Flow Setup for Leaching Studies on
achieved by shifting to low concentrated reaction mixtures
Different Supported Pd Catalysts in Suzuki-Miyaura and
(0.05 M, leaching <1%).
Mizoroki-Heck Reactions
Alcázar and co-workers showed the potential of the SiliaCat
DPP-Pd material as an efficient and relatively low leaching
catalyst (Scheme 34).285 Under optimized conditions, a broad
range of biaryl compounds were synthesized in good-to-
excellent yields from different organoboron derivatives and
various electrophiles including aryl chlorides and an aryl triflate.
Remarkably, a residence time of just 5 min at 60 °C was
sufficient for substrate concentrations of 0.15 M. A long run
study showed no decrease in conversion or selectivity over 8 h,
and very low amounts of Pd were found in the resulting
reaction mixture (30 ppb), showing the potential of this
immobilized palladium catalyst for flow applications.
Verboom and co-workers evaluated functionalized microchip
channel walls with dendrimers encapsulating Pd nanoparticles
for cross couplings in flow (Scheme 35.).290,291 Surface
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Scheme 34. Continuous Suzuki-Miyaura Coupling Using Therefore, the term “heterogeneous” catalysis is somewhat
SiliaCat DPP-Pd in a Packed Bed Reactor misleading if an immobilized catalyst is used for reactions which
proceed via a “homogeneous” mechanism, and such reactions
may, therefore, be more accurately referred to as (quasi)-
homogeneous.37 However, due to the aforementioned
problems resulting from the gradual dissolution and loss of
catalyst, economic benefits, and process advantages disappear if
long-term packed bed stability is not sufficiently high,
particularly for expensive (noble) metal species such as
palladium. It is, therefore, futile to immobilize a properly
working homogeneous catalyst, as purification steps are
necessary to remove the leached material, nullifying the
separation advantage of packed bed reactors.
Nevertheless, leaching of metals into the reaction stream
Scheme 35. Continuous Suzuki-Miyaura Coupling Using does not limit catalysis to homogeneous conditions. If the metal
Dendrimer Encapsulated Pd Nanoparticles in a catalyst is cheap and can be supported with high catalyst
Functionalized Glass Chip Reactor loadings or even used as pure metal then the advantages due to
the high effective molarity can outweigh the issues associated
with leaching. Furthermore, the extremely high amounts of the
catalytically active material guarantee a long lifetime and high
reproducibility under continuous flow conditions. A powerful
example is the use of elemental copper for 1,3-dipolar
cycloadditions.48 This transformation is initiated by Cu2O
species on the surface of the zerovalent copper metal.293
Kirschning and colleagues used copper turnings for the
Huisgen-type cycloaddition of vinyl azides and alkynes in a
packed bed reactor (Scheme 37).294 The authors heated the
functionalization of a 13 μL glass microreactor with Pd loaded Scheme 37. Huisgen-Type Cycloaddition of Vinyl Azides
PAMAM G3 dendrimers was carried out using established and Alkynes via Inductive Heating of Cu Turnings in a
techniques, and total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF) Packed Bed Reactor
revealed a total of 0.12 μg Pd within the system. With the
reactor unit in hand, the authors studied its long-term stability
for the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling of iodobenzene (10 mM) with
tolylboronic acid and Bu4NOH at 80 °C with a residence time
of 13 min. During a continuous experiment over 7 days, only a
low decrease in conversion was observed with an overall
catalyst leaching of around 10%. This slow loss of Pd over time,
in combination with the high turnover number (TON) of
39,650, underlines the promising potential for the dendrimeric
immobilization technique of Pd nanoparticles. The authors
synthesized a library of biaryl compounds to test the general
applicability of their reaction system. Iodobenzene derivatives
containing electron-withdrawing groups gave very high yields,
while electron-donating groups or aryl bromides resulted in metal catalyst directly by electromagnetic induction.295,296 The
significantly lower conversion. temperature measurement was carried out on the reactor
Leaching is not restricted to cross coupling reactions but is surface by means of an IR pyrometer. Optimization studies
rather a general problem. For example, Asadi et al. observed revealed that DMF and a reaction temperature of 70 °C were
0.54% palladium leaching in the Fukuyama reduction of 1 optimal, as higher temperatures led to substrate decomposition.
mmol of thioester 39 with Pd supported on Amberlite XAD-4 With the optimized conditions in hand, a library of 12 1,4-
(Scheme 36).292 disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles was synthesized in good-to-moder-
ate yields.
Fülöp and colleagues used copper powder in a packed bed
Scheme 36. Continuous Fukuyama Reductions Using Pd
reactor for a detailed study on continuous copper-catalyzed
Supported on Amberlite XAD-4
click reactions of azides and alkynes (Scheme 38).297,298
Initially, a careful investigation of all process parameters was
carried out using benzyl azide and phenylacetylene as model
substrates. The authors realized that the reaction benefits
slightly from a higher system pressure and therefore used a BPR
set at 100 bar. The reaction was further intensified, with a
temperature of 100 °C and a residence time of 1.5 min
providing full conversion. Alternatively, a process at room
temperature was developed using DIPEA and AcOH, resulting
in similar yields at the same residence time and pressure. Both
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Chemical Reviews Review
Scheme 38. Continuous Huisgen-Type Cycloaddition at analysis output to design-of-experiment software. The final
Ambient Temperatures in a Packed Bed Reactor Containing conditions were used for the synthesis of a library of 1,2,3-
Copper Powder triazoles via in situ formation of the respective organic azide
species in good-to-excellent yields. Notably, the preparation of
the alkyne, halide, and sodium azide solutions were the only
manual steps in the library generation, and scaling was achieved
by running several reaction segments containing the same
reaction mixture consecutively. This same reactor was used in a
series of intramolecular macrocyclization studies using Cu-click
chemistry.302−304 Moreover, the system was modified by
incorporating a packed bed reactor filled with SiliaCat DPP-
Pd for a subsequent Suzuki-Miyaura reaction.305
Recently, the Jamison group utilized a copper coil in the
continuous multistep synthesis of rufinamide 42, an anti-
conditions were used, producing ∼1.5 g (99%) of the respective convulsant used in the treatment of the Lennox-Gastaut
triazole within 2.5 h to showcase the scalability of their syndrome (Scheme 40).306 The convergent reaction sequence
protocol. In addition, the two protocols were applied to a broad
set of alkynes and azides. Interestingly, the milder continuous Scheme 40. Continuous Multistep Synthesis of Rufinamide
flow conditions outperformed the heated conditions. More Using a Copper Coil Reactor
recently, the use of copper powder was reported for the
synthesis of azobenzenes via homocoupling of anilines,299 and
C−N cross coupling of phenylboronic acids with amines.300
Bogdan and Sach published a pioneering study on the use of
a copper coil reactor for the intermolecular Husigen 1,3-dipolar
cycloaddition (Scheme 39a).301 The authors used a commer-
Scheme 41. Application of a Copper Coil Reactor for (a) Scheme 43. Microchip Reactor Functionalized with Chitosan
Ullmann Reactions, (b) Pd-Free Sonogashira Couplings, and for Immobilizing Cu, Au, Pd, and Ru Catalysts
(c) Protiodecarboxylations
Scheme 45. Fully Continuous Synthesis of (S)-Rolipram Using Several Consecutive Packed Bed Reactors
packed bed reactor containing the catalyst. An optimization of resulted in the respective γ-lactam, which was collected in a
the flow rate resulted in a residence time of 1 min for the receiving unit to separate excess H2. The crude reaction mixture
quantitative formation of ethyl 2-ethoxyacetate 44. A long-term was mixed with water and ortho-xylene in a packed bed of
study only showed a slight decrease in the catalytic activity after Celite and finally converted into (S)-rolipram 48 via hydrolysis
38 h, which was attributed to contraction of the polymer matrix and decarboxylation using another packed bed reactor
due to the generated pressure inside the packed bed. Thus, containing a silica-supported carboxylic acid catalyst. Overall,
pure DCM was pumped through the reactor to effect a 50% (productivity of ∼1 g d−1) of the target compound 48 was
reswelling of the support. After this reactivation, full conversion isolated by preparative TLC in high enantiomeric excess, and
was again achieved and the system was operated for 10 more the system was operated for 1 week.
hours without any significant decrease in conversion. Overall, A particularly appealing strategy is the use of supported
12.6 g of the pure title compound was obtained after 48 h of nanoparticles as catalysts, since these materials can be
operation. The copper content in the final reaction mixture was considered as a bridge between homo- and heterogeneous
low (0.8−1.6 ppm), confirming the high stability of the catalysts.316 The high surface area enhances the contact with
heterogeneous catalyst. reactants dramatically, and the activity of the nanocatalyst can
Kobayashi and co-workers developed an immobilized often be fine-tuned by optimizing the properties of the material
calcium catalyst for the continuous, asymmetric 1,4-addition (size, shape, composition, and morphology). Nevertheless, the
of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds and nitroalkanes.314 A chiral material is insoluble in the reaction medium similar to classical
pybox ligand was immobilized on polystyrene and mixed with heterogeneous catalysts. The challenge lies in identifying
CaCl2·2H2O and Celite. The resulting catalyst powder was used nanoparticles which can selectively enhance a specific reaction
in a packed bed reactor and showed excellent yields and and also finding a convenient and robust preparation strategy
selectivity for all tested substrates without a loss of activity over for generating supported nanocatalysts.
8.5 days of operation. On the basis of these results, the authors Schröder et al. used supported gold nanoparticles as a
developed a fully continuous synthesis of enantiomerically pure catalyst for the synthesis of spiroindoles via a cycloisomerisa-
rolipram 48 in a continuous flow approach involving exclusively tion in a packed bed reactor (Scheme 46). 317 The
heterogeneously catalyzed steps (Scheme 45).315 Initially, a heterogeneous material was prepared by ball-milling HAuCl4·
base-catalyzed nitroaldol reaction of aldehyde 45 and nitro- 3H2O and an alumina containing mesoporous silica support (Al
methane was carried out in a packed bed reactor containing SBA-15) for 10 min and subsequently calcining at 400 °C. The
silica-supported amine at 75 °C. The resulting nitroalkene 46 final material showed high activity for the desired trans-
was mixed with malonate 47 and passed through a packed bed formation in the presence of water as a proton shuttle. Good-
containing molecular sieves to remove water. The solution was to-excellent yields were achieved within 5.5 min at a
then precooled in a small coil reactor and fed into two temperature of 120 °C and a back pressure of 5.5 bar.
consecutive packed bed reactors containing the chiral Ca- However, the authors realized that the activity of the catalyst
catalyst for the asymmetric Michael-type addition. A subse- decreased after a couple of single pass transformations. ICP-
quent hydrogenation of the nitro group over a palladium OES measurements showed no detectable amounts of gold in
catalyst supported on carbon and polysilane (Pd@DMPSi-C) the reaction mixture excluding leaching as the reason for the
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Scheme 46. Synthesis of Spiroindoles via a flow rates, a total process time of 10 h resulted in a productivity
Cycloisomerisation in a Packed Bed Reactor of 30 mmol h−1.
Ideally, catalysis in packed bed reactors should be truly
heterogeneous and not prone to deactivation or leaching. Such
reactions proceed by adsorption of the substrate on the surface
of the catalyst and after the respective reaction, the final
product desorbs, leaving the catalyst unaltered. Hydrogenations
and aerobic oxidations are common examples; however, most
others are related to the production of bulk and not fine
chemicals.
Ley and co-workers developed a continuous Meerwein-
Ponndorf-Verley reduction of aldehydes and ketones in the
presence of isopropyl alcohol catalyzed by a heterogeneous
zirconia catalyst (Scheme 48).319 The simple and easily
drop in the catalytic activity. Interestingly, TEM analysis
showed that the size of the Au particles which were used
Scheme 48. Continuous Reduction of Aldehydes and
increased from 1 to 5 (unused) to 70 nm, and XPS analysis
Ketones Using Calcinated Zirconium Hydroxide As
indicated the generation of significant amounts of a Au(III)
Heterogeneous Catalyst
species. Both findings were attributed to being the origin for the
decrease in the catalytic activity over time. Nevertheless, this
study shows the high potential of nanocatalysis as a leaching-
free alternative for the (quasi)homogeneous reactions discussed
above but also indicates that the preparation of stable material
is not trivial.
