Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22304-5

REVIEW ARTICLE

Wastewater treatment using bamboos in constructed wetlands:

experiences and future perspectives
Maurício Reimann Nast1 · Gustavo Stolzenberg Colares2 · Ênio Leandro Machado2 · Lucia Ribeiro Rodrigues3

Received: 6 January 2022 / Accepted: 26 July 2022 / Published online: 5 August 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Wastewater treatment using constructed wetlands (CWs) based on natural wetlands constitute a viable alternative with excel-
lent cost and benefit, presenting themselves as efficient technologies in the secondary and tertiary treatment of wastewaters
with low implementation, operation, and maintenance costs. The present study aims to evaluate the use of bamboo species,
as an alternative to macrophytes, frequently used in CWs, through bibliometric analysis, besides to a review based on case
studies. The maps generated by the VOSviewer software and by the analyses of the Web of Science and Scopus databases
allowed for a review of typical concepts of CWs, in addition to revealing potential benefits of using bamboos in CWs, such
as their hyperaccumulation capacity and bioproduct generation. Other promising aspects were identified, for example the use
of bamboo charcoal as a substrate used in subsurface wetlands and the application of ornamental bamboo species for land-
scape improvements, among other observations. The efficiencies found in six case studies showed values between 89–99.7%,
47.6–99.7%, 58.3–99.9%, and 85.5–99.8% for B ­ OD5, COD, total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP), respectively.
Despite the promising results, the lack of studies using bamboos in CWs for the treatment of wastewaters limits an assertive
statement about the use of this technology, requiring further research, focusing on the morphological functions of bamboos
in this treatment with landscape integration and resources recovery.

Keywords Phytoremediation · Treatment wetlands · Bamboo · Bioproducts · Biomass · Circular Economy ·

Bioaccumulation

Introduction
According to the National Sanitation Information System
(SNIS), in a 2020 diagnosis, Brazil generates, on average,
approx. 150 L of wastewaters per day per inhabitant, where
only 55.0% are covered by the sewage collection network
Responsible Editor: Alexandros Stefanakis
* Gustavo Stolzenberg Colares
gustavoscolares@gmail.com
1 grated actions and reflections for social, environmental, and
Graduate in Environmental Engineering, Federal University
of Rio Grande Do Sul, Av, Bento Gonçalves, Porto Alegre,
RS 91501‑970, Brazil
2
Postgraduate Program in Environmental Technology,
University of Santa Cruz Do Sul (UNISC),
Avenida Independência, Santa Cruz Do Sul,
Rio Grande do Sul 229396815‑900, Brazil
3
Postgraduate Program in Water Resources and Environmental
Sanitation, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul,
Av. Bento Gonçalves, Porto Alegre, RS 91501‑970, Brazil
and 50.8% receive proper treatment. One of the main aggra-
vating factors for this situation is the extensive area that
the country occupies, with very dispersed populations. It
is estimated that a significant portion of Brazilians live in
rural areas, making centralized wastewaters collection and
treatment system difficult (Brazil - SNIS 2021).
Given this reality, the urgency of developing wastewa-
ter collection and treatment technologies in the country is
evident. In addition to simply treating effluent, wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) should aim for the development
of processes based on a circular economy, promoting inte-
economic spheres, in line with the Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals (SDGs) of the UN (United Nations). One of
the alternatives that already reflect this thinking are the
constructed wetlands (CWs), engineering systems based on
natural wetlands, which, besides to having the potential to
remove a wide range of contaminants, organic matter and
nutrients, present reduced cost, low maintenance and, com-
pared to conventional WWTPs, have less visual impact and

