Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

The role of passion and emotions in academic procrastination during a

pandemic (COVID-19)
Sonia Rahimi *, Robert J. Vallerand
Research Laboratory on Social Behavior, Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research examined the role of academic passion and emotions in procrastination. Two studies were con­
Academic procrastination ducted with undergraduate students (Study 1: n = 210, 63% male and 37% female, Mage = 26.93 years, SD =
Academic emotions 5.94 years; Study 2: n = 303, 59% male and 41% female, Mage = 26.13 years, SD = 7.05 years), including one
Harmonious passion
during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of Study 1 showed that obsessive passion was positively related to
Obsessive passion
COVID-19
negative emotions, whereas harmonious passion was negatively related to negative and positively to positive
emotions. In turn, negative emotions positively related to academic procrastination, while positive emotions
prevented it. Study 2 replicated the model of Study 1 and extended it to include the role of students’ passion and
emotions towards their favorite non-academic activity as predictors of academic procrastination. The results of
Study 2 showed that passion and emotions for other activities also predict academic procrastination over and
beyond academic passion and emotions. These findings provide support for the role of passion and emotions in
academic and leisure settings as predictors of academic procrastination behaviors and yield theoretical and
practical implications.

Procrastination refers to the voluntary and needless delay of an
intended action, despite inevitable unfavorable consequences (Steel,
2007). With respect to the educational domain, academic procrastina­
tion is defined as the irrational predisposition to delay the start and/or
completion of an academic assignment/task (e.g., writing papers,
studying, and doing readings, Senécal, Julien, & Guay, 2003). Academic
procrastination has been regarded as an important problem for under­
graduate students and is related to maladaptive outcomes such as low
academic performance (Kim & Seo, 2015), more visits to health care
professionals (Tice & Baumeister, 1997), and negative emotions such as
anxiety (Fee & Tangney, 2000; Özer, Demir, & Ferrari, 2009). Given the
prominent role that academic procrastination occupies in students’
lives, impeding their potential academic success and personal well-
being, it is of fundamental importance to comprehensively understand
the process whereby procrastination is initiated. Past research has
assumed that procrastination takes place on academic tasks that stu­
dents do not like (Steel, 2007). However, can procrastination also occur
on academic activities that students love? And if it does, what is the
process through which it takes place? Thus, the overall objective of this
research was to assess whether students engage in procrastination on
tasks that they love, and if so, are emotions involved in the process, and
does this process take place during the COVID-19 pandemic?
1. Academic procrastination as emotion regulation
Procrastination is traditionally rendered as an undesirable behavior
linked with many problematic psychological variables including a pos­
itive relationship with neuroticism (Hess, Sherman, & Goodman, 2000),
perfectionism (Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992), and demo­
tivation (Patrzek, Grunschel, & Fries, 2012; Steel, 2007), just to name a
few. Many studies have specifically found a significant positive rela­
tionship between academic procrastination and negative emotions, such
as anxiety (e.g., Pychyl, Lee, Thibodeau, & Blunt, 2000), guilt (e.g., Fee
& Tangney, 2000), and boredom (Blunt & Pychyl, 1998). Theoretically,
procrastination can be understood as a form of emotional regulation
(also called misregulation) in which students engage in procrastination to
reduce negative emotions that they experience when they begin to work
on their academic assignments/tasks (Balkis & Duru, 2016; Sirois &
Pychyl, 2013). For example, students who begin writing their final term
papers may suddenly experience anxiety. In an attempt to diminish this
anxiety, they stop writing and start doing something else in its place (e.
g., something enjoyable that reduces their anxiety, such as watching

* Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, P.O. Box 8888, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada.
E-mail address: sonia.rahimi@mail.mcgill.ca (S. Rahimi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110852
Received 15 November 2020; Received in revised form 11 March 2021; Accepted 15 March 2021
Available online 10 May 2021
0191-8869/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand
television or playing an instrument). Their focus on this short-term
mood repair (i.e., lowering anxiety) comes at the expense of their
long-term goals (e.g., getting their paper done, doing well in this class;
Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). In support of conceptualizing procrastination as
affective regulation, recent findings from longitudinal cross-lagged
models showed negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, shame) to positively
predict academic procrastination (Rahimi, 2019).
On the other hand, students who experience positive emotions do not
engage in procrastination (Balkis & Duru, 2016; Rahimi, 2019; Zhou &
Kam, 2016). For example, students who experience hope while doing
their academic tasks indicate that they feel confident that they will be
able to master their learning materials, thereby mitigating procrastina­
tion (Rahimi, 2019). Thus, not only do negative emotions positively
predict academic procrastination, but positive emotions decrease sub­
sequent procrastination behaviors. However, little research has focused
on the determinants of these negative and positive emotional experi­
ences which influence procrastination. One key academic variable that
has been found to predict negative and positive emotions is passion and
as such, it may be involved in procrastination (Vallerand, 2015, 2016).
2. The dualistic model of passion
Passion is defined as a strong inclination towards a given activity that
an individual finds important, derives enjoyment from doing, and de­
votes time and energy pursuing (Vallerand, 2010, 2015; Vallerand et al.,
2003). According to the Dualistic Model of Passion (DMP, Vallerand et al.,
2003), an activity that an individual is passionate about becomes
internalized into their identity, which subsequently fosters the devel­
opment of a predominant type of passion. More specifically, there are
two distinct types of passion called obsessive passion (OP) and harmo­
nious passion (HP, Vallerand, 2010, 2015; Vallerand et al., 2003). OP
results from a controlled internalization concomitant with contingencies
attached to the activity such as self-esteem. Individuals with OP expe­
rience obsessive feelings and difficulties controlling urges to engage in
the activity that they love. For example, a student with an OP for
chemistry may love being in the lab and trying out different formulae.
However, whenever she feels uncertain about what she’s trying, she also
feels negative emotions and threats to her sense of identity as a bur­
geoning chemist that may stall her quest for knowledge. On the other
hand, HP results from an autonomous internalization, involves having
passion for an activity that is in harmony with other activities in one’s
life, and occurs when the activity has been freely accepted into one’s
identity exclusive of contingencies accompanying it. Using the above-
mentioned example, a student with HP would welcome the challenge,
and experience positive emotions and little negative affect in the process
that would propel her to continue on her quest for knowledge in the lab.
These two types of passion are predominant in educational contexts,
each leading to different academic outcomes (for reviews, see Curran,
Hill, Appleton, Vallerand, & Standage, 2015; Ruiz-Alfonso & León,
2016; Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand, Chichekian, & Paquette, in press). OP
has been found to contribute to both well- and ill-being, with more
prominent associations found with negative outcomes such as the
burnout subcomponents of exhaustion and cynicism (Saville, Bureau,
Eckenrode, & Maley, 2018), and rumination (Curran et al., 2015), while
HP leads to beneficial outcomes and contributes to well-being as stu­
dents tap into adaptive processes when they are engaged in their
passionate activity such as flow (Carpentier, Mageau, & Vallerand,
2012), adaptive coping strategies (Schellenberg, Gaudreau, & Crocker,
2013), motivation (Ruiz-Alfonso & León, 2017), as well as deliberate
practice (Vallerand et al., 2007, Study 2).
Although students with OP experience both negative and positive
emotions, they typically experience more pronounced negative
emotional experiences than positive emotions (e.g., anxiety, Bonneville-
Roussy & Vallerand, 2018, Philippe, Vallerand, Houlfort, Lavigne, &
Donahue, 2010; Vallerand et al., 2003; Zhao, St-Louis, & Vallerand,
2015), while students with HP experience more positive emotions and
2
Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852
less negative emotions in such contexts (Philippe et al., 2010; Vallerand
et al., 2003; Zhao et al., 2015). Whereas OP is typically related to
negative emotions which are positively related to procrastination, HP is
positively related to positive emotions, and would be expected to protect
a student against academic procrastination. In sum, there appears to be
evidence placing negative and positive academic emotions as possible
mediators between passion and academic procrastination, yet research
examining such a model is currently lacking.
2.1. Passion and the procrastination model
Given that research has demonstrated that different types of passion
for one’s academic studies lead to different emotional experiences (e.g.,
OP is positively related to negative emotions, while HP is positively
related to positive emotions, Philippe et al., 2010), and such emotions
either positively or negatively influence academic procrastination (e.g.,
negative emotions increase academic procrastination, whereas positive
emotions lead to lower academic procrastination, Rahimi, 2019), a
procrastination model involving passion, emotions, and academic pro­
crastination may be hypothesized. More specifically, students’ OP about
their studies is hypothesized to positively influence negative emotions
which, in turn, lead to academic procrastination. Conversely, students’
HP for their studies should result in higher levels of positive emotions
which negatively relate to academic procrastination. The first objective
of this research was to test this basic procrastination model.
3. The role of passion for a second activity
When students procrastinate, they often put their books down and
engage in other exciting activities such as playing video/smartphone
games, playing a musical instrument and so on (e.g., Klassen et al., 2010;
Pychyl et al., 2000). In such instances, students typically choose to do
pleasant activities, despite their responsibilities to start, or complete
their academic tasks. Whereas doing another activity is sometimes a
planned action (e.g., planned breather leisure coping style, intentional
delay), using more enjoyable activities as a distraction from academic
tasks is positively associated with procrastination (e.g., avoidant coping
style, Patry, Blanchard, & Mask, 2007). According to Sims (2014), one of
the factors explaining academic procrastination is called task competi­
tion. Although seemingly important, the non-academic activity that
students participate in while they engage in procrastination (i.e., the
second activity) and its impact on procrastination behavior has been
overlooked by researchers. In addition, according to the DMP, passion is
not experienced singularly for one activity only (Schellenberg & Bailis,
2015; Vallerand, 2015). On the contrary, one can have a passion for
several activities (e.g., passion for one’s studies and passion for a hobby
such as playing a musical instrument). For instance, Lopes and Vallerand
(2020) showed that having an OP for sport and for a favorite non-sport
activity both led to burnout. Furthermore, Doty et al. (2020) recently
found that OP for a second (non-work) activity promotes procrastination
on a work-related task. Thus, the second objective of the present article
was to examine how students’ passion and emotions towards their fa­
vorite activity other than their studies (i.e., the second activity) impact
their academic procrastination. In light of the passion literature, it
would be expected that having an OP for another activity besides
academia should foster, whereas an HP should be negatively associated
with procrastination (Vallerand, 2010, 2015, 2016).
4. The role of COVID-19
In the current world climate, students are experiencing elevated
levels of negative emotions and distractions due to the global outbreak
of COVID-19. The highly contagious novel coronavirus has quickly
spread on a global scale with over 19.9 million cases and 732,000 deaths
reported worldwide as of August 10th. Earlier this year, The World
Health Organization declared this pandemic a global health emergency
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852