Moghaddam et al. used iron oxide nanoparticles supported
on alumina (Fe3O4@Al2O3) for nitro reductions at high
temperature and pressure (Scheme 47).318 The catalytic
leaching, underlining the heterogeneous character of the cycloaddition to give 51. In an initial solvent study, the authors
catalytic system. Remarkably, with a single catalyst cartridge realized that water was crucial for high selectivity. A similarly
containing 2.5 g MnO2, more than 200 g of products were immobilized catalyst without the p-phenylene spacer gave lower
synthesized in multiple runs. For dinitriles, the degree of activity and diastereoselectivity, most likely as a result of the
hydration could be tuned by adjusting the temperature and decreased separation between the hydrophilic catalyst and the
residence time. hydrophobic backbone. Batch experiments showed promising
5.2.2. Heterogeneous Organocatalysis. Albeit a rela- recyclability, which encouraged the researchers to test the
tively new research field, organocatalysis has rapidly become an catalyst in a continuous packed bed reactor. The reaction
important area in synthetic organic chemistry.322 They use mixture was fed via a syringe pump into a fritted glass column
readily available chiral organic compounds to catalyze a broad which was loaded with the swollen resin (600 mg, 20 mm bed
range of enantioselective carbon−carbon and carbon−heter- height), and the final reaction mixture was subsequently
oatom couplings without the need of any metal species. collected. Under optimized flow conditions, the aldol reaction
Therefore, covalent anchoring of such catalysts on a polymer of p-nitrobenzaldehyde 49 and cyclohexanone 50 was
support eliminates the risk of leaching. Immobilization is monitored over 45 h. The activity of the catalyst 51 was stable
usually carried out using spacers and linkers on solid supports over 30 h without any deterioration of the stereoselectivity
such as silica, polystyrene, or copolymers, and the resulting (Scheme 50), allowing for the production of 4.87 g of the chiral
material can be loaded into a packed bed reactor. Organo- aldol product 52. Three additional aldol compounds were
catalytic reactions usually require high catalyst loadings and are produced with good conversion and excellent enantiomeric
often relatively slow with low turnover numbers (TON) even excess during 8 h runs under similar conditions.
under flow conditions, making the utilization of continuous The same group reported continuous anti-Mannich reactions
processing sometimes unnecessary. The decision whether to using supported pyrrolidine330 and an immobilized threonine
turn to flow or not has to be carried out on a case-by-case basis derivative in a similar reactor setup.331 The latter case utilized
depending on the respective application as well as the catalyst’s inline IR analysis for determining the optimal flow rate
activity and stability over time.45,51,54 (Scheme 51). The signal ratio of the respective product and
Asymmetric aldol reactions have been carried out in
continuous flow using immobilized peptide catalysts323,324 Scheme 51. Three Component, Asymmetric anti-Mannich
and proline derivatives.325−329 As an illustrative example, Reaction Using an Immobilized Threonine Catalyst
Pericàs and co-workers developed the aldol reaction of
benzaldehyde derivatives and cyclohexanone (Scheme 50). A
proline derivative was immobilized on a homemade Merrifield
resin containing 8% 1,4-divinylbenzene as cross-linker. The
resin was functionalized with 4-ethynylbenzyl chloride, and the
catalytically active residue was attached via a Huisgen-type
Scheme 52. Asymmetric 1,4-Addition Reaction with an cyclization of phenylacetic acid 56 and tosylimine 58 (Scheme
Immobilized Peptide Catalyst at High Pressures 54).340 First, a mixed anhydride was generated from 56 and
quently, an aqueous solution of NH4Cl was added downstream Scheme 57. Asymmetric α-Amination of n-Propanal 62 with
to extract the base, which was then separated using membrane Dibenzyl Azodicarboxylate 63 in a Packed Bed Reactor
technology. By comparing different anchoring strategies and
polymeric supports, a silylated diarylprolinol catalysts grafted
onto polystyrene through a benzyl linker exhibited relatively
stable conversion over 48 h (from 56 to 41%, 12 min residence
time) with excellent enantioselectivity (94% average). Using
this catalyst, the authors synthesized a library of 12 cyclo-
propane derivatives in excellent ee and dr. The isolated yields
were low-to-moderate as a result of poor conversion due to the
short residence time. However, electron-rich enals, a significant
reduction of the ring-opened side product was obtained using
the continuous strategy. Furthermore, a telescoped process
with a consecutive Wittig reaction was presented to
demonstrate the synthetic potential of the methodology.
The Benaglia group studied immobilized MacMillan-type
imidazolidinone catalysts for asymmetric Diels−Alder reac-
tions.343−345 By using different immobilization techniques and
silica nanoparticles, the authors found significant differences in
the conversion and stereoselectivity for the cycloaddition of
trans-cinnamaldehyde 60 and cyclopentadiene 61 (Scheme
56).345 For continuous experiments, a stainless steel HPLC-
continuous protocol (Scheme 58). The authors chose to study Scheme 59. Enantioselective Addition of Et2Zn to Aldehydes
the reaction of benzaldehyde 66 and allylboronic pinacol ester by Solid Supported 3-Exo-Piperazinoisoborneol
excellent stability and high activities to fully explore the power However, Jones and colleagues introduced a revolutionary
of continuous manufacturing. system for continuous hydrogenation reactions which uses an
5.3. Gas−Liquid−Solid Reactions incorporated electrolytic cell for the on-demand generation of
hydrogen from deionized water (Scheme 61b).359 Thus, safety
As discussed in the previous section, gas−liquid−solid reactions risks are dramatically reduced as no hydrogen cylinders are
involve important transformations which operate via truly required. The addition of the generated H2 is controlled by a
heterogeneous mechanisms and are therefore perfectly suited motorized valve and added to the reaction mixture through a
for continuous processing. Hydrogenation reactions are the porous titanium frit to ensure efficient mixing. Moreover, the
exemplar, as the substrate and hydrogen adsorb on the metal commercially available system (H-Cube) consists of a pump
surface. Hydrogen dissociates into atomic hydrogen and adds to which delivers the solubilized substrate, a bubble detector to
the unsaturated carbon−carbon bond, whereupon the desired determine whether H2 is properly delivered, a heating block
compound finally desorbs from the catalytic surface. This controlled via a Peltier system to accurately heat the packed bed
process is cheap, often selective, and most solvents can be used reactor, an adjustable back pressure regulator, and two pressure
for such reactions. Moreover, the high atom economy, small sensors for process monitoring. The packed bed reactor unit
amount of chemical waste, and the normally simple workup itself is a stainless steel cartridge containing the catalytically
(filtration of catalyst and solvent evaporation) is in good active material (CatCart) which can be quickly installed in the
agreement with green chemistry principles.356 A plethora of heating block. Importantly, a range of cartridges packed with
heterogeneous catalysts are available typically being noble the common hydrogenation catalysts are commercially
metals (Pd, Pt, Rh, and Ni) on a solid support (carbon, available, but it is also possible to load any given material
alumina, silica, etc.) or finely grained alloys such as Raney into the empty cartridges. The latest version of this system can
nickel. This powerful class of reactions can be used for a be used at temperatures from 10 to 150 °C and a maximum
breadth of important transformations such as saturating pressure of 100 bar, allowing one to safely perform hydro-
alkenes, alkynes, or aromatic systems, for the reduction of genation reactions under harsh conditions. Moreover, a
many functional groups, including nitriles, amides, azides, nitro particularly useful advantage of this device is the convenient
groups and carbonyl compounds, or the removal of protecting incorporation of deuterium into organic molecules by using
groups via hydrogenolysis. However, the utilization of hydrogen D2O instead of ordinary water.360−362
comes with severe safety issues, and reactions under ambient The aerobic oxidation of alcohols into the corresponding
conditions are occasionally slow. carbonyl compound is a fundamental reaction in organic
It is not surprising that many of the above-mentioned synthesis and a plethora of selective methodologies exist.
transformations are already routinely carried out in flow and Unfortunately, common strategies involve stoichiometric
continuous processing. This area of research has been amounts of oxidants such as NMO in the presence of TPAP,
extensively reviewed19,52,59 and is already a standard technology permanganates, activated DMSO, chromium(VI) complexes
in many research laboratories. Therefore, this section will only (Collins reagent, PDC, and PCC), or hypervalent iodine
briefly introduce the basic strategies for continuous flow reagents (Dess-Martin periodinane, IBX). Some of these
applications. Typically, control of the hydrogen addition is relatively expensive reagents are toxic, and all suffer from
achieved by the use of mass flow controllers (Scheme 61a).357 poor atom economies. In contrast, aerobic oxidations with
Also the tube-in-tube gas addition module can be applied, but reusable heterogeneous noble metal catalysts facilitate this
its limited pressure resistance does not allow for the high reaction and generate water as the only byproduct. In flow, such
pressures sometimes necessary for efficient hydrogenation reactions can be safely performed under the harsh conditions
processes.19,52,59,358 which are often necessary for a high productivity, and the
utilization of packed bed reactors reduces the necessary work
up steps.66,179−181
Scheme 61. Basic Concepts for Hydrogenation Reactions:
The development of suitable conditions for the selective
(a) Conventional Approach Using Mass Flow Controllers
continuous oxidation of benzylic and allylic alcohols to the
and (b) on-Demand Generation of H2 via the Hydrolysis of
corresponding aldehydes and ketones has been carried out by
Water (H-Cube)
several groups using a broad range of heterogeneous catalysts,
including Pt/C,363 Ru(OH)x on alumina,364 Pd nanoparticles
supported on MOFs,365 Au/TiO2,366 Au-doped superparamag-
netic nanoparticles,367 and supported iron oxide nano-
particles.368
Jensen and co-workers took advantage of this straightforward
strategy and utilized Ru/Al2O3 in a telescoped process to
synthesize amides from various benzylic alcohols and secondary
amines (Scheme 62).369 For the initial aerobic oxidation of
benzylic alcohols, a mass flow controller was used to regulate
the oxygen stream. The mixture of the reactive gas and the
alcohol solution entered a packed bed reactor containing the
supported catalyst which was heated to 80 °C. A residence time
of 19 s was sufficient for the oxidation of benzylalcohol, and a
stable conversion was observed during a 24 h experiment. For
the downstream process, oxygen was removed in a membrane
separator and the liquid stream then entered a silicon-Pyrex
microreactor where it was mixed with an excess of the
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Scheme 62. Continuous Two-Step Amide Synthesis by colleagues.372 The authors compared the biphasic hydrolysis
Aerobic Alcohol Oxidation Using a Heterogeneous Catalyst of para-nitrophenyl acetate 72 with sodium hydroxide in a
biphasic solvent system (toluene/water) in both batch and
continuous flow mode (Scheme 64).
yields in a batch microwave reactor at 70 °C but could be additional mixing strategies such as a packed bed reactor filled
further improved in either a coil, chip, or packed bed with inert material. On a laboratory scale, vigorous mixing in a
microreactor filled with stainless steel spheres to induce round-bottomed flask may be more convenient since
turbulent mixing of the immiscible liquids. All reactions were comparable results can generally be obtained. In fact, slow
carried out above the boiling point of the organic solvent biphasic reactions such as the chlorodehydroxylation of primary
(DCM), which necessitated the use of a microwave autoclave alcohols with aqueous HCl have been shown to be identical
apparatus in batch and the utilization of a BPR unit (5−10 bar) under batch and flow conditions even at high temperature/
for continuous flow experiments. When the authors used the pressure conditions.377 Nevertheless, scaling such biphasic
more reactive thiol 75, a smaller amount of the PTC and a transformations in batch to large quantities is accompanied by a
shorter reaction time was necessary. In the case of the thiol 75, plethora of process challenges (reactor size, shape, agitation,
a significant improvement was observed for all continuous flow etc.), and thus continuous flow technology can be a valuable
experiments. In addition, a clear trend was observed as the alternative, as is the case for large-scale oxidations with H2O2 or
microchip reactor gave higher conversions than the mesoscale bleach,378−380 or other industrially relevant transforma-
coil unit, which is in good agreement with the difference in the tions.381,382
interfacial area. Moreover, the packed bed reactor gave the best If a liquid−liquid reaction has to be carried out at
results, which clearly shows the positive impact of chaotic temperatures above the boiling point of one of the respective
mixing in liquid−liquid systems. solvents to gain a significant reduction of the reaction time,
The packed bed strategy was further applied for biphasic, flow becomes a powerful technique for research laborato-
palladium-catalyzed C−N and C−C cross-coupling reac- ries.93,377,383 An illustrative example is the synthesis of adipic
tions.373−376 These powerful synthetic transformations usually acid 80 from cyclohexene 79 (Scheme 66a).384 The batch
require inorganic bases which are insoluble in most organic
solvents or further produce insoluble salts, which would lead to Scheme 66. Synthesis of Adipic Acid from Cyclohexene in
the clogging of a continuous flow reactor.22 To solubilize all (a) Batch and (b) Continuous Flow
organic and inorganic components, biphasic liquid−liquid
mixtures have utilized in combination with phase transfer
catalysts373,375,376 or amphiphilic cosolvents374 for flow
processing. A comparison of a coil reactor with a packed bed
reactor (filled with stainless steel spheres) illustrated the
importance of passive mixing elements for the biphasic cross-
coupling of 2-chloroanisole 76 and ethyl 2-aminobenzoate 77
(Scheme 65).373 Importantly, a series of batch experiments
Scheme 67. Continuous Bucherer-Bergs Hydantoin reacted with aldehydes in a base-catalyzed condensation
Synthesis reaction in an additional coil reactor.