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67642
less sludge generation (Machado et al. 2017), as well as can
promote the recovery of nutrients and water for reuse (Lut-
terbeck et al. 2022).
Surface flow wetlands can be categorized according
to the biological type of the macrophyte: floating macro-
phytes, supported or not by a floating solid matrix; fixed
floating macrophytes, rooted to the bottom, with stem and/
or branches and/or floating leaves; and fixed submerged
macrophytes, rooted to the bottom, with submerged stem
and leaves (Dotro et al. 2017, Irang et al. 1984). Moreover,
emerging macrophytes, rooted in the sediment at the bottom
of the bed, with stems and leaves partially out of the water,
are the most used CWs as they support saturated soils or free
water beds, presenting leaves above the water level.
CWs have been frequently used to treat different waste-
waters, including those of domestic and industrial origin.
Studies have reported that CWs may achieve good efficiency
(> 60%) in treating urban stormwater, polluted rivers, and
reservoirs, usually through floating constructed wetlands
(FCWs) using emerging macrophytes (Rigotti et al. 2020).
Nevertheless, it is important to consider that pollutant
removal efficiencies depend on several factors, such as the
concentration of effluent contaminants, macrophyte species,
presence of microorganisms in the rhizosphere, type of sub-
strate, pH, redox conditions, temperature, design, climate,
and applied hydraulic load, as well as hydraulic retention
Fig. 1  Year of publications
(a) and country of origin (b)
searched using the keywords
Bamboo and Wetlands and the
Web of Science database on
June 14, 2022
13
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
time (HRT) and operating conditions (Machado et al. 2017;
Vymazal et al. 2021).
However, macrophytes are not the only plants that have
the capacity and potential to be used in CWs. Bamboo spe-
cies can represent a low-cost, fast-growing rates with high
biomass production as well as adaptation to survive in pol-
luted areas, which are important aspects regarding phytore-
mediation processes (Nkeshita et al. 2020). In this sense,
bamboo species have been used not only as an alternative
to macrophytes but also as a substrate for WCs as bamboo
chips with cow manure (Yu et al. 2022) and as bamboo bio-
char due to its high surface area (Ajibade et al. 2021) and as
a floating matrix for constructed surface flow floating wet-
lands, due to its low cost and efficiency (Shahid et al. 2020).
Information available on the Web of Science platform, con-
sidering the search carried out on June 14, 2022, using the
keywords “Bamboo” and “Wetlands” can be visualized in
Fig. 1.
It was verified that most of published studies were carried
out in China, with 19 publications out of 75 publications
obtained in total, and an increase in publications between
the years 2000 and 2021 is evident. China has a specific
research center for bamboo studies, the China National Bam-
boo Research Center (CBRC), a result of the culture associ-
ated with bamboo that is very present in the daily lives of
the Chinese population.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
Considering the species with scientific description,
records show that there are around 1300 species of bamboo
on the planet (Syidanova et al. 2021). Brazil is the leader in
the number of species existing in the Americas, with approx.
200 species, including native and exotic, the vast majority of
which are endemic. Bamboos are plants that belong to the
subfamily Bambusoideae, one of the 12 subfamilies of the
Poaceae family, divided into three tribes, Arundinarieae,
Bambuseae, and Olyreae. In Brazil, there are representa-
tives of the Olyreae and Bambuseae tribes. Regarding the
morphology of these plants, bamboo can be divided into
root, stem, leaves, and inflorescences. The underground
portion of the stem, called rhizome, presents sympodial or
monopodial growth. In general, sympodial growth species
organize themselves into clumps. More information as well
as illustrative figures regarding the bamboo morphology can
be found in Fuke et al. (2021).
The aerial part of the stem is called stalk, formed by
knots, internodes, and buds, which can be from a few mil-
limeters to tens of centimeters in diameter. Its walls can be
thin and fragile or thick and rigid. Bamboo leaves are, as in
practically all grasses, constituted of a sheath and a blade.
In most species of the tribe Bambuseae, two types of leaves
are present: the stalk leaves, with the main function of pro-
tecting the young stalk, and the branch leaves, whose main
function is related to the activities of photosynthesis, res-
piration, and transpiration. Bamboo flowers are grouped in
small inflorescences called spikelets, which, in turn, gather
in synflorescences (ICH 2017). Unlike other grass species,
bamboos are resistant due to the presence of large amounts
of sclerenchyma cells, usually with hollow stem, complex
rhizome, and branched system (Chua et al. 2019).
Bamboos present high biomass production, rapid growth,
and large rhizome systems. As typical woody clonal plants,
bamboos have strong interactions between their clonal
Fig. 2  Diagram of the clas-
sification of CWs, highlighting,
in dashed lines, those that use
bamboo in their configuration.
Adapted from Colares et al.
(2020)
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67643
branches, which facilitate the translocation of elements
between them, specifically, water, nutrients, photosynthetic
products, secondary metabolites, as well as heavy metals (Cai
et al. 2021). Analyzing the use of a dwarf bamboo species for
lead (Pb) phytoremediation, Cai et al. (2021) observed that
the increases in Pb concentrations in different plant tissues
are related to the increase in Pb dosages (Pb300 = 300 mg/kg
of soil and Pb1500 = 1500 mg/kg of soil).
On average, the order of Pb concentrations under Pb300
was as follows: old stems > new roots > old roots > old
leaves > rhizomes > new stems > new leaves. The cor-
responding trend with the Pb1500 treatments was as fol-
lows: old stems > new roots > old roots > old leaves > new
stems > rhizomes > new leaves. In line with the trends above,
Cai et al. (2021) found that Pb concentrations in the used
dwarf bamboo species generally reflect the majority of Pb
ions in rhizomes and/or old stem tissues, with fewer Pb ions
in the aerial parts of young bamboos.
CWs are conventionally classified according to the types
of macrophytes used and water flow regime. Traditionally,
they can be divided into surface flow, free water, and sub-
surface flow, with a filter bed, which is subdivided into verti-
cal subsurface flow and horizontal subsurface flow. These
systems can be coupled, that is, associating with each other
and thus forming hybrid systems (Vymazal and Kröpfelová
2008; Colares et al. 2022). In this perspective, Fig. 2 pre-
sents the classification of CWs using macrophytes, adapted