and upon this announcement, Canadian provinces and American states were requested of students. Indeed, the pandemic represented a situa­
closed university campuses and students were asked to complete the tion wherein students could readily engage in procrastination.
remainder of their Winter 2020 terms from home (e.g., online classes) to
help reduce community spread of this virus. However, the imple­ 6. Study 1
mentation of these changes has considerably interfered with students’
academic activities and led to psychological consequences (Jenei, In Study 1, we examined the relationships between students’ passion
Cassidy-Mathews, Virk, Lulie, & Closson, 2020). Recent reports indicate and emotions towards their studies, and academic procrastination. The
that students are experiencing anxiety, confusion and anger during this overarching hypothesis in the study was that OP for academia would
turbulent time (Brooks et al., 2020; Wang & Zhao, 2020). mostly predict negative emotions, and to a lesser extent positive emo­
Furthermore, the shift to online learning from home can make tions, when students were engaging in academic tasks. Conversely, HP
balancing school and work life quite difficult and create additional for one’s studies should positively predict positive, and negatively pre­
conditions to engage in procrastination. While at home in their spare dict negative emotions. In turn, negative emotions should positively,
time, students are watching television, reading, writing, playing games, whereas positive emotions should negatively, predict academic pro­
and searching about the pandemic online (Pan, 2020). Students who crastination (see Fig. 1).
work online from home have increased chances of procrastinating (e.g.,
due to online distractions such as Facebook, Meier, Reinecke, & Meltzer,
6.1. Method
2016; and “Internet Procrastination” behaviors, Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001).
Taken together, given that students procrastinate on their academic
6.1.1. Participants and procedure
tasks most often when they experience negative emotions and when
Participants were 210 undergraduate students who were recruited
distractions are present, examining students’ academic procrastination
via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Participants consisted of 133 males (63%)
while they are home during this pandemic is a rare and unique oppor­
and 77 females (37%), with ages ranging from 19 to 61 years (Mage =
tunity for new insights into this behavioral disposition at a critical time.
26.93 years, SD = 5.94 years) from universities in the United States and
Therefore, the third objective of the present paper was to study pro­
Canada. Most participants were currently studying in the pure and
crastination during the pandemic in Study 2.
applied sciences (e.g., mathematics, computer science, etc., 23.8%) or
social sciences (e.g., psychology, economics, etc., 22.9%). Participants
5. The present research
had to be full-time undergraduate students to qualify for this study.
Before starting the study, participants provided informed consent.
The purpose of the present research was to bridge together the theory
of procrastination as a form of emotion regulation and the DMP in two
6.1.2. Measures
studies, examining the mediating role of emotions between students’
passion and academic procrastination. The main goal of Study 1 was to
6.1.2.1. Passion for one’s studies. The Passion Scale (Marsh et al., 2013;
test the role of students’ passion and emotions towards their studies in
Vallerand et al., 2003) was used to assess students’ passion for their
procrastination within the academic context. Based on previous research
studies. The original passion scale was created to assess passion towards
on passion and affect (e.g., Bonneville-Roussy & Vallerand, 2018; Phil­
a given activity, but we slightly adapted it by changing the words from
ippe et al., 2010; Vallerand et al., 2003; Zhao et al., 2015), OP was
“this activity” to “my studies”. Research has shown the scale to have
assumed to positively relate to both negative and positive emotions,
high levels of validity and reliability with support for the bi-factorial
with its association to negative emotions being stronger, while HP was
structure in over 20 studies and has demonstrated invariance as a
hypothesized to relate negatively with negative emotions and positively
function of gender, language, and activities (Marsh et al., 2013; Val­
with positive emotions. In line with previous studies on academic
lerand, 2015; Vallerand & Rahimi, in press). The Passion Scale consists
emotions and procrastination, negative emotions about one’s studies
of six items measuring OP (e.g., “I have difficulties controlling my urge
were assumed to positively influence procrastination, whereas positive
to do my studies,” α = 0.91) and six items measuring HP (e.g., “My
emotions were hypothesized to negatively relate to procrastination (e.g.,
studies are in harmony with the other activities in my life,” α = 0.87).
Balkis & Duru, 2016; Rahimi, 2019; Sirois & Pychyl, 2013).
Students were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each item
The first goal of Study 2 was to replicate Study 1 and we hypothe­
on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not agree at all) to 7 (very
sized such replication. The second objective was to extend Study 1 by
strongly agree), while thinking of how they generally feel about their
adding students’ passion and emotions towards their favorite activity to
studies (e.g., writing term papers, studying for exams, doing weekly
the model and assess how they contribute to academic procrastination.
readings, attending lectures, etc.).
We predicted that passion and emotions for one’s second activity would
predict academic procrastination in the same way as passion for one’s
6.1.2.2. Negative and positive emotions in one’s studies. Negative and
studies. Finally, the third objective of this research was to conduct this
positive emotions were assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect
project during the COVID-19 pandemic while the stay-at-home protocols
Scale (PANAS, Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The PANAS consists of

Fig. 1. Path diagram for the hypothesized full mediation model.