5.5. Liquid−Liquid−Solid Reactions
Liquid−liquid−solid reactions are relatively rare in the scientific
literature except for liquid−liquid reactions which significantly
benefit from packed bed reactors containing inert mixing
elements.The same positive effect can be observed when the
packed bed unit contains a heterogeneous catalyst, and
therefore, such triphasic systems should be superior over
are usually generated in situ via thermal decompositions of batch protocols.
(NH4)2CO3. In batch, the reaction is generally carried out by One example in continuous flow was reported for the
refluxing a mixture of the carbonyl compound, KCN, and triphasic oxidation of alcohols.392 Bogdan et al. immobilized
(NH4)2CO3 in water and ethanol for several hours or even TEMPO on a commercially available AMBERZYME oxirane
days. In the continuous approach, the starting material in resin and packed the material into a polymer tubing. An
EtOAc is mixed with an aqueous solution of the reagents, aqueous phase containing NaOCl and KBr was mixed with a
generating a well-defined slug flow pattern which is heated to solution of benzaldehyde in DCM in a Y-mixer in order to
120 °C in a Hastelloy coil reactor at 20 bar. The high pressure generate a slug flow pattern (Figure 29). When the mixture
and lack of gaseous headspace kept the generated gas in
solution resulting in significantly shortened reaction times.
Biphasic liquid−liquid transformations provide the oppor-
tunity to use membrane separation technology immediately
following the desired reaction. However, for single stage
reactions, the classical separatory funnel is usually more
convenient, as it does not require any process optimization.
Nevertheless, if a toxic or hazardous intermediate is formed,
such separators can be used to couple production with an
immediate consumption in a continuous downstream process.
An early proof-of-concept study was presented by Jensen et al.
for the biphasic synthesis of acyl azides from acyl chlorides and
NaN3 and their subsequent consumption in a Curtius
rearrangement (Scheme 68a).390 In a similar approach, Kim Figure 29. Phase mixing during the liquid−liquid−solid oxidation of
alcohols with NaOCl and immobilized TEMPO. Reprinted from ref
Scheme 68. Generation and Downstream Processing of 392. Copyright 2009 Beilstein-Institut zur Foerderung der Chem-
Hazardous Intermediates in Liquid−liquid Flow Regimes: ischen Wissenschaften.
(a) Synthesis of Acyl Azides for Subsequent Curtius
Rearrangement. (b) Preparation of Ethyl Diazoacetate and
Condensation with Aldehydes entered the packed bed reactor, the slugs immediately
emulsified, and after leaving the packed bed, the organic and
aqueous phases coalesced and the resulting slugs were
significantly longer. With a residence time of 4.8 min and a
temperature of 0 °C, various primary and secondary alcohols
were successfully oxidized to the corresponding aldehydes and
ketones in good-to-excellent GC yields. Moreover, the system
was stable for more than 9 h.
Most multiphasic reactions can definitely benefit from
continuous processing and are often applied in combination
with other strategies (e.g., high T/p processing). Generally,
reactions involving gases are better-suited for flow than for
batch due to better controllability and reduced safety issues.
The latter can be further reduced if a reactive gas/reagent can
be generated and purified on-demand in order to avoid any
exposure to the environment. For solid materials, the batch
versus flow decision is not as clear and has to be made on a
case-by-case basis. Solid reagents are usually easier to use in
batch and for catalytic materials; special care has to be taken if
and co-workers developed a two-step procedure for the the material leaches out of the packed bed reactor. If leaching
preparation and utilization of ethyl diazoacetate (Scheme can be excluded, flow may be the perfect solution. Further, if
68b).391 Toluene and an aqueous mixture of glycine ethyl ester the metal catalyst is cheap and large amounts are used in the
hydrochloride 81 and NaNO2 were fed into a coil reactor unit respective reactor, the inherent advantages of flow processing
where the desired diazo compound was generated and can outperform the issues associated with leaching. Finally,
ultimately extracted into the organic phase. After inline liquid−liquid reactions also may benefit from flow, but the
separation of the two phases, the hazardous intermediate was advantages for these processes are more associated with
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reactions on large scales since vigorous stirring in batch can 6.1. Outpacing Intermediate Decomposition
lead to similar results on a laboratory scale. Alkenyl halides are useful intermediates for further function-
alization via coupling reactions.397−399 However, synthesizing
6. MIXING functionalized alkenyl halides using trans-1,2-dichloroalkenes
Fast reactions, where the rate of the reaction is faster than the via its deprotonation requires cryogenic conditions,400,401 due
rate of diffusion (Da > 1), are highly dependent on mixing. Due to their proclivity to eliminate lithium chloride to form alkynes.
to the small dimensions of microreactors, mixing can be Yoshida and co-workers showed that with the use of flow
achieved in very short time (<1 min).393 Many types of fast chemistry, functionalized trans-1,2-dichloroalkenes can be
reactions have been deemed “flash chemistry”.96 This section synthesized at much higher temperatures (Scheme 70a).402
highlights chemistry where the reagents can react with
themselves and/or the product because of poor mixing or Scheme 70. Synthesis of (a) Tri- and Tetrasubstituted
where the stability of an intermediate was time-dependent at a Alkenes, and (b) Propargyl Alcohols from trans-1,2-
given temperature. Flow conditions enhance mixing and permit Dichloroethene
precise control of residence time, mitigating side reactions and/
or decomposition of reactive intermediates. For simplicity,
many similar low-temperature chemical transformations in flow
have been left out since their residence times (minutes−hours)
are not indicative of a mixing-dependent reaction at the given
temperature, and/or their batch counterparts function com-
parably.
Recently, chemists are under increasing pressure to construct
compounds more efficiently. Eliminating protection and
deprotection steps is a stride toward “ideal syntheses”.394
Flow chemistry has enabled protecting-group free synthesis by
the fast, efficient generation and utilization of reactive
intermediates, bypassing the need for protecting groups.395 A
hypothetical example of a flash reaction with competing
undesired pathways is shown in Scheme 69. Fast mixing and
proenyllithium species under noncryogenic conditions (Scheme produced the desired product in 30% yield. Lowering the
71).405 A solution of 3,3,3-trifluoropropene 93 and sec- temperature to −40 °C produced 100 quantitatively (>98%).
The authors demonstrated that these conditions can be used
Scheme 71. Three-Component Flow Reaction Utilizing for the addition of chloromethyllithium to numerous aryl
Trifluoroisopropenyllithium under Noncryogenic aldehydes, ketones, imines, Weinreb amides, and an isocyanate
Conditions in 70−98% isolated yields. Additionally, by employing MeLi·
LiBr as a lithiating agent, 100 was obtained at −20 °C without a
loss in yield.
In a related flow process, Hafner et al. lithiated methylene
chloride (DCM) for the synthesis of β,β-dichlorocarbinols.410
The utilization of dichloromethyllithium 102 is relatively
limited due to its proclivity to decompose to the carbene
103. Cryogenic conditions (< −78 °C) must be applied for
batch preparations to suppress decomposition, and as such
upscaling is particularly difficult. Hafner and co-workers
commenced DCM lithiation using a flow reactor at −30 °C
with 1.2 equiv of n-BuLi and a 3-methoxybenzaldehyde 101
quench (Scheme 73a). An HPLC yield of 96% resulted after
intermolecular reaction of benzylic anions could be controlled Scheme 75. Outpacing the Intramolecular Reaction of 2-
by residence times and temperature (Scheme 74).414 Higher Lithio-2′-(trimethylsilyl)biphenyl in Flow
These examples illustrate how flow conditions can influence Scheme 78. Flow Synthesis of Thioquinazolinones via
synthesis via the generation and swift trapping of intermediates. Highly Reactive 2-Lithiophenyl Isothiocyanates
Such conditions cannot be imitated in batch, and therefore,
intramolecular reactions cannot be avoided unless flow
conditions are employed.
6.3. Nucleophilic Reactions with Multiple Electrophiles
In the quest for protecting-group free synthesis, the develop-
ment of reactions or conditions where nucleophiles can react
with a molecule selectively in the presence of multiple
electrophiles is paramount. In batch, reaction selectivity can
be complicated for a few reasons. First, if an electrophilic
moiety is on the molecule that is acting as the nucleophile,
inefficient generation of the nucleophilic species can result in
homocoupling-type reactions, necessitating cryogenic condi-
tions or a large excess of the nucleophile. Second, when the yield. Furthermore, a multifunctionalized S-benzylic thioquina-
electrophilic partner contains more than one reactive center, zolinone was prepared from 2-bromo-4-methylphenyl isothio-
mixtures of mono- and di- coupled compounds can result from cyanate, 4-methoxyphenyl isocyanate, and 4-bromobenzyl
poor mixing. In this case, flow offers better mixing of the bromide on a gram scale (1.25 g, 91%) by scaling out the
nucleophile/electrophile, usually outperforming their batch process (5 min operation time).
counterparts. Benzyllithiums such as 127 are highly reactive species whose
Typically, the introduction of fluorine to aryl compounds use as a nucleophile is relatively limited because of a Wurtz-type
requires harsh conditions.420−422 Yoshida and co-workers coupling 128 (Scheme 79). To avoid this side reaction,
utilized flow conditions for the synthesis of aryl fluorides via
aryllithium compounds.423 Initial optimization showed that 4- Scheme 79. Generation and Reaction of Benzyllithiums
methoxyphenyllithium, generated under fluidic conditions from Bearing Electrophilic Functional Groups
4-bromoanisole and n-butyllithium, could be rapidly trapped
(0.017 s) at 0 °C with N-fluorobenzenesulfonimide (NFSI) or
2-fluoro-3,3-dimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1,2-benzisothiazole-1,1-diox-
ide (N-fluorosultam) in 69% and 85% yield, respectively. The
synthesis of various aryl fluorides containing esters,424
nitriles,425 and ketones,395 electrophilic moieties benefited
from flow conditions. For example, lithiation of tert-butyl-2-
iodobenzoate 121 with phenyllithium followed by trapping
with NSFI at −28 °C produced the 2-fluorobenzoate 122 in
73% yield (Scheme 77). Various aryl iodides and bromides
were reacted using this setup yielding aryl fluorides in 45−83%
yield for NSFI and 31−85% yield for N-fluorosultam.
cryogenic conditions (−95 °C) and a three-solvent system were
Scheme 77. Flow Synthesis of Aryl Fluorides via
employed in batch.428 Nagaki et al. showed that under flow
Electrophilic Fluorination
conditions, benzyllithiums can be generated at higher temper-
atures and efficiently trapped with various electrophiles.429 In
flow, benzyl bromide was used as a starting material, whereas
batch conditions did not tolerate the use of bromides. This was
attributed to the extremely fast 1:1 mixing of benzyl halide and
lithium naphthalenide. Benzyl chloride, benzyl bromide, and 2-
chloromethylthiophene were used in 12 examples generating
products in 42−97% yield. Various benzyllithiums bearing
electrophilic functional groups were employed (Scheme 79). In
this setup, benzyl halides were combined with lithium
Kim et al. demonstrated that similar nucleophiles bearing naphthalenide at −78 °C, to prevent addition to the carbonyl,
isothiocyanates 124 can be generated from 2-bromophenyl and quenched with various electrophiles within 0.38 s. These
isothiocyanates 123 and used for the synthesis of thioquina- conditions facilitated the production of 17 compounds bearing
zolinones (Scheme 78).426 When a solution of 123 was mixed ketones or aldehydes in 41−88% yield. These substrates are
with n-butyllithium at ambient temperature and quenched with very difficult or impossible to obtain using a round-bottom
phenyl isocyanate within 16 ms, 125 was produced in 86% flask.
yield. Similar batch reactions required low temperatures (−78 The selective monoalkylation of a compound bearing two
°C) and offered moderate yields (50−79%).427 Using these electrophilic centers usually requires protection and depro-
flow conditions, 124 was reacted with various electrophiles, tection steps in order to avoid statistical mixtures of products.
providing the corresponding products in good-to-excellent For instance, when 4-benzoylbenzaldehyde was reacted with
yield. For isocyanate electrophiles, the process was expanded by one equivalent of phenyllithium at −78 °C, a maximum of 28%
the reaction with benzyl bromide to form 126 in 80% yield. yield of the desired monoalkylated product 129 was observed.