for bamboo application.
The French patented technology Bambou-Assainisse-
ment® (CORDIS 2013) uses bamboo plantations to treat
effluents from the food industry, a system very similar to a
vertical flow subsurface constructed wetland with different
substrates. Bamboo was chosen because it has a very dense
root system, being a fast-growing plant, one of the terres-
trial plants with the highest biomass production, in addition
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to resisting to environmental stressors such as temperatures
extremely low, very saturated, or very dry soil.
Compared to other plants, bamboo biomass has many
interesting properties, especially regarding to its high calo-
rific value, allowing for a locally use as boiler fuel, to heat
administrative buildings or schools, for example. Further-
more, bamboo stalks, having air pockets, can serve as a float-
ing matrix in the support of emerging macrophytes, as used
in Prashant’s study (Prashant et al. 2013).
Therefore, in the present study, we carried out a review
on the use of bamboo in CWs for wastewater treatment. The
research was based on bibliometric analyses, from the elabo-
ration of maps, with the purpose of verifying the current
panorama of this theme in the academic sphere, in addi-
tion to a comparative review of several operational elements
(HRT, organic load, hydraulic load, and monitoring time)
between CWs using macrophytes and bamboos.
Methodology
Bibliometric analysis
Bibliometric analyses were performed through the
VOSviewer software (version 1.6.15), using the Web of Sci-
ence and Scopus databases. Searches in VOSviewer were
carried out on July 19, 2020, in order to perform a prelimi-
nary analysis on the use of wetlands for the treatment of
effluents using bamboo, instead of the macrophytes, which
are generally used. As there is currently no differentiation
or specific term to designate treatment systems using bam-
boo, the words wetland and phytoremediation were used in
an exploratory manner for this analysis. Four correlations
were analyzed, namely, phytoremediation + bamboo, wet-
land + bamboo, wetland + wastewater + bamboo, and phy-
toremediation + wastewater + bamboo. In this last associa-
tion, insufficient results were obtained for the elaboration
of a bibliometric map, indicating minimal link between the
keywords used in the search, that is, few studies related to
phytoremediation and effluent treatment using bamboo.
Fig. 3  Flowchart of input data used to generate maps by VOSviewer software
13
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
The input data used in the software to perform the
searches included the titles and abstracts of articles pub-
lished in both search bases. The VOSviewer software was
adjusted with the following characteristics presented in
the flowchart in Fig. 3.
The terms found were selected according to their
importance in the context of the study, excluding irrel-
evant terms, such as measurement units and general words,
in addition to repetitions. The maps generated by the
VOSviewer software represent a network of interactions
between different terms, while the size of the circles and
labels displayed are formed by the relevance of each term
in the base of studies. Moreover, the different colors iden-
tified represent the groups or clusters to which the term
belongs. It is important to point out that, by selecting the
full counting method, the software will count the occur-
rences of the terms in each study, including repetitions.
This method is used when maps with a reduced number of
documents are generated (Colares et al. 2020).
As products, the VOSviewer software generates maps
correlating the terms of greatest relevance and occurrence
found in the various articles researched, which served as a
database for their elaboration. From the maps obtained, it
was possible to explore and analyze the various elements
presented, as well as their connections.
Use of macrophytes and bamboos in constructed
wetlands for the treatment of effluents
A comparative analysis was carried out from the use of
macrophytes and bamboos in CWs for the treatment of
effluents. The research involved studies related to con-
structed wetlands, by means of review and case studies.
References were sought concerning the use of bamboo in
CWs, a topic that, despite the promising results observed
both in pilot scale and in real scale, has received little
attention. The research platform used to collect these stud-
ies was Scopus, accessed on August 21, 2020.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
Results and discussion
Bibliometric analysis
Utilization of the terms phytoremediation + bamboo
The map generated using the terms phytoremediation and
bamboo is depicted in Fig. 4. This search found 76 results
(publications) in all, and the minimum number of occur-
rences of a term, adjusted in VOSviewer, was 4.
It can be seen that the cluster formation do not have an
exact differentiation. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify
that the red cluster is associated with the “contaminated”
sphere of the scenario, as evidenced by the words “soil
heavy metal,” “soil,” and “rhizosphere soil.” There is a rela-
tionship between the term “bamboo” and its derivations with
the term “soil,” suggesting that the word phytoremediation
is generally more used for the treatment and remediation of
contaminated soils, mainly by metals, which can be observed
in this map by the terms “Cu,” “heavy metal,” and “copper.”
The hyperaccumulative potential of bamboo is evidenced
since it is characterized for being a fast-growing species with
high biomass production, which can promote removal of
metals and other harmful components from water or soil
(Chua et al. 2019). Recently, the use of “Moso bamboo”
(Phyllostachys edulis) as a hyperaccumulator of metals in
Fig. 4  Network visualization map generated by VOSviewer from the search for publications with the words phytoremediation and bamboo using
the Web of Science and Scopus databases
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
67645
contaminated soils was identified by Bian et al. (2020). Col-
lin et al. (2014) obtained, in an experiment using hydropon-
ics with a period of 70 days (100 mM Cu solution renewed
every 7 days), high copper absorption by the Phyllostachys
fastuosa species. In this study, a higher concentration of this
metal was identified in the roots (3171 mg/kg), followed by
the stalks (161 mg/kg) and finally in the leaves (35.9 mg/kg).
However, the high copper absorption resulted in reduced
plant growth, leaf loss, and brown root color.
On the one hand, the green cluster shows some terms
that are related to the phytoremediation processes of the
“contaminated” sphere, exemplified by the terms “leaf”
and “chlorophyll,” in addition to the terms “physiological
response,” “heavy metal stress” and “stress” that highlight
the aspect of plant sensitivity to contaminants. Lastly, on
the other hand, the blue cluster, less highlighted on the map,