3
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand
20 items measuring negative emotions (10 items, e.g., “nervous,” α =
0.95) and positive emotions (10 items, e.g., “determined,” α = 0.87).
Students were asked to indicate to what extent they generally felt each
listed emotion when engaging in tasks related to their studies on a 5-
point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5
(extremely).
6.1.2.3. Academic procrastination. Academic procrastination was
assessed using The Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS, Steel, 2010). The
PPS consists of 12-items assessing procrastination and has shown high
levels of validity and reliability. Given that our aim was to investigate
procrastination reflecting the delay of an intended action in the aca­
demic context, items from the PPS were chosen to reflect procrastination
regarding students’ studies (e.g., “In preparation for some deadlines, I
often waste time by doing other things,” α = 0.94). Thus, four items
which reflected decisional procrastination and/or related to money were
removed (e.g., “Putting things off till the last minute has cost me money
in the past”) resulting in an 8-item academic procrastination assessment.
Students were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each item
on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not agree at all) to 7 (very
strongly agree), while thinking of how they generally feel about their
studies (e.g., writing term papers, studying for exams, doing weekly
readings, attending lectures, etc.).
6.2. Results
6.2.1. Preliminary analyses
Descriptive statistics were obtained using SPSS (version 20.0, IBM
Corp., 2011). In accordance with Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), the data
were checked (e.g., proofreading the data against the original items). In
addition to data accuracy, underlying assumptions of parametric testing
were assessed (i.e., missing data and normality of the data). To address
missing data, frequency analyses were conducted which showed that
less than 0.05% of the data included missing cases. Furthermore,
normality was assessed by investigating the skewness and kurtosis of the
study variables. Using the descriptive function in SPSS, the values for
skewness and kurtosis for all of the variables were acceptable (i.e., no z-
value was above 3.29 for a sample size ranging from 50 to 300, Kim,
2013). Means, standard deviations, Cronbach alphas as well as corre­
lations among all study variables appear in Table 1.
6.2.2. Main analyses
To test the proposed model, a path analysis was conducted using the
Mplus 8 (version 8, (Muthén & Muthén, 2007) software with the
Maximum Likelihood estimator. The effects were examined using
bootstrapping (10,000 samples, with 95% bias-corrected confidence
intervals [CI’s]).1 Paths were drawn according to the model in Fig. 1. In
addition, to assess the goodness-of-fit of each model, absolute and in­
cremental fit indices were examined including the Comparative Fit
Index (CFI), the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA), and the Standardized Root Mean Residual
(SRMR). Ideal ranges for satisfactory fit depend on sample size and with
our sample, CFI/TLI above 0.97 and RMSEA/SRMR below 0.06 are
required for acceptable fit (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010).
Acceptable fit was not obtained for the hypothesized full mediation
model (Table 2, Study 1: Full mediation). Given that prior research had
suggested a direct link between OP and academic procrastination (e.g.,
Doty et al., 2020) and based on model modification indices, a direct path
was added between OP and academic procrastination, resulting in a
model with adequate fit (Table 2, Study 1: Partial mediation). Upon
removing a non-significant path between OP and positive emotions, we
1
Hypothesized models were ran without bootstrapping in order to view
modification fit indices. Modified models were obtained using bootstrapping
(10,000 samples).
4
Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852
obtained the final model (Table 2, Study 1: Modified model). Study 1
results based on the standardized solutions showed that OP was posi­
tively related to negative emotions (β = 0.67, p < 0.001), whereas HP
was negatively to negative emotions (β = − 0.11, p < 0.05) and posi­
tively related to positive emotions (β = 0.57, p < 0.001). Negative
emotions, in turn, positively predicted procrastination (β = 0.48, p <
0.001), while positive emotions negatively predicted it (β = − 0.12, p <
0.05). A direct significant path between OP and procrastination was also
observed (β = 0.26, p < 0.01; please see Fig. 2 and Table 2).
In addition, indirect effects were investigated to assess emotions as
mediators in the relationship between passion and academic procrasti­
nation. All three indirect paths were statistically significant or
approaching significance (e.g., p = 0.065, as outlined in Table 3) and the
lower and higher limits for the bias-corrected 95% bootstrapped confi­
dence intervals (CI’s) did not cross through zero. Standardized results
indicated that the indirect path from OP to procrastination was medi­
ated by negative emotions and the indirect path from HP to procrasti­
nation was mediated by both negative and positive emotions.
In sum, the results of Study 1 provided basic support for the proposed
model. Specifically, OP for academia predicted negative emotions.
Conversely, HP for one’s studies negatively predicted negative emotions
and positively predicted positive emotions. In turn, negative emotions
positively predicted procrastination, while positive emotions negatively
predicted procrastination. Accordingly, OP contributed to procrastina­
tion directly and via negative emotions, while HP for one’s studies was
found to be adaptive in predicting positive emotions, as well as nega­
tively predicting negative emotions, and thus reducing academic
procrastination.
7. Study 2
In Study 2, we sought to replicate and extend the model presented in
Study 1 during the COVID-19 pandemic with respect to one’s studies and
one’s favorite activity as contributors of procrastination (Doty et al.,
2020). The principal hypothesis in Study 2 was that the role of academic
passion and emotions in procrastination obtained in Study 1 would be
replicated. Furthermore, we also predicted that passion and emotions
for one’s second activity would also serve as predictors of procrastina­
tion in line with the previous hypotheses regarding academic passion
and emotions (Fig. 3).
7.1. Method
7.1.1. Participants and procedure
Participants were 303 undergraduate students who were recruited
via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Participants consisted of 178 males
(59%), 124 females (41%), and one individual who self- identified as
fluid, with ages ranging from 18 to 69 years (Mage = 26.13 years, SD =
7.05 years) from North American Universities. Most participants were
currently studying in the social sciences (25.1%) or pure and applied
sciences (23.4%). To participate in this study, participants had to be full-
time undergraduate students who had classes with upcoming deadlines
in the Winter 2020 term. Furthermore, students had to have been asked
by their schools to complete the remainder of their academic term at
home given that this data was collected during the stay-at-home pro­
tocols outlined for the COVID-19 pandemic in March–April of 2020.
Each participant provided informed consent before completing the
questionnaires.
7.1.2. Measures
7.1.2.1. Passion for one’s studies. The Passion Scale (Marsh et al., 2013;
Vallerand et al., 2003) was used to assess academic passion as in Study 1
(OP, α = 0.90; HP, α = 0.88). Students were asked to indicate their level
of agreement with each item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852

Table 1
Psychometric properties of study variables and correlations (Study 1, N = 210).
M SD α 1 2 3 4

1. Obsessive passion 3.93 1.64 0.91 1

2. Harmonious passion 4.80 1.21 0.87 0.40** 1
3. Negative emotions 2.32 1.09 0.95 0.62** 0.15* 1
4. Positive emotions 3.52 0.79 0.87 0.25** 0.57** 0.05 1
5. Procrastination 4.03 1.67 0.94 0.53** 0.15* 0.63** − 0.04

* p < 0.05.
** p < 0.01.
*** p < 0.001.

Table 2
Results of the path analysis for the different models.
Model χ2 (df) CFI TLI RMSEA 90% CI SRMR

Study 1 (N = 210)
Hypothesized model: full mediation 15.811 (3) 0.958 0.873 0.143 0.079; 0.215 0.048
Hypothesized model: partial mediation (only OP) 2.823 (2) 0.997 0.988 0.044 0.000; 0.151 0.020
Modified model: partial mediation (only OP) 3.072 (3) 1.000 0.999 0.011 0.000; 0.117 0.017
Study 2 (N = 303)
Hypothesized model: full mediationa 22.803 (3)** 0.950 0.849 0.148 0.095; 0.207 0.041
Hypothesized model: partial mediation (only OP)a 2.707 (2) 0.998 0.992 0.034 0.000; 0.124 0.016
Hypothesized model: full mediationb 386.368 (18)** 0.648 0.414 0.260 0.238; 0.283 0.150
Hypothesized model: partial mediation (OPs and OPo)b 365.702 (16)** 0.666 0.374 0.269 0.245; 0.293 0.141
Modified model: partial mediationb 18.891 (10) 0.992 0.975 0.054 0.010; 0.091 0.038

Note. OPs = OP about studies. OPo = OP about other (i.e., second) favorite activity.
* p < 0.05.
** p < 0.01.
*** p < 0.001.
a
Replication study.
b
Extension study.