The three-step flow setup produced ten examples in 75−98% The dialkylated side-product 130 was produced in 25% yield,
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Scheme 80. Flow Setups for the Selective Monoalkylation of Dielectrophiles with (a) Phenyl Lithium and (b) 4-
Bromobenzonitrile
Scheme 81. Flow Setups for (a) Monoarylation of 1,4-Cyclohexanedione and (b) Dilithiation of 1,4-Dibromobenzene toward
the Synthesis of [10]Cycloparaphenylene
while 35% of the starting material remained. Yoshida’s group 141a in 11% likely due to poor mixing which results in a second
demonstrated that when these same substrates were reacted alkylation of 139 to produce 140, the major side product. Next,
under fluidic conditions (Scheme 80a), the desired product 129 the authors performed a flow dilithiation of 1,4-dibromoben-
was obtained in 78% yield with only 7% of the dialkylated side- zene using tert-butyllithium at 25 °C, accompanied by a quench
product 130.430 Even at a higher temperature (−40 °C), with 141b (Scheme 81b). This setup was convenient since
significant improvements over batch conditions resulted. cryogenic conditions were required in batch. Scaling out the
Similar improvements were observed for the reaction of flow process gave 1.23 g (73%) of the unprotected alcohol
phenyllithium with various other dielectrophiles to produce 143a. Again, a MOMBr quench was incorporated in a flow/
the desired monoalkylated compounds (131, 133, and 134). batch process to obtain 143b in 68% yield. In two subsequent
This strategy was expanded to other aryllithiums where the batch steps, the U-shape 143b was dimerized and aromatized to
corresponding aryl iodides and bromides were first reacted with provide [10]CPP in the highest yield to date; 11% overall yield,
n-butyllithium or phenyllithium at −40 °C before a quench double the previous yield of 5%. This synthesis is an excellent
with various dielectrophiles (Scheme 80b). For example, 135, example of how flow chemistry can expedite synthetic routes.
containing an electrophilic carbon center itself, was reacted Octafluorocyclopentene 145 is similar to dicarbonyls in that
with dielectrophile 136 using this setup to produce compound it has two electrophilic centers. Asai et al. investigated the
137 in 78% yield. This approach demonstrates how flow selective monoarylation of octafluorocyclopentene 145 with
chemistry is a powerful tool for protecting group free synthesis. aryllithiums toward the synthesis of asymmetric photochromic
Flow conditions enabled the synthesis of [10]- diarylethenes (Scheme 82).433 In batch, the lithiation and
cycloparaphenylene ([10]CPP).431 First, 1,4-dibromobenzene substitution must be conducted at temperatures below −78 °C.
138 was reacted in flow at 0 °C with n-butyllithium to Even then, only 24% of the desired monoarylated product 147
selectively produce the monolithiated species,432 which was was obtained, while 18% of the diarylated compound was
immediately quenched (16 ms) with 1,4-cyclohexanedione produced. In flow, lithiation of the 3-bromothiophene 144 was
(Scheme 81a). This process afforded the monoalkylated carried out at 0 °C and quickly trapped (0.28 s) with 145
product 141a in 92% yield. An additional quench of yielding 147 in 81% yield. Only 9% of the diarylated compound
bromomethyl methyl ether (MOMBr) was incorporated for a was observed. Enhanced mixing in flow significantly improved
flow/batch process for the production of MOM-protected both yield and selectivity for this reaction. Two monoarylated
alcohol 141b in 80% yield. The batch process only produced cyclopentenes were made in this fashion and with a second
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Scheme 82. Flow Sequence for the Synthesis of Asymmetric Scheme 83. Flow Setup for the Monoarylation of Diethyl
Photochromic Diarylethenes from Octafluorocyclopentene Oxalate in the Synthesis of α-Keto Esters
batch conditions. The conversion was low, and the desired tert- Scheme 86. Synthesis of a Ketone Using Methyl Grignard
butyl ester was obtained in only 7% and 15%, respectively. The and an Ester in Glass Chip Reactors
major product for both temperatures was the tertiary alcohol
(37% and 25%), accounting for the poor conversion and yields.
When this reaction was adapted to flow at −50 °C, the ester
and alcohol were produced in 44% and 56%, respectively.
Reducing the residence time from 24 to 5.6 s increased the
yield significantly (96%) and reduced the alcohol side product
to 4%. The setup was expanded to include the generation and
reaction of various aryl, vinyl, and alkynyllithiums to produce
tert-butyl esters in 50−95% yield (19 examples). Notably, many
of these reactions had comparable yields at 0 and 25 °C. Next, batch, benzoic acid can be synthesized with phenyllithium and
utilizing Yoshida’s conditions for the generation of highly carbon dioxide at −78 °C in 87% yield. The highly reactive
reactive aryllithiums, diester 158 was synthesized from 157 in aryllithium compounds, however, can cause side reactions at
65% yield, demonstrating the power of this process to create higher temperatures. As an illustration, when this reaction was
molecules containing multiple handles with varying reactivity carried out at 0 °C, benzoic acid was obtained in only 28%
(Scheme 85). yield, while benzophenone (34%) and triphenylmethanol
(27%) constituted the rest of the mixture. Yoshida and co-
Scheme 85. Flow Setup for the Synthesis of tert-Butyl Esters workers adapted this reaction to flow and found that at 0 °C,
via Organolithium Compounds and di-tert-Butyldicarbonate benzoic acid was produced in 87% yield. The increased yield is
likely due to improved mixing which suppresses competitive
consecutive side reactions.203 The authors went on to utilize
their previously developed conditions424 to generate para-
ethoxycarbonylphenyllithium and rapidly trap it to synthesize
the corresponding carboxylic acid 164 in 83% yield (Scheme
87). Various aryl bromides and iodides such as 163 were used
Scheme 88. Synthesis of Asymmetric Ketones from Carbon Scheme 90. Homologation of Silylated Ethyl Lactate via a
Dioxide and Organolithium or Grignard Reagents (a) with Selective DIBAL-H Reduction and Horner-Wadsworth-
and (b) without a Gas Separation Unit Emmons Olefination
Scheme 91. (a) Synthesis of Eribulin Mesylate by (b) Selective DIBAL-H Reduction and (c) n-Butyllithium-Mediated
Deprotonation in Flow
and electrophilic trapping, this section highlights these steps the boronic acids were synthesized on gram scales and in high
and their corresponding coupling reactions. purity (>95% by HPLC) with only a liquid−liquid extraction
Arylboronic esters can be synthesized from aryl halides, workup. These conditions, which produce about 1 g/min (5
triflates, and amines via palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling mmol min−1), were easily scaled up for the production of
reactions with tetraalkoxydiborane reagents.463−465 While these multiple kilograms per day (30 mmol/min).469
conditions tolerate a wide range of functional groups, Highly efficient mixing tolerates 1:1 ratios of aryl bromides
tetraalkoxydiboron reagents are expensive, and therefore and organolithiums in the generation and utilization of
methods for the synthesis of arylboronic esters via trialkyl aryllithiums containing electrophilic moieties.424 Nagaki et al.
borates are in demand. Early work by Ley demonstrated various utilized this technique for the synthesis of arylboronic esters
boronic acid esters can be prepared in flow under cryogenic bearing functionalities such as esters, nitriles, and nitro
conditions.466 While convenient for scaling out reactions, this groups.470 When tert-butyl para-bromobenzoate 174 and sec-
process does not fully utilize the mixing benefits of micro- butyllithium were combined in a 1:1 ratio at −28 °C and
dimensions. Researchers at Novartis developed a flow process quenched using isopropoxyboronic acid pinacol ester, com-
for the synthesis of various boronic acids at elevated pound 175 was produced in 75% yield. Using this method, 12
temperatures and determined that the yield is mixing- arylboronic acid pinacol esters were produced in 64−92% yield.
dependent.467 Aryllithiums were generated from 1-bromo-4- Substituting isopropoxyboronic acid pinacol ester with
fluoro-2-(trifluoromethyl)benzene or 4-bromoanisole and n- trimethyl borate permitted the process to be connected with
butyllithium at varying flow rates before being quenched with a downstream Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reaction (Scheme
methanol. The yields of 1-fluoro-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzene 93). In this process, the resulting arylboronic acid dimethyl
and anisole were directly related to the total flow rate through
the T-mixer. At flow rates >14 mL min−1, the conversion
Scheme 93. Flow Synthesis of Arylboronic Ester Bearing
increased significantly, indicative of mixing-dependent reac-
Electrophilic Functional Groups
tions.468 Switching methanol with a solution of trimethyl borate
and including a batch quench with 10% citric acid (Scheme 92),
the authors prepared 11 boronic acids in fair-to-quantitative
yields. Aryl bromides bearing fluorine and cyano groups were
prepared; both of which are difficult to access in batch. All of
ester 175 was hydrolyzed, prior to being combined at 50 °C Scheme 95. Continuous Flow Zincation and Subsequent
with a mixture of aryl bromide 176, palladium(II) acetate, and Batch Negishi Coupling
tritert-butylphosphine. This process did not require any
additional base, producing the biaryl compounds such as 177
in 52−97% yield.
Modification of this process by incorporating a monolithic
palladium catalyst allowed for activated boronic acid esters to
be generated and coupled with aryl iodides in a semicontinuous
flow process (Scheme 94).471 First, 179 was generated using
The Brook rearrangement involves the migration of an Scheme 98. (a) Generation and Reaction of Vinyllithiums in
organosilyl group from a carbon to an oxygen.480 In the Flow. (b) Importance of Residence Time Control
presence of a strong base, the equilibrium is shifted and silyl
ethers can be employed in the construction of carbon−silicon
bonds.481 Michel et al. investigated the performance of the
retro-Brook rearrangement under flow conditions (Scheme
97).482 The reaction using n-butyllithium generally requires
Scheme 99. Flow Setup for the Creation and Reaction of Pyridine rings are common motifs in pharmaceuticals,
Electrophilic Carbon-Centered Radicals agrochemicals, and materials.495 Various methods are reported
for the synthesis of functionalized pyridine rings,496−499 one of
which is the introduction of a functional group via a Br/Li-
exchange of bromopyridines. These reactions, however, are
complicated by lithium migration and addition to the ring,
leading to numerous side reactions. For instance, lithiation of
2,3-dibromopyridine with n-butyllithium and trapping with
methyl iodide resulted in a complex mixture at −78 °C with the
target 2-bromo-3-methylpyridine comprising only 48%.500
Raising the temperature to −28 °C resulted in 0% yield of
the desired product. Nagaki et al. developed a flow process for
this reaction where 2,3-dibromopyridine 203 was lithiated with
n-butyllithium at 0 °C and promptly trapped (0.055 s) with a
solution of an electrophile (E1, Scheme 101).501,502 Under
Scheme 102. (a) Br/Li Exchange and Trapping toward 7.1. Heated Reactions below 100 °C
Functionalized Heteroaromatic Compounds in Flow. (b) Methylene chloride (DCM) is a very good solvent, capable of
Flow Process Scale Out dissolving many organic substances.504 However, DCM is
highly volatile and reaction temperatures are limited to 40 °C
under reflux. Since there are safety hazards and scaling issues
when performing reactions in a sealed vessel, reactions using
volatile solvents such as DCM are more conveniently run at
high temperatures in flow. Newton et al. demonstrated this in
their report of the synthesis of spirocyclic polyketides,455 where
intermediate 209 was prepared via a silylation-acetonide
opening reaction and connected to a downstream ozonolysis
(Scheme 103). First, the protection of the secondary alcohol
Scheme 104. Flow Setup for the Schmidt Reaction of 2LiCl as a base (1% the price of TMPZnCl·LiCl), but they
Carboxylic Acids were also able to run zincation reactions well above the boiling
point of THF (100 °C).