contains the terms “water” and “wastewater” which are dis-
tant from others and not very relevant, therefore indicating
a weak association of the phytoremediation technique with
the treatment of effluents.
Utilization of the words wetland + bamboo
The bibliometric map generated from the search using the
terms wetland and bamboo can be visualized in Fig. 5.
This search found 120 results (publications), whereas the
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Fig. 5  Network visualization map generated by VOSviewer from the search for publications with the words Wetland and Bamboo from the Web
of Science and Scopus databases
minimum number of occurrences of a term, adjusted in the
VOSviewer, was 4.
One can observe that the green cluster is more related
to the ecological aspects of the publications, emphasizing
the relationship of wetlands as a system that, in addition to
treating wastewater, can influence the ecosystem in which it
is inserted, favoring local biodiversity. The study developed
by Rigotti et al. (2020) analyzes aspects of the use of FCWs
as a solution technique based on nature applied to the treat-
ment of urban drainage water, reporting the various concepts
that go beyond engineering, such as the landscape aspect,
harmonizing diversity of plants, and valuing the local envi-
ronment, through the creation of urban gardens and, thus,
benefiting the social well-being. Oliveira et al. (2021) also
highlight that depending of the selected species, treatment
wetlands can promote both habitat for wildlife as well as
landscaping potential.
The red and blue clusters encompass operational aspects
of CWs. The terms “hrt” (hydraulic retention time), “bio-
mass,” “growth,” “root,” “removal,” and “wastewater treat-
ment” are typical terms of studies using wetlands. The prox-
imity of the terms “removal” and “hrt” brings an important
relationship between them, since, generally, the longer the
HRT, the greater the removal of pollutants (Colares et al.
2020).
The term “bamboo charcoal” refers to a filter material
used in subsurface flow wetlands. In the study conducted by
Campos et al. (2019), activated carbon from bamboo and
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
sand were used to fill a VFCW, showing excellent effective-
ness of this material when compared to the filling of soil
and sand only, mainly concerning the removal of nitrate in
wastewaters with low C/N (carbon/nitrogen) rate. Differ-
ent materials used in filling have been analyzed, as this is
an essential factor for the removal of contaminants, such
as phosphorus, for example, in CWs with subsurface flow,
through adsorption processes (Vymazal 2007).
The terms “bamboo species,” “root,” and “rhizome”
linked to “waterlogging” indicate a specific relationship
that is observed in the use of bamboos in wetlands, since,
as they are large plants, their stem generally suffers from
the action of the wind, enabling movement in the plant’s
rhizome and, thus, promoting the clogging prevention of the
system, creating preferential paths for the circulation of the
effluent. In addition, another aspect that is related to the size
of bamboos is the term “tree cutting,” which may indicate
a potential reuse of bamboo biomass, especially its wood,
for sale and production of various materials, such as kitchen
items, manufacture of glasses, toothbrushes, and several
other products (Welf 2020; Ekological 2020), enabling the
recycling of waste that would be disposed of in compost or
landfill and producing value-added bioproducts.
Use of the words wetland + wastewater + bamboo
The search using the terms wetland, wastewater, and bam-
boo was carried out in order to force the seek for articles
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
related to the treatment of wastewaters using bamboo, as a
wetland plant. The generated map can be seen in Fig. 6. This
research found only 24 results (publications) in all, and the
minimum number of occurrences of a term, adjusted in the
VOSviewer, was 3.
Due to the few results found in this research, the gener-
ated map did not bring significant differentiation between
the presented clusters. However, important terms were found
and correlated. Some relationships between terms, already
identified in previous maps, can be visualized in this figure.
The term “phosphorus sorption capacity” related to “bio-
char” emphasizes the dependence of phosphorus removal in
subsurface flow wetlands (Vymazal 2007), with high adsorp-
tion capacity materials, such as activated carbon and zeolite
(Hamad 2020). The association of hydraulic retention time
with the removal of pollutants can also be observed by the
proximity of the terms “hrt,” “removal efficiency,” “hydrau-
lic retention time,” and “nitrogen removal.” The latter gener-
ally has a proportional link, that is, the longer the hydraulic
retention time, the greater the removal of nitrogen from the
effluent, according to a study using a FCW, in mesocosms,
which also showed a significant difference in Total Nitrogen
(TN) removal when used retention time of 7 days compared
to time of 24 h (Rigotti et al. 2020).
One of the main advantages found by the use of CWs in
the treatment of effluents is the low energy consumption for
Fig. 6  Network visualization map generated by VOSviewer from the search for publications with the words wetland, wastewater, and bamboo
from the Web of Science and Scopus databases
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67647
their operation, when compared to other treatment systems,
such as activated sludge, reactors (UASB) and dissolved
air flotation processes (Dotro et al. 2017). Generally, the
energy requirements are associated only with the transport
of the effluent to the place where the CW is located, which,
depending on the terrain topography can be performed by
gravity. The terms that suggest this association are “energy,”
“development,” “impact,” and “flotation”.
The term “Phragmites australis” next to the term “Bam-
busa vulgaris” refers to one of the most commonly macro-
phyte species used in CWs (Vymazal 2010), whereas the
latter to one of the bamboo species commonly used in sub-
surface flow systems (Nkeshita et al. 2020).
Use of macrophytes and bamboos in constructed
wetlands for the treatment of effluents
Use of macrophytes
The synthesis of data obtained from four review studies on
the use of CWs with macrophytes for effluent treatment can
be seen in Table 1. The numerical results presented in this
table represent the mean and standard deviation or maximum
and minimum of the study data.
From the analysis of Table 1, considering the HFCWs,
it is possible to observe that the applied hydraulic and
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Table 1  Synthetic table on the use of macrophytes in constructed wetlands for wastewaters treatment
Wetland flow Hydraulic load (mm/ Organic load (g/m2 day) Area ­(m2) Macrophytes species Efficiencies N (samplings) References