Fig. 2. Results of the path analysis: Study 1.

Note. *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.

agree at all) to 7 (very strongly agree), while thinking of how they about, indicate to what extent you feel the following emotions currently”
generally feel about their studies (e.g., writing term papers, studying for on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5
exams, doing weekly readings, attending lectures, etc.). (extremely).

7.1.2.2. Upcoming academic deadlines. Students were asked to specify
two upcoming academic deadlines (when the deadline was, in what
class, what type of task it was). The PANAS and the PPS were answered
in reference to these academic tasks/deadlines.
7.1.2.3. Negative and positive emotions about one’s studies. The same
scale that was used in Study 1 (PANAS, Watson et al., 1988) was used
again to assess students’ academic negative (α = 0.94) and positive
emotions (α = 0.92). Students were asked the following: “during the
current outbreak of the coronavirus (COVID-19) and while thinking of or
while engaging in the academic assignments that you previously wrote
7.1.2.4. Academic procrastination. Academic procrastination was
assessed using the same 8-item Pure Procrastination scale that was used
in Study 1 adapted to specifically refer to their academic assignments
(PPS, Steel, 2010, α = 0.94). In reference to their upcoming academic
deadlines, students were asked the following: “during the current
outbreak of the coronavirus (COVID-19) and while thinking of or while
engaging in the academic assignments that you previously wrote about,
to what extent are you engaging in the following behaviors or thoughts
currently” on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not agree at all) to 7
(very strongly agree).

5
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852

Table 3
Bootstrap estimates of the indirect effects and their associated bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals.
Predictor Mediator Outcome β 95% CI p-Value

Indirect paths (Study 1)

OP Negative emotions Procrastination 0.32 [0.21, 0.44] p < 0.001
HP Negative emotions Procrastination − 0.05 [− 0.12, − 0.00] p = 0.065
HP Positive emotions Procrastination − 0.07 [− 0.14, − 0.00] p < 0.05
Indirect paths (Study 2)
OP (S)a Negative emotions (S) Procrastination 0.31 [0.24, 0.40] p < 0.001
OP (S)a Positive emotions (S) Procrastination − 0.07 [− 0.12, − 0.03] p < 0.01
HP (S)a Negative emotions (S) Procrastination − 0.13 [− 0.21, − 0.07] p < 0.001
HP (S)a Positive emotions (S) Procrastination − 0.07 [− 0.12, − 0.02] p < 0.05
OP (S)b Negative emotions (S) Procrastination 0.09 [0.04, 0.17] p < 0.01
OP (S)b Positive emotions (S) Procrastination − 0.09 [− 0.15, − 0.04] p < 0.01
HP (S)b Negative emotions (S) Procrastination − 0.04 [− 0.08, − 0.00] p = 0.053
HP (S)b Positive emotions (S) Procrastination − 0.06 [− 0.12, − 0.03] p < 0.01
OP (O)b Negative emotions (O) Procrastination 0.09 [0.04, 0.15] p < 0.01
HP (O)b Negative emotions (O) Procrastination − 0.06 [− 0.10, − 0.02] p < 0.01
OP (S)b Negative emotions (O) Procrastination 0.19 [0.12, 0.28] p < 0.001
OP (O)b Negative emotions (S) Procrastination 0.08 [0.03, 0.15] p < 0.01
HP (O)b Positive emotions (S) Procrastination − 0.03 [− 0.07, − 0.01] p < 0.05

Note. S = about studies. O = about other (i.e., second) favorite activity.

a
Replication study.
b
Extension study.

Fig. 3. Path diagram for the hypothesized full mediation model.

7.1.2.5. Favorite activity. Students were asked to specify their favorite
activity (other than their studies) that they most often did instead of
working on their academic assignments. This is also referred to as the
second activity. The Passion Scale and PANAS were answered in refer­
ence to these academic tasks/deadlines.
7.1.2.6. Passion for another favorite activity. The Passion Scale was used
to assess passion for another favorite activity (OP, α = 0.87; HP, α =
0.89). Students were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each
item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not agree at all) to 7 (very
strongly agree), while thinking of how they generally feel about their
favorite activity.
7.1.2.7. Negative and positive emotions about another favorite activity.
The PANAS was used to assess students’ negative (α = 0.97) and positive
emotions (α = 0.89) about their favorite activity. Students were asked to
indicate their level of agreement with each item on a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely).
7.2. Results
7.2.1. Preliminary analyses
Descriptive statistics were obtained using SPSS (version 20.0, IBM
Corp., 2011). The data were checked and cleaned (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2007). The dataset contained no missing data. Normality was assessed
by investigating the skewness and kurtosis of the study variables. Using
the absolute values criterion, none of the study variables violated the
assumption of normality (±2 for skewness and ±7 for kurtosis, as rec­
ommended for samples with greater than 300 participants, Kim, 2013).
Table 4 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations for all Study 2
variables.
7.2.2. Main analyses
Path analysis was conducted using the Mplus 8 (version 8, Muthén &

6
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852

Table 4
Psychometric properties of the study variables and correlations (Study 2, N = 303).
M SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Obsessive passion (S) 3.86 1.57 0.90 1

2. Harmonious passion (S) 4.80 1.16 0.88 0.56** 1
3. Negative emotions (S) 2.51 1.08 0.94 0.44** 0.07 1
4. Positive emotions (S) 3.13 0.97 0.92 0.56** 0.55** 0.22** 1
5. Procrastination 3.88 1.61 0.94 0.40** 0.04 0.62** 0.08 1
6. Obsessive passion (O) 4.29 1.47 0.87 0.62** 0.30** 0.46** 0.37** 0.45** 1
7. Harmonious passion (O) 5.00 1.18 0.89 0.27** 0.50** 0.10 0.39** 0.07 0.50** 1
8. Negative emotions (O) 2.10 1.16 0.97 0.59** 0.16** 0.74** 0.40** 0.60** 0.45** 0.06 1
9. Positive emotions (O) 3.57 0.85 0.89 0.21** 0.38** 0.16** 0.52** 0.07 0.45** 0.67** 0.07

S = for studies, O = for the second favorite activity.