Microwave heating was highly influential for increasing the
rate of reactions. Inherent scaling issues have led to the
combination of microwave heating and flow chemistry which is
comparably easy to scale out or number up to produce
synthetically useful quantities. The Organ group has done
extensive work developing and utilizing their microwave-
assisted continuous-flow organic synthesis (MACOS) process
in medicinal and combinatorial chemistry.513−520 Their reactor
is comprised of a stainless steel mixing chamber connected to
glass capillaries which are positioned inside a microwave
carboxylic acids in fair-to-very good yield. Not surprisingly, chamber. With their setup, a single capillary can be used to
aromatic carboxylic acids containing strongly electron-with- scale out a reaction to produce larger quantities of a single
drawing groups such as nitro- and trifluoromethyl function- compound or in a recent report,521 four capillaries can be used
alities were not as reactive, yielding their respective anilines in for the simultaneous synthesis of four different compounds
only 18−28% yield. (Scheme 106). Four stock solutions in isopropanol containing a
Building upon their previous work in flow,476 the Knochel
group investigated the magnesiation and zincation of Scheme 106. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of 1,2,5-
acrylonitriles, acrylates, and nitroolefins under fluidic con- Thiadiazepane 1,1-Dioxides Using a Multicapillary Flow
ditions.511 While some of their substrates were more reactive at Reactor
higher flow rates (indicative of a mixing dependence), most
substrates reacted optimally at elevated temperatures with
longer residence times (>1 min). For example, E-cinnamoni-
trile 213 reacted smoothly with TMPZnCl·LiCl in THF at 90
°C with a 10 min residence time producing zincate 214
(Scheme 105a), which was combined with a solution of allyl
Scheme 107. Hydrolysis of α-Aminonitriles toward the with a solution of phenoxide 229, and heated to 90 °C, 54%
Synthesis of Fluorinated Amino Acids yield of 230 was obtained (Scheme 109). Increasing the heat to
A, a macrolide with immunosuppressive activity (Scheme particles,541 copper wire,294,296 metal oxides,542 and steel
111).537 A solution containing diyne 233 was injected into a beads.543 In their synthesis of olanzapine, they employed a
steel capillary reactor encased by a high-frequency generator
Scheme 111. Flow Setup for the Catalytic Macrocyclization (Scheme 113).544 Using this setup, aniline 242, was flowed
in a Formal Synthesis of Ivorenolide A
Scheme 113. Flow Setup for the Acid-Catalyzed Cyclization
toward Olanzapine
mixed with either tert-butylamine or isopropylamine and heated this setup, the authors found that comparable yields were
to 120−150 °C. Styrene oxides, required 150 °C and a 50 min obtained using a methanol/water (2:1) solvent mixture and no
residence time for full conversion, while epoxides derived from added acid. At 150 °C and 40 bar, 7-ethyltryptophol 246 was
epichlorohydrin were more reactive and only required 120 °C obtained in 41% yield with only 3 min residence time.
with a 20 min residence time. Numerous methods exist for the conversion of alcohols to
Induction heating is the process whereby electrically alkyl halides.556 Most methods employ electrophilic reagents
conducting materials, usually metals, are heated using a rapidly containing halides such as thionyl chloride or generate reactive
alternating magnetic field. The Kirschning group applied this intermediates like in the Vilsmeier−Haack reaction. The
method in flow using materials such as magnetic nano- halodehydroxylation is used far less often; however, under
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Scheme 115. Flow Synthesis of Cinnarizine. (a) Chlorodehydroxylation of Diphenylmethanol for the (b) Alkylation of
Piperazine. (b) Concurrent Chlorodehydroxylation of Cinnamyl Alcohol for the (d) Production of Cinnarizine
microwave conditions, this reaction has been shown to be processes in a formal synthesis of rufinamide starting from 2,6-
particularly effective.557 Since then, this process was transferred difluorobenzyl alcohol 254 (Scheme 116).565 Hydrogen
to flow by the Kappe group.377 Borukhova et al. utilized this
process for the synthesis of cinnarizine 253 and other Scheme 116. Flow Synthesis of Rufinamide Precursor
derivatives by an amine alkylation using the newly generated
alkyl chlorides (Scheme 115).558 First, diphenylmethanol 247
in acetone was chlorodehydroxylated at 100 °C and 6.9 bar.
After a quench with aqueous sodium hydroxide and inline
separation, chlorodiphenylmethane was produced in 97% yield
(Scheme 115a). This solution was used to alkylate piperazine
249 at 150 °C and 17.2 bar to produce 250 in 95% yield
(Scheme 115b). Concurrently, cinnamyl chloride 252 was
prepared by the chlorodehydroxylation of cinnamyl alcohol 251
(Scheme 115c). This stream was quenched with aqueous
sodium hydroxide, separated inline, collected, and combined
with the output containing 250. Methanol was added in
equivolume amounts to prevent precipitation of the HCl salts,
and the mixture was heated at 100 °C at 6.9 bar (Scheme
115d). With this complete process, cinnarizine 253 was isolated chloride gas was reacted with a stream of neat 2,6-
in 82% yield with respect to diphenylmethanol 247. The difluorobenzyl alcohol 254 at 110 °C at 7 bar. The
chlorodehydroxylation setup was used to produce 13 different corresponding benzyl chloride was obtained after a 40 min
alkyl chlorides in 12−99% yield. The alkylation setup was also residence time and was combined with an aqueous solution of
utilized to synthesize five alkylated tertiary amines in 63−97% sodium hydroxide and sodium azide which reacted at 160 °C
yield. for 40 min. After exiting the back pressure regulator, the
The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction between azides and mixture was separated inline and collected, yielding azide 255
alkynes was pioneered by Huisgen in the 1960’s.559 Later, this in 98%. The azide was finally combined with (E)-methyl 3-
reaction reemerged with the coinage of the term “click methoxyacrylate 256 and reacted at 210 °C for 15 min before
chemistry”560 and the development of the Cu alkyne−azide being quenched with methanol. Upon cooling, the target
cycloaddition (CuAAC).561 Conveniently, small molecules compound 257 was obtained in 82% overall yield.
bearing 1,2,3-triazole groups have a wide range of biological Imidazoles are biologically important molecules, especially as
activities.562 The 1,2,3-triazole rufinamide 42 is an anticonvul- herbicides and potential drug candidates.566 Common indus-
sant that has been targeted by various groups for greener, less- trial methods utilize the Debus-Radzisewski reaction567,568 or
expensive syntheses. Zhang et al. used methyl propionate in the the dehydrogenation of imidazolines.569 Alternatively, imida-
continuous flow total synthesis of rufinamide 42.306 Mudd et al. zoles can be synthesized by the cyclization of α-amido ketones
reported batch conditions using (E)-methyl 3-methoxyacrylate with ammonia. Researchers at Eli Lilly conducted the synthesis
256; however, these conditions necessitated multiple reagent of imidazole 260 using two continuous flow reactors (Scheme
additions over the course of 28 h at elevated temperatures.563 117).570 The cyclization was accomplished by mixing a solution
Noël and Hessel argued that the high cost of methyl propionate of α-amido ketone 258 and acetic acid in methanol with a
and its demand for a transition-metal catalyst may be a hurdle solution of ammonium acetate in methanol. The process was
for production scale. For this reason, they developed a flow operated for 20 h at 140 °C and 69 bar, producing a total of
process for Mudd’s conditions which were inconveniently long 1009.5 g (75%) of imidazole 259. A second flow process was
and posed safety risks.564 They found that at 210 °C, the applied for the tert-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc) deprotection. A
residence time decreased from hours to minutes. Using their solution of 259 in THF/MeOH was pumped through a heated
previously developed conditions for the synthesis of alkyl reactor at 270 °C and 69 bar with a 15 min residence time,
chlorides with HCl gas,247 the authors combined the two producing deprotected imidazole 260 in 80% yield.
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Scheme 117. Rapid Synthesis of a 1H-4-Substituted Since scaling microwave reactions is difficult, Yokozawa et al.
Imidazole Intermediate in a Flow Reactor developed a highly efficient microwave flow reactor.572 The
authors tested their setup using two typical high-temperature
reactions: the Diels−Alder reaction and the Fischer indole
synthesis (Scheme 119). A solution of alkyne 267 and furan
Approximately 80−90% of hydrazine is incorporated into achieved in less than 20 min. A later report by researchers at
organic derivatives such as pesticides and pharmaceuticals.578 Pfizer created temperature-residence time maps and reaffirmed
The remainder of the applications utilize hydrazine as a the Kappe group’s findings that high catalyst loadings favor side
reducing agent.579 Cantillo et al. utilized hydrazine for the reactions.588 In their setup, a solution of aryl iodide, n-butyl
reduction of aromatic nitro compounds 276 by employing in acrylate, N,N-diisopropylethylamine, and 0.05 mol % Pd(OAc)2
situ generated iron oxide nanocrystals as a catalyst.580,581 in acetonitrile was pumped through a heated reactor at 200 °C
Optimized batch microwave conditions indicated that just 0.25 (Scheme 122). Gram scale reactions for five substrates resulted
mol % of Fe(acac)3 precatalyst in methanol was required for full in good-to-very good yields at only 5 min residence time.
conversion of nitrobenzene at 150 °C after 2 min. The same
reaction mixture was pumped through a heated reactor (150 Scheme 122. Phosphine-Free Heck Reactions in Flow
°C), resulting in complete conversion to aniline 277 with a 1.8
min residence time (Scheme 121). The authors found that the
ature to 200 °C and the gas flow rate to 25 mL min−1, 4- Scheme 125. Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution of
cyanobenzaldehyde was fully converted to benzonitrile in 25 Heterocycles in Flow
min. Ten different aldehydes were decarbonylated in fair-to-
very good yields. Notably, decarbonylation of 281 yielded
chromene 282 85% yield. The previously reported batch
conditions employed diglyme at reflux (∼162 °C) for 16 h and
only afforded 39% yield.
7.3. Reactions above 200 °C
In the synthesis of amitriptyline 285, the Kirschning group
prepared ketone 18 in flow via a Wurtz-type coupling and a
Parham cyclization.205 Addition to the ketone using Grignard aromatic substitution in batch requires 8−32 h at reflux in a
283, followed by the elimination of water using 7 M HCl to formamide solvent (153 °C for DMF).607,608 Acidic additives
form amitriptyline was reported in batch.599 To avoid using such as para-toluenesulfonic acid, acetic acid, and ammonium
such highly corrosive conditions, the authors envisaged an chloride afforded dimethylaminopyrdine in poor yield. Aqueous
elimination reaction of alcohol 284 under high-temperature potassium carbonate produced the product in 45% yield in a
conditions without added acid (Scheme 124). The Grignard microwave batch reactor; however, precipitation occurred
preventing this process from being adapted to flow. When an
Scheme 124. Continuous Flow Grignard Addition and aqueous ammonia solution was used, the N,N-dimethyl-3-
Elimination with Inductive Heating nitropyridine-2-amine was produced in 76% and 93% in
microwave and flow reactors, respectively. With the use of
ammonia as an additive, the optimal temperature for the
generation of dimethylamine was 240 °C with a residence time
of 30 min. Half of the substrates were reacted under these
conditions (Scheme 126a); however, some substrates or
Temperatures from 120 to 210 °C provided no product, and pyrimidines (R1 = OMe, O(CH2)2CCH) were significantly less
the addition of DBU to promote the loss of water also failed. reactive, with yields of 23% and 16%, respectively.