13
m2 day)

Horizontal flow 93.0 ± 261.0 Not specified 57.0 ± 103.0 Typha domingensis BOD5: 81.5% 23 Machado et al.
Typha latifolia COD: 76.5% 2017
TN: 27.0%
TP: 48.0%
Horizontal flow 19.0–720.04 2.0–66 ­(BOD5) 35% of the studies: 60% of the studies: Typha BOD5: 61.0–97.0%4 42 Sezerino et al.
5.0–10.0 spp. COD: 57.0–98.0%4 2015
45% of the studies:
10.0
Horizontal flow 126.6 200.6 ­(BOD5) 18.0–4493.02.4 Phragmites australis BOD5: 75.0% 275 Vymazal 2010
Phalaris arundinacea TSS: 75.0%
Baldingera arundinaceae TN: 43.0%
Digraphis arundinaceae TP: 50.0%
Typhoides arundinaceae N-NH3: 39.0%
Arundo colorata
Glyceria máxima
Glyceria aquática
Typha latifolia
Horizontal flow Not specified 10.06 62.05 Typha domingensis COD: 62.0%5 193 Rodriguez-
Eichhornia crassipes TN: 54.5%5 Dominguez
Typha latifolia TP: 37.0%5 et al. 2020
Cyperus papyrus
Phragmites australis
Heliconia psittacorum
Pistia stratiotes3
Vertical flow 94.0 ± 100.01 Not specified 182.0 ± 718.0 Typha domingensis BOD5: 61.6% 16 Machado et al.
Typha latifolia NT: 47.0% 2017
PT: 50.0%
Vertical Flow 87.2 224.7 ­(BOD5) 18.0 – 4493.02.4 Not specified BOD5: 90.0% 114 Vymazal 2010
TSS: 89.0%
TN: 43.0%
TP: 56.0%
N-NH3: 73.0%