* p < 0.05.
** p < 0.01.
*** p < 0.001.

Muthén, 1998–2017) software with the Maximum Likelihood estimator.
The effects were examined using bootstrapping (10,000 samples, with
95% bias-corrected confidence intervals [CI’s]). In addition, the same
goodness-of-fit cut-offs that were used in Study 1 were used in Study 2
(please see Table 2 for fit indices). To first replicate the findings from
Study 1, paths were drawn from the endogenous variables (students’ OP
and HP about their studies) to the mediators (students’ negative and
positive emotions about their studies), between the mediators and the
outcome variable (academic procrastination), and a covariance was
estimated between OP and HP. Acceptable fit was not obtained for the
full mediation model (Table 2, Study 2: Full mediation — Replication).
Given the results of Study 1, a direct path between OP and academic
procrastination was added and this partial mediation model had
acceptable fit (Table 2, Study 2: Partial mediation — Replication).
Results provided support for the basic model. Specifically, the stan­
dardized solutions showed that OP was positively related to negative (β
= 0.58, p < 0.001) and positive emotions (β = 0.36, p < 0.001), whereas
HP was negatively to negative emotions (β = − 0.25, p < 0.001) and
positively related to positive emotions (β = 0.35, p < 0.001). Negative
emotions, in turn, positively predicted procrastination (β = 0.54, p <
0.001), while positive emotions negatively predicted it (β = − 0.18, p <
0.01). Also, the direct path between OP and procrastination was sig­
nificant (β = 0.26, p < 0.001). Indirect effects were all also statistically
significant (p < 0.05) and the corresponding bias-corrected 95% boot­
strapped CI’s did not cross through zero (see Table 4). Results showed
that the indirect path from OP to procrastination was mediated by
negative and positive emotions and the indirect path from HP to pro­
crastination was mediated by both negative and positive emotions.
Thus, the findings from Study 1 were replicated, with the addition of one
path between OP and positive emotions about students’ studies.
A second path analysis was conducted to extend upon this model and
include students’ passion and emotions about their favorite activities
other than their studies. To begin, paths were drawn from each OP and
HP to both negative and positive emotions, and between these emotions
and academic procrastination. Covariances between all OP’s and HP’s
were also estimated. We hypothesized a full mediational model.
Acceptable fit was not obtained for the full mediation model (Table 2,
Study 2: Full mediation — Extension). Given the results of Study 1, past
passion research, and as suggested by the modification indices, direct
paths between OP for both academic studies and favorite activity and
academic procrastination were added. However, this partial mediation
model also did not have acceptable fit (Table 2, Study 2: Partial medi­
ation — Extension). Three additional changes were made which resulted
in our modified model. First, by reviewing the modification indices,
several (5) covariances were added among all negative and positive
emotions for one’s studies and for one’s second activity. Second, cross-
activity paths between some of the passion and emotions variables were
added (e.g., OP for one’s studies to negative emotions about one’s sec­
ond activity). Lastly, two non-significant paths were removed for the
sake of parsimony: 1) between positive emotions for one’s second ac­
tivity and academic procrastination, and 2) OP for one’s studies and
academic procrastination. The final model had acceptable fit (Table 2,
Study 2: Modified mediation — Extension).
Results from Study 2 based on the standardized solutions showed
that OP for one’s studies was positively related to negative emotions (β
= 0.34, p < 0.001), however, unlike Study 1, OP for one’s studies was
positively related to positive emotions (β = 0.38, p < 0.001). On the
other hand, HP for one’s studies was negatively related to negative
emotions (β = − 0.14, p < 0.05) and positively to positive emotions (β =
0.28, p < 0.001). In line with Study 1, negative emotions, in turn,
positively predicted procrastination (β = 0.27, p < 0.001), while positive
emotions negatively predicted it (β = − 0.23, p < 0.001). Furthermore,
OP for one’s second activity was also positively related to negative and
positive emotions about one’s second activity (β = 0.23, p < 0.001; β =
0.16, p < 0.01, respectively), while HP for one’s second activity led to
less negative and more positive emotions about one’s second activity (β
= − 0.15, p < 0.01; β = 0.59, p < 0.001, respectively). In addition, only
negative emotions about one’s second activity were positively related to
academic procrastination (β = 0.39, p < 0.001), with no relationship
found between positive emotions for one’s second activity and pro­
crastination behaviors.
Findings were mostly consistent with our hypotheses, however,
cross-paths were also uncovered such that both OP’s were related to
negative emotions in the opposite activity (i.e., OP for studies was
positively related to negative emotions in one’s second activity, β =
0.49, p < 0.001; and OP for one’s second activity was positively related
to negative emotions in studies; β = 0.29, p < 0.001), and HP for one’s
second activity was positively related to positive emotions in studies (β
= 0.15, p < 0.01). Lastly, one direct path between OP for one’s second
activity and procrastination was uncovered (β = 0.24, p < 0.001; please
see Fig. 4).
In addition, indirect effects were investigated with standardized re­
sults indicating that the indirect paths from OP for one’s studies to
procrastination were mediated by negative and positive emotions about
one’s studies. Indirect paths from HP for one’s studies to procrastination
were also mediated by both negative and positive emotions about one’s
studies (as outlined in Table 3). With respect to students’ favorite ac­
tivity other than their studies, indirect paths from OP and HP to pro­
crastination were mediated by negative emotions. In addition, cross-
domain indirect effects were found such that negative emotions in one
domain mediated the relationship between OP in the other domain and
academic procrastination. Lastly, positive emotions for one’s studies
mediated the relationship between HP for one’s second activity and
procrastination.
In sum, the results of Study 2 provided further support for Study 1’s
proposed model in demonstrating that one’s OP for academia influences
negative emotions which in turn, positively predicted procrastination,
while HP for one’s studies positively influenced positive emotions that,