The addition of Brønsted acids such as trifluoroacetic acid Dimethylcarbonate (DMC) is a green solvent and reagent.617
(TFA), led to the production of small amounts of the annulated At lower temperatures, it can be used as a methoxycarbonylat-
pyridines; however, the conversion could not be increased due ing reagent, while at higher temperatures it acts as a
to high pressure (>13.8 bar) and subsequent instrument methylating reagent. Various examples are reported for
shutdown. In light of this, the authors adapted this reaction to methylation in flow, most of which focus on ether syn-
flow since higher temperatures and pressures are safely reached. thesis.618−624 In one example, Glasnov et al. described the use
Increasing the temperature from 210 to 230 °C increased the of catalytic base for methylating indoles, phenols, thiophenols,
yield from 17% to 58%. Extending the residence time from 60 and carboxylic acids.625 Microwave batch optimization using
to 120 min further increased the yield to 75% (Scheme 127). indole 299 showed that at low temperatures (90 °C)
conversion was low and the formation of N-methoxycarbonyl
Scheme 127. Kondrat’eva Reaction in Flow was favored. Increasing the temperature to 230 °C resulted in
99% conversion with the N-methylated compound 300 as the
primary component. Increasing the reaction time from 10 to 20
min resulted in full conversion and no detectable methox-
ycarbonyl compound. Without added base, the conversion was
lower (85%) and product selectivity favored the N-methox-
ycarbonyl product. Transition to a flow reactor and further
intensification showed that at 285 °C and 150 bar, the
conversion of indole 299 to 1-methylindole 300 was complete
with only a 3 min residence time (Scheme 129). Using this
This setup was used for the synthesis of 12 different annulated setup, ten substrates were methylated in fair-to-excellent yields.
pyridines and was run continuously for 6.75 h without
significant fluctuations in the pressure to produce 6.9 g of Scheme 129. Methylation Using Dimethylcarbonate in Flow
pyridine 296 in 60% yield (Scheme 127).
Alternatively, annulated pyridines can be reached via an
inverse-electron-demand Diels−Alder reaction with pyrimi-
dines and alkynes.615 Martin et al. revisited this reaction owing
to the ease with which high-temperature and pressure can be
reached in flow.616 Previous reports used high boiling solvents
such as nitrobenzene which is toxic and must be removed by
column chromatography. Flow conditions using a 17.2 bar back
pressure regulator permitted the use of toluene as a solvent. The tert-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc) protecting group is by far
Initially, the reaction of pyrimidine 297 at 210 °C produced the most widely used group for amines, constituting over 50%
only 1% of the desired pyridine 298. Increasing the temperature of all amine-related protecting group manipulations in the
to 250 °C resulted in a considerable increase in yield (49%) and synthesis of drug candidates.626 Acidic conditions are widely
extending the residence time from 20 to 50 min resulted in 96% employed for deprotection; however, electron-rich substrates
conversion. However, with extended operation times, the and other acid labile groups are not tolerated. As such, more
channel clogged with a black polymer-like substance. tolerant conditions have been developed like the thermal
Hypothesizing that this was a result of HCN polymerization, removal of Boc.627−629 Recently, researchers from AbbVie
the authors included 3-pentanone (1% v/v) in order to trap described a continuous flow reactor for the Boc-deprotection of
HCN by the formation of a cyanohydrin. These conditions amines in mere minutes.630 Initially, when Boc-protected 301
were stable over many hours without pressure spikes or reactor was pumped through a reactor at 200 °C with a residence time
fouling. For example, after several hours, 21 g (84%) of 5- of 8 min, no product was observed. An 8 min batch microwave
chloro-2,3-dihydro-1H-indene (R1 = Cl, A = CH2, R2, R3, R4 = reaction corroborated these results. Increasing the temperature
H) was produced using this setup. Since substrates where A = to 300 °C resulted in full conversion; however, only 52% of the
O or NH are known to be much less reactive, the temperature desired product was formed as a result of numerous other side-
was elevated to 310 °C, and the pressure increased to 51.7 bar products. Shortening the residence time to 2 min reduced the
(Scheme 128). With the use of these conditions, 20 other number of side-products and resulted in 80% yield of the
examples were produced in 16−95% yield. Alkoxy-substituted desired compound 302 (Scheme 130a). Another 13 amines
such as secondary amine 304 were produced by Boc-
Scheme 128. Annulated Pyridines by an Intramolecular deprotection in over 90% yield. An additional six compounds
Inverse-Electron−Demand Hetero Diels-Alder Reaction containing a second protecting group were selectively
deprotected in 54−95% yield (Scheme 130b, 305−307).
Finally, the authors demonstrated the versatility of this setup
by incorporating it into a multistep process (Scheme 130c).
Sulfonylation of amine 309 with sulfonyl chloride 308 was
carried out at ambient temperature before mixing with a
solution of 2-chloro-5-nitropyridine 310. This solution was
reacted at 300 °C and 100 bar, which was sufficient for Boc
deprotection of 311. The subsequent nucleophilic aromatic
substitution yielded 312 in 81% after flash chromatography.
11858 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
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Chemical Reviews Review
Scheme 130. (a) Continuous Flow Boc Cleavage. (b) Scheme 131. Continuous Flow Claisen Rearrangement and
Selected Examples Which Demonstrate Excellent Functional Downstream Hydrogenations in the Synthesis of (a) 2-
Group Tolerance. (c) Multistep Process Incorporating Boc Propylphenol and (b) 2-Propyl-Cyclohexanone
Cleavage Process
flow rate. The ease with which temperature and reaction time
can be varied facilitated rapid parameter screening and
optimization for each individual substrate. For example, the
unsaturated compound 317 was reacted at 350 °C with a 10
min residence time affording biphenyl compound 318 in 96%
yield (Scheme 132a). Other substrates such as imine 319,
The temperature was gradually increased from 250 to 350 °C. steel reactors offer temperature and pressure regimes that
The best conversion occurred at 350 °C and notably, there cannot easily be reached in batch.
were no side-products observed. Increasing the residence time
from 10 to 25 min resulted in 94% conversion of benzoic acid 8. TRACELESS REAGENTS IN FLOW: PHOTO- AND
to benzonitrile (Scheme 133). This setup tolerated functional ELECTROCHEMISTRY
When continuous processing entered organic chemistry
Scheme 133. Continuous Flow Preparation of Nitriles from
laboratories, researchers immediately realized that flow
Carboxylic Acids in Supercritical Acetonitrile
techniques complimented photo- as well as electrochemical
transformations. These reactions use traceless reagents (i.e.,
photons or electrons) and strongly benefit from the small
dimensions. In addition, the accurate control of process
parameters (reaction time and temperature) enhances the
potential of these powerful reactions. Therefore, flow chemical
groups well. Nitriles containing halo-, nitro-, phenol, and ester techniques strongly contributed to the recent revitalization of
groups were produced in good-to-excellent yield. Furans, these long-known methodologies.
thiophenes, and alkyl carboxylic acids were also obtained in 8.1. Photochemistry
good-to-very good yields. Using light to accelerate a chemical reaction is undoubtedly one
Water at very high temperature and pressure exhibits very of the most promising possibilities to access more sustainable
different properties than at room temperature. The polarity is chemical manipulations. In contrast to conventional reagents,
lower, and the ionic constants and diffusion coefficient are photons are not only traceless but also nontoxic. However, a
increased. This helps to improve solubility of organic serious problem limiting photochemical transformations on
compounds and can increase the rates of reactions. Addition- larger scales arises from the logarithmic decrease of the
ally, workup and purification procedures can be expedited after transmission of light as a function of path length through a
cooling back to room temperature. Nagao et al. exploited these liquid medium (Beer−Lambert−Bouguer law). Consequently,
benefits in the synthesis of benzazoles using water as a solvent the reaction mixture is inefficiently irradiated, and low reaction
at high temperature and pressure.652 Benzazole derivatives have rates are obtained. This issue is elegantly avoided by changing
diverse applications as fluorescent molecules, pharmaceuticals, from conventional batch processes to continuous flow
veterinary anthelmintics, and fungicides.653−655 Benzazole approaches.657 The large surface-to-volume ratio ensures
synthesis is commonly achieved by reaction of ortho-phenyl- increased irradiation efficiency for the entire solution. This
enediamines by reaction with carbonyls or carbonyl equiv- not only results in significantly intensified protocols but also
alents.656 For initial optimization, Nagao et al. cyclized N-[2- allows for scaling these chemistries to synthetically useful
(phenylamino)phenyl]benzamide. At 400 °C and 300 bar, the quantities. Due to these fundamental advantages, flow
corresponding benzazole 327 was produced in 59% yield. processing is routinely used in all areas of photochemistry
Increasing the pressure from 300 to 450 bar increased the yield and one of the most important subfields of continuous organic
to 94%, and increasing the temperature to 445 °C afforded the synthesis. A recent review covering the theoretical, techno-
benzazole product quantitatively. Attempts to perform this logical, and historical aspects of the field of flow-photo-
reaction in batch were fruitless, yielding only 9−12% of the chemistry in organic synthesis was recently published.64
desired product after 24 h at reflux. To demonstrate the Therefore, this section will be restricted to representative
applicability of this process, the N-acylation and cyclization examples and publications which appeared since 2016.
were performed (Scheme 134). A solution of anhydride 325 Most flow reactors for photochemical applications are
basically light transparent chips or coil reactors placed adjacent
Scheme 134. Flow Synthesis of Benzazole Derivatives in to a light source. A number of different home-built or
Water commercially available setups and arrangements exist, and the
technological aspects of continuous photoreactors have been
discussed thoroughly.62,64,658−660
8.1.1. Photoexcitation of Substrates. Reactions which
are induced by UV light involve various powerful trans-
formations such as rearrangements, cycloadditions, cyclizations,
or radical chain processes and have a plethora of applications in
the synthesis of valuable molecules.661 Under photochemical
conditions, an active molecule can be transformed into its
excited electronic state, enabling transformations that are
usually inaccessible by other synthetic methods. Chemical
structures with high complexity can be generated in a single
and diamine 326 in NMP were combined with preheated water photochemical step, sometimes even without any additional
and reacted at 445 °C and 450 bar. Benzazoles containing halo-, reagents. Such strategies are therefore particularly interesting in
nitro-, methoxy-, and trifluoromethyl groups were produced in the context of green and sustainable manufacturing.
90−99% yield. Additionally, benzoxazoles (X = O) and Among all photochemical transformations, [2 + 2] cyclo-
benztohiazoles (X = S) were produced in 69−99% yield. additions are one of the most studied classes of transformations
While many heated reactions can be carried out in sealed in organic synthesis and are a straightforward approach to
vials with conventional or microwave heating, flow conditions cyclobutane derivatives from olefins. One of the first reports on
offer an easy option for scaling reactions. Additionally, stainless continuous [2 + 2] photocycloadditions between cyclo-
11860 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
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Chemical Reviews Review
hexenones and vinyl acetates was published by Ryu and co- complex reaction mixture was obtained. Conversely, a temper-
workers,662 and since then a plethora of studies utilizing a broad ature of 30 °C gave a cleaner reaction profile but the conversion
range of starting materials and conditions were reported.64 In was below 80%. This issue was resolved by using a filter placed
an attempt to extend the scope of this transformation to more between the coil and light source which provided an almost
challenging starting materials, Beeler and co-workers studied monochromatic irradiation of 365 nm. These modified
the [2 + 2] photocycloaddition of methyl cinnamate 328 in conditions resulted in full conversion and good selectivity
flow (Scheme 135).663 Initial experiments using a coil reactor (84%) without the need for active cooling. On a preparative
scale, the authors isolated 1.56 g (76%) of the API 331 within 4
Scheme 135. Continuous [2 + 2] Photocycloaddition of h, thus showing the potential of photochemical flow techniques
Methyl Cinnamate Using a Hydrogen-Bonding Catalyst for larger scale synthesis of valuable molecules.