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
 Table 1  (continued)
Wetland flow Hydraulic load (mm/ Organic load (g/m2 day) Area ­(m2) Macrophytes species Efficiencies N (samplings) References
m2 day)

Vertical flow Not specified 25.06 1010.05 Typha domingensis COD: 80.0%5 27 Rodriguez-
Eichhornia crassipes TN: 64.0%5 Dominguez
Typha latifolia TP: 84.0%5 et al. 2020
Cyperus papyrus
Phragmites australis
Heliconia psittacorum
Pistia stratiotes 3
Floating 53.3 36.5 ­(BOD5) 18.0–4493.02.4 Not specified BOD5: 73.0% 92 Vymazal 2010
TSS: 72.5%
TN: 47.8%
TP: 42.0%
N-NH3: 46.7%
Floating Not specified 4.06 125.05 Typha domingensis COD: 70.0%5 54 Rodriguez-
Eichhornia crassipes TN: 78.0%5 Dominguez
Typha latifolia TP: 56.0%5 et al. 2020
Cyperus papyrus
Phragmites australis
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658

Heliconia psittacorum
Pistia stratiotes3

1
Removing the value of 3000 mm/m2. day for being considered an outlier
2
Surface area range of constructed wetlands in the Czech Republic
3
List of species in the study did not specify the type of constructed wetland used
4
Maximum and minimum
5
Average of means for different scales
6
Median