7
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand
Fig. 4. Results of the path analysis: Study 2.
Note. *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001. The covariance was estimated between all OP’s and HP’s but are not presented in the figure for parsimony reasons.
in turn, negatively influenced academic procrastination. However, un­
like Study 1, a novel path was uncovered between OP for one’s studies
and positive emotions about one’s studies. Past research has also found
that OP sometimes contributes to positive emotions during activity
engagement (Vallerand, 2015). In addition, passion and emotions for
one’s favorite activity also played a role in procrastination where
negative emotions and OP were directly related to academic procrasti­
nation. These findings suggest that, the emotional and behavioral costs
associated with OP potentially outweigh any pleasant emotions expe­
rienced while engaging in one’s favorite activity. In addition, HP for
one’s studies was found to negatively influence negative emotions and
positively influence positive emotions in both academic and leisure
contexts, leading to optimal behavioral outcomes with respect to aca­
demic procrastination. In sum, results of Study 2 largely supported the
hypotheses on the role of passion and emotions in procrastination.
8. General discussion
The principal purpose of the present research was to examine the role
of passion for academia in academic procrastination in two separate
studies. The second and third objectives of this research were to examine
an extended passion and procrastination model in which the mediating
role of emotions between students’ passion and academic procrastina­
tion in both academic (i.e., students’ studies) and leisure contexts (i.e.,
students’ favorite activity other than their studies) were assessed during
an unprecedented tumultuous time dealing with the COVID-19
pandemic. Our main hypotheses concerning students’ passion, emo­
tions, and procrastination for their studies and their second activities
were supported for Studies 1 and 2 showing that: 1) OP was positively
related to negative emotions, 2) HP was negatively related to negative
emotions and positively with positive emotions, and 3) negative emo­
tions positively related to procrastination, whereas positive emotions
negatively related to procrastination (in each activity, respectively).
Disconfirming our initial hypotheses, OP for students’ studies was un­
related to positive emotions in Study 1, and positive emotions for one’s
8
Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852
second activity were unrelated to procrastination in Study 2. In Study 2,
two cross-paths were also uncovered in which OP for students’ studies
and second activity were related to negative emotions in the other ac­
tivity, and HP for one’s second activity was positively related to positive
emotions in one’s studies. Lastly, a direct path was found for OP for
one’s studies (Study 1) and second activity (Study 2) with
procrastination.
8.1. The role of academic passion in academic procrastination behaviors
A first implication of the present findings is that passion for academic
activities is involved in academic procrastination. Contrary to previous
research which had consistently found procrastination to take place on
academic tasks that students found unpleasant (e.g., task-aversiveness,
Steel, 2007), the present findings are the first to show that procrasti­
nation also takes place with respect to academic activities that students
are passionate about, to the extent that their passion for academia is
obsessive. Higher levels of HP were associated with lower levels of self-
reported procrastination. These findings are in line with other research
on passion for academia that shows OP to lead to negative outcomes
such as burnout, whereas HP leads to beneficial outcomes by positively
contributing to well-being (e.g., work satisfaction; Vallerand, Paquet,
Philippe, & Charest, 2010). As discussed later, such effects are largely
mediated by negative and positive emotions, respectively.
The present findings also provide support for the DMP that posits that
OP entails a maladaptive form of engagement in the beloved activity
that leads to a less than optimal on-task engagement experience. Past
research has also shown OP to lead to dropping out of a variety of
passionate activities such as sports (Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 2),
music (Bonneville-Roussy, Vallerand, & Bouffard, 2013), and romantic
relationships (Ratelle, Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Mageau, 2013).
However, the present research is the first to show that OP results in
short-term withdrawal from the activity (i.e., procrastination) and such
is not the case with HP where one can remain engaged in academia when
required.
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand
8.2. The mediational role of emotions in the passion/procrastination link
The second implication of the present findings is that as expected,
emotions were found to be the key mediating process between passion
and academic procrastination. It was hypothesized that academic OP
would be positively related to negative emotions that, in turn, would
predict procrastination. Conversely, it was hypothesized that HP would
predict positive emotions that, in turn, would negatively predict pro­
crastination. Results from both studies provided support for these hy­
potheses. Specifically, in line with the DMP (Vallerand, 2010), students’
OP positively, and students’ HP negatively, influenced negative emo­
tions in both studies. In addition, while students’ OP was unrelated to,
and students’ HP positively influenced positive emotions in Study 1,
both OP and HP positively influenced positive emotions in Study 2.
In turn, students’ negative emotions about their studies/favorite
activities were positively associated with procrastination in both
studies, supporting the notion that procrastination is a form of mis­
regulation and showing that students avoid academic tasks to relieve
themselves of negative emotions associated with doing or completing
such activities (e.g., Pychyl & Sirois, 2016). Moreover, results from
Study 2 specifically extend our understanding of the influence of nega­
tive emotions on academic procrastination seeing as negative emotions
about another activity also influence students’ procrastination on aca­
demic tasks.
Of major importance, students’ positive emotions about their studies
mediated the relationship between OP (Study 2)/HP (Studies 1 and 2)
and academic procrastination. Specifically, as hypothesized, students’
positive emotions for their studies was negatively related to academic
procrastination in both studies. Thus, high levels of positive emotions
were associated with lower levels of procrastination on academic tasks.
Similar to other findings demonstrating that situational positive affect
mediated the relationship between HP and subjective well-being (e.g.,
Rousseau & Vallerand, 2008), positive emotions are conceptualized as
adaptive in nature and lead to better decision-making processes by
broadening a person’s awareness of their thought-action repertoire (e.g.,
Broaden-and-Build Theory, Fredrickson, 2001). These results provide a
strong rationale for incorporating the enhancement of students’ positive
emotions, instead of focusing only on reducing negative emotional ex­
periences in future intervention studies. As theorized, combining the
notion of procrastination as emotion regulation with the DMP illustrates
a more comprehensive, refined, and complete analysis of the academic
procrastination process.
Given that prior research has focused on the relationships between
anxiety and procrastination, we conducted supplemental analyses (with
data from Study 2) using specific items from the PANAS scale which
reflected anxiety (e.g., distressed, scared, nervous, jittery, and afraid).
Our results showed that the magnitude of the correlations was slightly
smaller between anxiety and procrastination than negative emotions