UV irradiation can be used to trigger chemical reactions via
photoinduced electron transfer processes. When an organo-
halide is irradiated in the presence of a stoichiometric amount
of an electron donor such as a tertiary amine, a radical
dehalogenation can take place to generate a carbon radical. This
strategy can be used for intramolecular cyclizations, which
usually require an H-donating radical mediator such as
Bu3SnH.669 Ryu and co-workers used a stainless steel chip
reactor (width 1 mm, depth 200 μm) equipped with a quartz
cover to initiate 5-exo-dig cyclizations in continuous flow
(Scheme 137).670 Residence times of 3.8−8 min were sufficient
illuminated at wavelengths above 305 nm gave modest
Scheme 137. Photochemically Induced 5-exo-dig Radical
conversions within 8 h. On the basis of earlier reports using
Cyclizations in a Chip Reactor
macromolecular host−guest systems,664,665 the authors hy-
pothesized that this process can be improved by a dual
hydrogen-bonding catalyst to template the substrates and thus
facilitate dimerization. Moreover, the catalyst could further
contribute to reaction enhancement by lowering the HOMO/
LUMO gap of the coupling partners. A thiourea derivative 329
improved the conversion from 29 to 76% (60% isolated). The
diastereoselectivity also improved significantly compared to the
uncatalyzed process. As a result of mechanistic investigations, for moderate-to-excellent yields using a low-pressure mercury
the authors suggested a triplet sensitization effect in addition to lamp (254 nm) at a concentration of 0.1 M. For comparison, a
the proposed templating. The generality of their catalytic reaction in a quartz test tube (1.3 cm i.d.) showed low
methodology was tested on several cinnamates, and similar conversion (13%) under these conditions. The authors used a
improvements were obtained in all cases. larger flow reactor (width 2 mm, depth 1 mm) to produce ∼4 g
Rearrangements are another class of important photo- of a representative cyclic product within 18 h (residence time
chemical reactions. They can offer useful strategies for the 20 min).
synthesis of valuable molecules via reversible or irreversible Photochemistry is a standard technique for the chlorination
isomerization. The synthesis of the anti-inflammatory drug of hydrocarbons on an industrial scale.671 These free-radical
ibuprofen is one the classic examples for API production in chain reactions are initiated by homolytic fission of Cl2 under
continuous flow and has been accomplished by the groups of UV irradiation. Reactions involving Cl2 are usually avoided on
Jamison666 and McQuade667 using purely thermal reactions. In laboratory scales due to safety hazards. To circumvent these
2016, Baxendale and co-workers presented an alternative safety limitations, the groups of Kappe246 and Ryu672 reported
approach based on a photochemical Favorskii rearrangement on the continuous, on-demand generation of Cl2, which was
of an α-halopropiophenone intermediate 330 which can be utilized for the photochlorination of alkanes in a downstream
synthesized via a Friedel−Crafts acylation of isobutylbenzene process. Aqueous solutions of HCl and NaOCl were mixed in a
with chloropropionyl chloride.668 The α-chloroketone 330 and T-mixer which ultimately resulted in the formation of gaseous
2-methyloxirane were dissolved in an acetone/water mixture Cl2.672 The resulting stream was mixed with the neat
and pumped through a coil reactor which was wrapped around hydrocarbon and pumped through a glass chip reactor
a medium pressure metal halide lamp (Scheme 136). A detailed irradiated with a 352 nm light source (Scheme 138). After
study on the reaction conditions revealed that temperatures the reactor unit, the reaction mixture was quenched with
above 80 °C led to full conversion of 330 within 20 min, but a
Scheme 138. Photochemical Chlorination of Hydrocarbons
Scheme 136. Continuous Synthesis of Ibuprofen by a Photo- Using On-Demand Generated Cl2
Favorskii Rearrangement
Na 2 SO 3 . For all tested substrates, the photochemical Scheme 141. Photochemical Borylation of Aryl Halides
chlorination was complete within a maximum residence time under Continuous Flow Conditions
of 1 min, yielding the desired products in good-to-excellent
yields as determined by GC-analysis.
Similarly, Kappe and co-workers demonstrated the in situ
generation of bromine azide for the photochemical 1,2-
bromoazidation of aromatic olefins (Scheme 139).673 The
a practical point of view, mainly differ in their solubility and demonstrated by using simulated moving bed chromatography
absorption spectra in the visible region of light. and continuous crystallization.172 The optimized continuous
The vast majority of examples were performed in similar system enabled the isolation of the target compound in 62%
gas−liquid photochemical reactors (Scheme 143).677 In with a purity of 99.9%. We expanded our flow protocol for the
synthesis of all active pharmaceutical ingredients for ACTs
Scheme 143. General Continuous Flow Setup for the following a modular approach, which also included inline
Generation and Utilization of Singlet Oxygen purification via continuous filtration, multicolumn chromatog-
raphy, and crystallization.270
Amara et al. developed a more sustainable alternative to the
aforementioned approach using liquid CO2 and a dual-function
heterogeneous catalyst (Scheme 145).681 The catalyst was
Scheme 148. Visible Light Decarboxylative Michael Addition Scheme 150. Dual Catalytic Cross-Coupling in Flow for the
Using an Acridinium Photoredox Catalyst under Flow Synthesis of Cycloalkyl-Substituted 7-Azaindoles
Conditions
Scheme 152. Photocatalytic Aerobic Oxidation of Thiols to higher activity compared to other PRCs such as Ru2+(bpy)3 and
Disulfides Using (a) Homogeneous and (b) Heterogeneous Ir3+(ppy)3. In the final flow approach, a solution of 335 and
Photoredox Catalysts substrate in THF was pumped through a tube-in-tube gas
loading unit and subsequently irradiated in a coil reactor at a
back pressure of 8 bar. Within a 3.33 h residence time, a series
of carbazoles were synthesized in good-to-excellent yields.
Moreover, a numbering-up strategy was presented to improve
the productivity to ∼1 g d−1.
The incorporation of trifluoromethyl groups into organic
compounds is an extremely active research area due to the
importance of this structural motif for medicinal chemistry as
well as crop and material sciences.710 Among the plethora of
reagents which can be used as CF3 sources, CF3I is particularly
interesting due to its high atom economy and relatively low
cost. Noël and co-workers developed a series of strategies for
utilizing this gaseous reagent in the continuous trifluoromethy-
lation of thiols,711,712 heterocycles,713,714 and styrenes715 via
photoredox catalysis. The latter is particularly interesting since
it not only allows for trifluoromethylations (Scheme 154a) but
optimized in batch, resulting in a combination of [Ir- found that for the photocatalytic reduction of azides with
(ppy)2(dtbbpy)][PF6] 333, DIPEA, and DCE for acceptable hydrazine, their recycling strategy is applicable without a
conversion and selectivity. The realization of a continuous significant decrease in the catalytic activity over five process
version of their protocol was achieved by mixing the gaseous cycles (Scheme 157).
reagent with the liquid producing a slug flow regime. Prior to Rackl et al. synthesized a polyisobutylene-tagged fac-Ir(ppy)3
irradiation, a small residence time unit was installed for better complex [Ir(ppy)2(PIB-ppy)] which could be continuously
mixing. Further, a system pressure of 6.9 bar was utilized to recycled and reused with a thermomorphic solvent system
increase the solubility of the gaseous fluorine source. (Scheme 158).719 The photoredox-catalyzed isomerization of
More recently, the same group developed a photoredox
process for the activation of carbon dioxide in the α- Scheme 158. Continuous Recycling of Polyisobutylene-
carboxylation of amines (Scheme 156).717 The potential of Tagged fac-Ir(ppy)3 Complex [Ir(ppy)2(PIB-ppy)] Using a
Thermomorphic Solvent System
Scheme 156. Carboxylation of Amines with CO2 Using
Continuous Photoredox Catalysis
Figure 32. (a) Concept of luminescent solar concentrators (LSCs). a carbon/polymer anode (C-Anode) and a stainless steel
(b) A LSC chip reactor fabricated from PDMS doped with the cathode (SS-Cathode) was utilized with different reactor
fluorescent dye Lumogen F red 305 for harvesting sunlight. Reprinted geometries such as a rectangular device with a “snaking”
with permission from ref 721. Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons. microchannel729,730 and a round cell design with a star-
shaped116 or spiral107,731 channel pattern. In the latter case, the
diphenylanthracene using sunlight during a partly cloudy authors showed that by using a 0.2 M solution of 352 at high
summer day; the researchers showed that this reactor is flow rate (16 mL min−1) and cell currents (12 A), 353 was
significantly more efficient than a nondoped version. Never- produced in high yields (84%) within a residence time of 19 s
theless, this promising concept has to be expanded to a broader (productivity of 20.7 g h−1). Pitting of the carbon-based anode
range of wavelengths to access more powerful photocatalysts, in was observed at cell currents above 10 A but had no effect on
particular PRCs which usually absorb wavelengths below 500 the performance of the reaction system. Nevertheless, this
nm. pitting issue is detrimental to long-term experiments, and
8.2. Electrochemistry therefore alternative anode materials or less aggressive
conditions should be considered.
In electrochemical processes, chemical reactions take place at
Similarly, Ley and co-workers applied the continuous Shono
the interface of an electrode and an ionic conductor
oxidation methodology to access the natural product Nazlinine
(electrolyte). The setups are either undivided cells where the
and related congeners (Scheme 160).732 The authors did not
anodic oxidation and the cathodic reduction occur within the
same compartment or divided cells where the oxidation and
reduction chamber are physically separated by a semiporous Scheme 160. Shono Oxidation of N-Protected Cyclic Amines
membrane (section 3.4.4). Electrochemical methods are used in Flow
on an industrial scale for the production of commodity
chemicals such as the chloralkali process for the production Cl2
and caustic soda, the electrochemical production of elemental
Al from aluminum oxide in the Hall-Héroult process, and the
electrosynthesis of adiponitrile from acrylonitrile.723 Never-
theless, examples of electrochemistry in synthetic organic
chemistry are extremely rare in the scientific literature, which is
relatively surprising since instead of stoichiometric oxidants/ observe any conversion with a stainless steel or platinum-coated
reductants, electric current is used as a traceless re- anode. A carbon anode, on the other hand, gave quantitative
agent.105,724−726 In a recent outlook on synthetic organic conversions and excellent selectivity (95%) at a current density
electrochemistry, it was argued that electrochemistry is feared of 49 mA cm−2 in the presence of Et4NBF4. The system proved
by organic chemists due to sophisticated setups and a lack of completely stable during a 14 h experiment in which 10 mmol
“standard” instrumentation for preparative electrolysis.105 In of the N-Boc pyrrolidine was successfully processed. The
other words, electrochemistry is not considered a standard authors further showed that LiBF4 lowered selectivity (85%).
technique in organic synthesis but more as the last option when Under optimized conditions, a small library of α-methoxylated
other possibilities have failed. N-protected cyclic amines was prepared in excellent isolated
The availability of commercial flow electrochemistry devices yields. The researchers further presented a subsequent Pictet-
may be able to address these issues, allowing for a Spengler reaction between the electro-synthesized N-Boc α-
straightforward and convenient access to organic electro- methoxypyrrolidine and tryptamine derivatives yielding nazli-
chemistry.40,151 Electrochemical reactions in flow offer the nine and related congeners in a batch microwave reactor.
11868 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
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Chemical Reviews Review
In the Kolbe electrolysis, a carboxylic acid undergoes Scheme 162. Anodic Coupling of Creosol with 1,2,4-
electrochemical decarboxylation generating a carbon-centered Trimethoxybenzene in Flow
radical which reacts with alkenes forming a new C−C bond.725
In 1991, Uneyama reported the generation of a CF3 radical
from trifluoroacetic acid for trifluoromethylation reactions.733
On the basis of their previous experience with the continuous
Kolbe electrolysis,734 Wirth and colleagues chose TFA due to
the high economic potential as a CF3 source. The electro-
chemical reactor consisted of a cathode and anode made out of
Pt foil with a FEP flow channel situated between (Scheme acid, but this reaction suffered from a large amount of
161).735 The reaction of acrylates with TFA, forming the homocoupling. Methanol was used to reduce homocoupling;
however, also had a negative impact on the overall yield.
Scheme 161. Electrochemical Trifluoromethylation The in situ electrogeneration of ortho-benzoquinone 360
Reactions of Electron-Deficient Alkenes with TFA from catechol 359 in the reaction with thiophenols by a
Michael-type addition resulted in unsymmetrical aromatic
disulfides (Scheme 163).739 Initial experiments of this reaction
Scheme 164. (a) Anodic Oxidation of a Breslow achieved using a cell current of 20 mA. At 10 mA, a significantly
Intermediate Resulting in an Activated Acyl Species and Its lower conversion (54%) was obtained, whereas higher currents
Application for the Oxidative (b) Esterification and (c) resulted in a drop in selectivity. The optimized conditions were
Amidation of Aldehydes in Continuous Flow applied on a set of 15 different primary and secondary alcohols,
including benzylic, allylic, and aliphatic species. Most benzylic
and allylic alcohols resulted in good-to-excellent isolated yields,
whereas aliphatic alcohols were somewhat less reactive.
Overoxidation was observed at longer residence times
inhibiting further improvements to yield.