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67650
organic loads ­(BOD5) present large magnitudes, reaching
values up to 720 mm/m2 day and 200.6 g/m2 day, respec-
tively. The surface area of the CWs from these studies
varies greatly depending on the type of analysis scale, and
can be developed in laboratory, mesocosm, pilot scale and
real scale (Rodriguez-Dominguez et al. 2020).
Although in Table 1 horizontal flow CWs present lower
surface area values when compared to vertical flow wet-
lands, Vymazal (2010) states that these wetlands usually
require smaller areas, ranging from 1 to 3 ­m2 per person
(data used for domestic effluent treatment), while hori-
zontal flow wetlands require areas of 5 ­m2 per person. The
species Typha domingensis, Typha latifolia, and Phrag-
mites australis are the most common emerging macro-
phytes found in studies of CWs with subsurface horizontal
flow. In the analyzed studies, the minimum and maximum
efficiencies found for the parameters of ­BOD5, COD, TN
and TP were, respectively, 61–97%, 57–98%, 27–54.5%,
and 37–50%.
In studies using VFCWs, the hydraulic and organic loads
­(BOD5) present values of up to 100 mm/m2 day and 224.7 g/
m2 day, respectively. The most used macrophyte species are
the same as those of HFCWs and the minimum/maximum
efficiencies found in the parameters of ­BOD5, COD, TN
and TP were, respectively, 61–90%, 67.6–80%, 43–64%
and 50–84%.
Finally, the FCWs showed hydraulic and organic load
values of up to 53.3 mm/m2 day and 36.5 g/m2 day, respec-
tively. The minimum and maximum efficiencies found in the
parameters of TN and TP were, respectively, 47.8–78% and
42–56% whereas for ­BOD5 and COD, the values found were
of 73% and 70%, respectively.
Considering the values found in the analyzed studies,
we can observe similar efficiencies for the removal of
organic load ­(BOD5 and COD) among CWs with subsur-
face flow, while VFCWs tend to show greater efficiency,
due to the higher applied organic loads. On the other hand,
in CWs with floating plants and surface flow, the removal
of the organic load is lower, as they are usually used as
tertiary treatment of effluents, consequently, with lower
influent organic load (Vymazal 2010).
When analyzing TN removal efficiencies, FCWs present
higher averages than HFCWs, possibly due to the fact that
they present anoxic and aerobic layers in their system. Sur-
face flow wetlands enable simultaneously both denitrifica-
tion, nitrification and volatilization (due to the water sur-
face in direct contact with the atmosphere), while horizontal
subsurface flow wetlands tend to have only anaerobic and
anoxic layers, enabling only denitrification, as opposed to
vertical flow wetlands which, due to their aerobic layer, only
nitrification is affected (Dotro et al. 2017; Vymazal 2010).
In the analyzed studies, the main mechanism of
phosphorus removal, and derivations, is the adsorption
13
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
processes between solid particles and effluents, in addition
to precipitation and sedimentation processes. For this rea-
son, FCWs are the least effective, as they do not have fill-
ing material or because of the low density of existing roots
(Dell’Osbel et al. 2020). However, subsurface flow wet-
lands are more efficient only when filling materials with
favorable adsorption capacity are used (Vymazal 2010).
Use of bamboos
Table 2 was elaborated from research data and case studies
using bamboos in subsurface flow wetlands. The represented
organic load values, when not presented in the articles, were
calculated from the wastewaters flow, the concentration of
the organic load of the raw wastewaters and the surface area
of the wetlands.
The analysis of the articles reveals that the countries of
the publications were Brazil, France, Burkina Faso (West
Africa), Nigeria, China, and India, in subtropical and tropi-
cal climate conditions. The most common wetland config-
uration verified was the vertical subsurface flow wetland,
accounting for 4 out of 6 case studies, followed by the hori-
zontal subsurface flow.
In the research conducted by Piouceau et al. (2020) and
Arfi et al. (2009), the VFCWs had a surface area of 250 and
1080 ­m2, respectively, both filled with local soil. In addition,
the researchers opted for the variability of bamboo species
in the project, relying on the acclimatization of the seed-
lings in the soil for at least 5 months, in order to develop the
rhizomes. The amount of bamboo plants per hectare ranged
from 1500 to 1600. Hydraulic and organic loads ­(BOD5)
were gradually applied, that is, at first lower loads and, sub-
sequently, higher loads, ranging between 0.57 and 6.16 mm/
m2 day for hydraulic loads and 2.7 and 33.3 g/m2 day for
organic loads ­(BOD5). This last value was observed in the
treatment of raw swine manure.
An interesting information that must be mentioned is
the use of sprinklers in the study by Piouceau et al. (2020),
favoring the aeration of the raw effluent before its applica-
tion to the soil. HRT was of 10 days for the study by Arfi
et al. (2009) and 3.5 and 7 days for the study by Piouceau
et al. (2020), monitoring periods of 2 years and 13 months,
respectively. The efficiencies found in these studies were
above 97% for all analyzed parameters, a fact that can be
explained by the long adaptation period and development
of the rhizomes, besides the extensive monitoring period.
In the study carried out by Quege et al. (2013) three bam-
boo species, Guadua angustifolia, Phyllostachys aurea, and
Phyllostachys bambusoides were used in VFCW units. The
bamboos were planted in 1000-L tanks, one tank per spe-
cies, filled with clayey soil porous, with gravel in the back-
ground whereas each unit presented a surface area of 1,45 ­m2.
The seedlings were acclimated for a period of 57 days, and
 Table 2  Summary table on the use of bamboo in constructed wetlands for effluent treatment
Country Climate Flow Design Wastewater Hydraulic Applied organic HRT (days) Area Species Monitoring Efficiencies Reference
type load (mm/m2 load (g/m2 day) ­(m2) period
day)

France Mediterra- Vertical 1500 stalks/ha, each bam- Wine 3.1–6.16 2.7–5.4 ­(BOD5) 10 1080 Semiarundinaria 2 years TSS: 99.8% Arfi et al.
nean boo planted corresponds production fastuosa COD: 99.7% 2009
on average to a stalk of effluent Phyllostachys BOD5: 99.7%
1.5 m in height (raw) viridis TN: 99.9%
Sandy soil (80% sand more Phyllostachys vir- TP: 99.4%
than 1 m deep) with idis ‘sulfurea’ TN: 99.4%
sandy loam soil (60 cm Cu: 99.9%
deep) over an imperme-
able sandstone layer
France1 Hot sub- Vertical 1600 stalks/ha sandy loam Centrifuged 0.57 3–8.3 (HRT = 7) 7 (during 250 Bambusa vulgaris 13 meses Raw Piouceau
tropical soil with 60% sand and swine (HRT = 7) 12–33.3 9 months) Bambusa old- NT: 97.2% et al. 2020
25% silt manure 2.3 (HRT = 7) (HRT = 3.5) 3.5 (during hamii PT: 99.6%
and raw 5 months) Bambusa multi- Centrifuged
swine plex cv. Golden NT: 98.6%
manure Goddess PT: 99.8%
Bambusa
multiplex cv.
Alphonse Karr
Bambusa tul-
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doides
Dendrocalamus
asper
Gigantochloa
wrayi