and procrastination, especially with respect to students’ studies (e.g.,
studies: r = 0.62 vs. 0.55, other activity: r = 0.60 vs. 0.58). Thus, it
appears that anxiety is not the only negative emotion influencing aca­
demic procrastination. Consequently, other negative emotions besides
anxiety (e.g., shame, guilt, hopelessness, etc.) are worth considering in
future procrastination research.
8.3. The role of passion for a second activity in academic procrastination
behaviors
The third implication of the present research is that passion towards
alternative activities in students’ lives also play a role in procrastination.
As previously mentioned, in the place of academic activities such as
working on academic assignments, or preparing for final examinations,
students engage in activities that they love like playing a musical in­
strument and playing sports. However, the type of passion underlying
one’s engagement in these other activities matters greatly as pertains to
procrastination. Having an OP for a favorite non-academic activity
9
Personality and Individual Differences 179 (2021) 110852
contributes to procrastination in two ways. First, it leads to negative
emotions while engaging in the non-academic activity that, in turn,
leads to academic procrastination. It would then seem that the person
may experience some negative emotions such as guilt and anxiety
(Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 1) that may lead students to further
engage in the non-academic activity to alleviate the negative emotions.
Second, OP for the favorite activity also leads to negative emotions while
engaging in academic activities. It would thus appear that one may
experience some sense of irritability and distress while engaging in ac­
ademic activities as one would rather engage in alternative non-
academic activities. This reasoning is in line with the findings of Car­
pentier et al. (2012) that showed that OP for one’s favorite activity leads
one to ruminate while studying, thereby undermining positive states
while studying. Such was not the case with HP which was found to
promote positive affective states when studying.
These findings are in line with those of Vallerand (1997) that posited
that a complete analysis of motivational effects on a given activity must
take into account motivational processes in the different life domains in
one’s life. In addition, the present results are in line with those of
Schellenberg and Bailis (2015) who showed that it is possible to be
passionate for two activities in one’s life and the highest level of well-
being is attained when HP is experienced for both. The present find­
ings follow this line of reasoning as they underscore that the highest
level of protection from procrastination takes place when one has a HP
for both in academia as well as for one’s favorite activity (i.e., the second
activity). Focusing on simply the academic sphere provides only a
limited view of the psychological processes at play in procrastination.
8.4. The role of COVID-19 in passion, emotions, and academic
procrastination
During this current COVID-19 pandemic, the present findings
yield some insights regarding procrastination and how it may take
place. Although some learning and leisure activities can be done at
home (e.g., cooking, watching television, online classes), others
cannot under quarantine conditions (e.g., attending classes or doing
group projects in person, seeing friends, engaging in group activities
such as sports or playing an instrument in a band). Based on pre­
vious work illustrating the inner workings of OP, having to choose
among tasks, or being prevented from doing what one loves pro­
duces unfavorable consequences for students with this type of pas­
sion. During this pandemic, the lines between schoolwork and life
have become more blurred and students must choose which activ­
ities to pursue. Students with OP persist rigidly towards their goals
and this form of perseverance is accompanied with conflict
regarding what one “should be doing” (Vallerand, 2015). Thus,
students who have an OP for leisure tasks that are accessible to
them during the pandemic (e.g., Internet games) may experience
conflict in trying to decide if they should engage in online classes
or engage in their favorite online activities. Conversely, students
who are prevented from engaging in their favorite activities (e.g.,
cannot go to class or see their friends to play guitar) may also
experience some frustration given that OP is strongly related to
negative affect when one is prevented from engaging in the
passionate activity (e.g., Vallerand et al., 2003). Such is not the
case with HP as it was found to relate to positive emotions and
negatively relate with procrastination. Thus, the present findings
suggest that in order to be successful during a pandemic such as the
current one, education should encourage students to develop a HP
not only for academic activities but also for the other activities in
the other spheres of their life such as music, sports, and the like.
One is referred to Vallerand (2015, 2016), Bélanger, Nisa, Schumpe,
and Chamberland (2019), and Dubreuil et al. (2016) for strategies
to promote HP and limit OP.
S. Rahimi and R.J. Vallerand
8.5. Limitations and future directions
There were some limitations in the present research. First, because a
correlational design was used, no interpretation of causality can be
inferred. Although past research has shown that experimental in­
ductions of OP and HP lead to similar findings as measuring them with
the Passion Scale (Bélanger, Lafrenière, Vallerand, & Kruglanski, 2013;
Lafrenière, Vallerand, & Sedikides, 2013), future research should be
conducted using such inductions specifically with respect to procrasti­
nation. Second, all scales used were self-report in nature. Future
research should use behavioral assessment and informant (e.g., friends’
assessment, teachers’ assessment) reports of procrastination. Third,
most students were from Canadian and American Universities. Thus,
additional research is necessary to assess whether these findings hold in
other cultures and at other educational levels (e.g., in high school).
Fourth, participant characteristics that were collected were limited and
other socio-demographic variables (e.g., parents’ education, SES) are
recommended in future research. Lastly, no control variables were used
(e.g., gender, age, country) to examine differences between different
sub-populations of participants and additional studies doing such ana­
lyses are encouraged (e.g., invariance of our models with respect to
gender).
In conclusion, the present research suggests that students who are
passionate about their studies do engage in academic procrastination,
especially if their passion is obsessive because it leads to negative
emotions. HP serves a protective function against procrastination
because it leads to the experience of positive emotions and is negatively
related to the experience of negative emotions. Furthermore, more
attention should be devoted to non-academic activities in students’ lives
as they can also positively and negatively influence procrastination
depending on the type of passion at play. Additional research is
encouraged to replicate and further extend the present findings with
different mediating variables, different populations, and in different
contexts.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Sonia Rahimi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal
analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Project
administration. Robert J. Vallerand: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Resources, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
We have no conflict of interest to disclose.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge two funders: (1) Chaire de Recherche
du Canada sur les Processus Motivationels et le Fonctionnement
Optimal, Canada, Grant ID #950-230793, and (2) Recherches
Théoriques et Appliquées sur les Processus Motivationnels, Canada,
Grant ID 2021-SE3-283171.
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