Organic electrochemistry is not just a potentially useful tool
for accessing sustainable alternatives for synthetic procedures
but can be used to simulate the metabolism of drugs.745 In the
liver, a drug can be oxidized by cytochrome P450 (CYP450)
and the outcome of this hepatic oxidation is crucial for drug
development processes. Stalder and Roth utilized a continuous
flow electrolytic cell to mimic this oxidation process for five
different commercially available drugs in order to produce 10−
100 mg of the respective metabolites for full characterization.746
The main electrochemical oxidation products for the anodic
oxidation of diclofenac 363, primidone 366, albendazole 368,
and chlorpromazine 370 in an undivided cell reactor were in
good agreement with known metabolites (Scheme 166). The
Scheme 167. Oxidation of Tolbutamide in a Divided Cell Scheme 169. Deprotection of iNoc Protected Phenols in an
Reactor Electrochemical Flow Reactor
its scalability, allowing for straightforward access to isolatable the case of iNoc protected amines, as the carbamate seems to
quantities of metabolic products for full characterization. be stable under their electrochemical conditions.
8.2.2. Cathodic Reduction. For the reduction of func- The group of Atobe utilized a cathodic reduction process for
tional groups, chemists usually consider well-established generating a 2-pyrrolidone anion 377,750 which can be used as a
methods using metal hydrides (LAH, NaBH4, and DIBAL), reagent for follow up chemistries (Scheme 170).751,752 Their
transition metal catalyzed hydrogenation/hydrogenolysis re-
actions, or single electron-reducing agents such as sodium. Scheme 170. Electrogeneration of a 2-Pyrrolidine Anion for
Electrochemistry offers a sustainable alternative via cathodic (a) Trichloromethylation of Benzaldehyde and (b)
reduction which overcomes the economic and environmental Monoalkylation of Methyl Phenylacetate
implications associated with traditional procedures. Waldvogel
and co-workers surveyed different methods for the dehaloge-
nation of the spirocyclopropane-proline derivative 374, which is
a key step in the synthetic route toward NS5A inhibitors.747,748
A Birch reduction gave 65% of the desired compound, though a
significant amount of ring-opening side products were obtained.
Further, hydrogenolysis with Pd/C (48% yield) also suffered
from several side products and a tedious product purification.
Therefore, the authors developed an electrochemical process
via reduction on a leaded bronze (LB, CuSn7Pb15) cathode in
an electrochemical batch reactor to afford the desired
compound 375 in 93% isolated yield on a multigram scale. In
order to make this process industrially applicable, the authors
developed a divided flow electrolysis cell (Scheme 168).747 By
Table 9. Recent Publications for the Automated Optimization of Reactions in Flow Reactors
entry reaction parameters analysis notes
1 CdSe nanoparticle synthesis761 temperature, residence time, and fluorescence
stoichiometry
2 Knoevenagel condensation, benzyl temperature, residence time, and HPLC yield, throughput, and selectivity were optimized
alcohol oxidation762 concentration
3 Diels−Alder763 temperature, residence time, and HPLC kinetic information was used for a 500-fold scale-up.
concentration
4 Heck reaction764 residence time and stoichiometry HPLC 50-fold scale up
5 alcohol etherification in temperature, pressure, sCO2 flow rate, and GC and IR
sCO2624,765−767 stoichiometry
6 Paal-Knorr reaction768 temperature and residence time IR incorporation of an Armijo-type line-search
algorithm increased efficiency
7 nucleophilic aromatic substitution769 temperature, residence time, HPLC
concentration, and stoichiometry
8 phenylisocyanate with t-butanol770 temperature, residence time, and IR time-varying experiments reduce the amount of
concentration material used
9 Petasis-Ugi reactions771 temperature and residence time UPLC
10 monoalkylation of an amine759 temperature, residence time, LC−MS droplet screening system which permitted
stoichiometry, and solvent automated solvent screening
772
11 imine formation residence time and volume fraction NMR
12 nitrile hydrolysis to an amide, Appel temperature, residence time, MS and IR
reaction773 concentration, and stoichiometry
13 Heck-Matsuda reaction774 temperature, residence time, GC-MS optimized for maximum yield, highest throughput,
stoichiometry, and catalyst loading and lowest production cost
14 aminocarbonylation775 temperature, residence time, GC and IR
stoichiometry, and pressure
776
15 amidation temperature, residence time, and HPLC
stoichiometry
16 Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling760 temperature, residence time, catalyst HPLC droplet screening system enabling discrete variable
loading, catalyst, and ligand screening
17 amidation777 temperature, residence time, and MS
stoichiometry
18 linear chain growth free radical temperature, residence time, concentration UV/vis,
polymerization778 viscometer,
MALS
19 Pd-catalyzed aziridination779 temperature, residence time, and UV and GC
stoichiometry
As discussed in this section, flow chemical techniques, in reactions utilizing feedback optimization have been summarized
combination with “traceless” reagents such as photons and (Table 9).25,120,124,125,756−758 In general, these setups are
electrons, are highly appealing from a sustainable standpoint, comprised of a reagent delivery system, a temperature-
and due to the benefits of flow reactors, these protocols are controlled reactor, an inline or online analysis device, and a
generally more efficient and easier to scale compared to batch. computer (Figure 33). A LabVIEW program controls the
While photochemical reactions are already routinely carried out delivery system, usually syringe pumps or HPLC pumps, and by
under continuous flow conditions, electrochemistry in flow is varying the flow rates of the respective reagent or solvent feeds,
still in its infancy, which can be attributed to the fact that
it controls the time, stoichiometry, and concentration of the
electrochemistry is generally feared by organic chemists. Due to
the availability of commercial flow electrochemistry devices, this reaction. The temperature, and in some cases pressure (Table
uneasiness toward electrochemistry may change in the future,
resulting in the discovery of new exciting chemical trans-
formations and pathways.
9. FEEDBACK OPTIMIZATION
High-throughput experimentation (HTE) has led to the rapid,
cost-effective identification of optimal conditions for new
transformations.33,119,753 This method facilitates the swift
screening of discrete variables such as solvent, reagents,
catalysts, and ligands. It is, however, less effective at scanning
continuous variables like temperature, reaction time, and
concentration. Automated continuous flow, on the other
hand, can easily vary continuous parameters such as temper-
ature, reaction time, stoichiometry, and concentration but
struggles with changing discrete variables. Recently, feedback
algorithms and real-time reaction optimization methods have
been realized due to the establishment of online and inline flow
analysis.754,755 This area has been reviewed recently, and those Figure 33. Main components of an automated optimization system.
9, entries 5 and 14), are also controlled by LabVIEW. Upon Scheme 172. Setup for the Automated Optimization of
exiting the reactor, the reaction flows through an inline analysis Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Couplings with Precatalyst and
device or is automatically sampled for online analysis. Data Ligand Screening
from this analysis is often exported to Microsoft Excel and
analyzed using MATLAB. A number of mathematical
optimization methods exist for maximizing properties such as
percent conversion, product yield, productivity, and selectivity.
With this algorithm, new reaction parameters are identified and
employed in the next experiment.
Since flow setups struggle to efficiently scan discrete
variables, the majority of the examples to date only optimize
continuous parameters. This is in part due to the setup where
the delivery of stock solutions is invariable. That is, stock
solutions are usually delivered by a single syringe or static lines
for each input stream. By this setup, syringes must be manually
changed or reagent lines manually transferred to other stock formation. Refractive index sensors were used to time the
solutions. Entries 10 and 16, on the other hand, varied discrete addition of a solution of DBU in THF to the droplet. The
parameters with a droplet-based reaction design using a liquid reaction was quenched with a 1:1 solution of acetone/water
handler.759,760 These two examples are particularly promising after exiting the reactor. Online HPLC analysis was performed,
for the rapid self-optimization of discrete and continuous and the data was used to optimize turnover number and yield
variables for a given transformation. for various heteroaryl substrates. Additionally, investigations
Reizman et al. utilized the droplet-based system for the using this system revealed information about the ligands and
optimization of the temperature, residence time, stoichiometry, the mechanism. Between 0.2 and 0.8 equiv of ligand were ideal,
and solvent for the monoalkylation of 1,2-diaminocylochexane and the yield decreased significantly with 2.0 equiv. The
382 with 4-methoxylbenzyl chloride.759 Their setup, in contrast optimal conditions for classes of ligands showed trialkyl/
to other reports, utilized a liquid handler for the injection of triarylphosphine ligands worked best at high temperatures with
samples into the system (Scheme 171). This permitted the short residence times, whereas dialkylbiarylphosphine ligands
were best at lower temperatures and longer residence times.
Scheme 171. Primary Components of the Microliter Slug These two examples highlight how automated feedback
Flow Self-Optimization System with Solvent Screening optimization in flow is a promising alternative to high-
throughput experimentation. It permits the intelligent design
of subsequent reactions, saving time and materials. In addition
to reaction optimization, screening discrete variables can
simultaneously offer insight into reaction mechanisms which
can aid in scale-up or the design of new reactions.
10. CONCLUSIONS
Continuous flow has made immense progress and has been
applied to a vast number of transformations over the past
decade. Recently, the research community has focused on using
formation of droplets of 4-methoxylbenzyl chloride in different the available technology to carry out reactions which
solvents. Nitrogen carried the slugs through the tubing, and a underperform in batch. As such, flow chemistry is finding its
refractive index sensor was used to detect slugs and guarantee niche in the laboratory. Biphasic reactions, especially gas−liquid
accurate injection of 382 into the droplet. The droplets were reactions, are becoming more common in flow since mass-flow
reacted at 30−120 °C for 1−10 min. A continuous stream of controllers enable the precise control over flow rates and
acetic acid in acetonitrile was used as a quench, and a third equivalents. Extremely fast reactions, notably lithiations, have
refractive index sensor was used to time the sampling for remained a prominent part of flow chemistry as subsecond
analysis by HPLC. The pressure of the system was controlled mixing facilitates reactions that cannot be conducted in batch.
with a nitrogen-regulated Parr bomb at 6.9 bar. Increasing the Interestingly, high-temperature and -pressure flow reactions are
temperature too high led to overalkylation. Additionally, the becoming a complementary technique to microwave batch
authors were able to correlate H-bond-donating capacity of the reactions that are poorly scalable. Meanwhile, photochemistry
solvent with the predicted reaction yield. Polar aprotic solvents has seen a reemergence in the past decade, and the small
like DMSO, DMF, and pyridine outperformed other solvents. dimensions of flow reactors have ushered in many reports of
After 93 slug experiments, the yield was optimized to 62%, with photoflow reactions. While electrochemistry remains under-
a residence time of 7.5 min, 78 °C, and 4-methoxylbenzyl developed by comparison, it still remains a promising field since
chloride (1.00 M in DMSO). A scale-up using these optimized the short path lengths allow for reactions to be run with no
conditions afforded 383 in 59% (0.5 g) isolated yield. added electrolytes. Finally, self-optimizing systems are promis-
Using a nearly identical setup (Scheme 172), authors by the ing for expediting organic synthesis. Online and inline analytics
same group carried out an optimization for a Suzuki-Miyaura enable feedback optimization, and useful kinetic and mecha-
coupling.760 Samples of precatalyst, ligand, aryl halide, boronic nistic details can be gleaned from the data. The question now is
acid or boronic pinacol ester, and an internal standard were whether or not these processes can find their place in the
prepared in THF and stored under argon prior to droplet organic chemists’ everyday toolbox.
11873 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
Chem. Rev. 2017, 117, 11796−11893
Chemical Reviews Review
11. DIAGRAM LEGEND continuous flow. After receiving his Ph.D. in 2015, he joined the group
of Professor Peter H. Seeberger for postdoctoral studies. His current
research relates to heterogeneous photoredox catalysis using semi-
conducting materials in batch and flow systems.
Dr. Kerry Gilmore was born in Brewster, Massachusetts in 1984. He
received his Ph.D. in 2012 from Florida State University, during which
time he was a Fulbright Scholar. He then moved to the Max-Planck
Institute of Colloids and Interfaces for postdoctoral work, and in 2014,
he was promoted to Group Leader of the Continuous Chemical
Systems team. His current research interests stem from the controlled
conditions achievable in flow and span mechanistic studies, photo-
chemistry, and the development of novel approaches towards modular
chemical synthesis.
Prof. Peter H. Seeberger studied chemistry in Erlangen (Germany)
and completed his Ph.D. in biochemistry in Boulder (CO). After
postdoctoral work at the Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York,
he was Firmenich Associate Professor with tenure MIT (1998−2003).
After six years as Professor at ETH Zurich, he assumed positions as
Director at the Max-Planck Institute in Potsdam and Professor at the
Free University Berlin. His research interests include the glycosciences
as well as flow chemistry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the Max-
Planck Society and the DAAD.
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