Brazil Tropical Vertical 27,586 seedlings/ha Domestic 113 and 51 Not specified 2.3 and 5.2 1.45 Guadua angus- 1 year Guadua angustifolia Quege et al.
Cell depth of 0.73 m: effluent tifolia Evapotranspiration: 2013
0.26 m of gravel #3, (pre- Phyllostachys 86%
followed by a layer of treated) aurea DBO5: 98.3%
0.32 m of dystrophic red Phyllostachys DQO: 97.1%
oxisol bambusoides Phosphate: 98.4%
N-NH3: 98.2%
Phyllostachys aurea
Evapotranspiration:
8.1%
DBO5: 89%
DQO: 82.1%
Phosphate: 86.4%
N-NH3: 89.5%
Phyllostachys bambu-
soides

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Evapotranspiration:
7.2%
DBO5: 90%
DQO: 83.2%
Phosphate: 87%
N-NH3: 86.3%

13
67651
 Table 2  (continued)
67652

Country Climate Flow Design Wastewater Hydraulic Applied organic HRT (days) Area Species Monitoring Efficiencies Reference
type load (mm/m2 load (g/m2 day) ­(m2) period

13
day)
Burkina Tropical Vertical Plastic cells (27 L) filled Domestic 37.6 738 (COD) 7 0.16 Bambusa vulgaris 8 months COD: 89% Osei et al.
Faso with fine sand and gravel sludge Phosphate: 93% 2019
at their base N-NH3: 82%
TSS: 93%
TS: 97%
TVS: 82%
TDS: 47%
China Humid sub- Horizon- Cell dimension Domestic 200 11 (COD) 2 1.8 Dracaena sande- 6 months COD: 47.6% ± 29.1% Yu et al.
tropical tal 3 m × 0.6 m × 0.8 m effluent riana TN: 58.3% ± 15.6% 2012
[L × W × H] with three (pretreated, TP: 85.5% ± 11.7%
layers septic
Cracked brick bottom tank and
layer (3–5 cm) 20 cm biological
deep, middle ash layer filter)
(3–5 mm) 28 cm deep,
and top layer of sand
(1.5 mm) with a depth
of 10 cm
Planting range: 0.5 m
India Tropical Horizon- Cells of dimension Dairy indus- 37.5–112.5 7.8–31.5 1–3 0.24 Bambusa vulgaris Not speci- HRT = 3 Tandon
tal 0.8 × 0.3 × 0.3 m try effluent ­(BOD5) fied COD: 94% et al. 2010
[L × W × H] filled with (dilution BOD5: 89%
gravel with 25%
water)

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
after this period, 1 year of monitoring was carried out, with
a hydraulic retention time of 2.3 days, in the first 150 days,
and 5.2 days in the remaining time. The initial hydraulic load
was of 113 mm/m2 day and, after 150 days, of 51 mm/m2 day.
Although the concentrations of the raw wastewaters were
not specified, the minimum and maximum values of removal
efficiency of ­BOD5, COD, ammoniacal nitrogen (N-NH3),
and phosphate were of 89–98.3%, 82.1–97.1%, 86.3–98.2%,
and 86.4–98.4%, respectively. Besides the physicochemical
parameters, evapotranspiration was one of the monitored
aspects, resulting in a minimum value of 7.2% for Phyllos-
tachys bambusoides and a maximum of 86% for Guadua
angustifolia. The species Guadua angustifolia showed the
highest efficiency in removing the pollutant load in all phys-
icochemical parameters, in addition to the highest evapotran-
spiration rate, as well as the highest efficiencies in the 5.2-day
HRT. This may be attributed to the maturation of the system.
In the case study carried out in Burkina Faso, devel-
oped by Osei et al. (2019), domestic sludge was treated
by a VFCW. The authors compared the pollutant removal
efficiencies between two plant species, Bambusa vulgaris
and Cymbopogon nardus, where only the first can be called
a bamboo species. This CW has the smallest surface area
compared to other studies of this research, with only 0.16
­m2, and hydraulic load and organic load (COD) values of
37.6 mm/m2 day and 738 g/m2 day, respectively. A layer of
gravel at the base and another layer of sand were the fillings
used in this study.
As in the previous experiments, this study also com-
prised an acclimatization period of the seedlings of 2 months
with domestic sludge diluted in water, before the start of
the 8 months of monitoring with 7-day HRT. The removal
efficiencies of COD, phosphate, and N-NH3 were of 89%,
93%, and 82%, respectively. In addition to the physicochemi-
cal parameters, plant development was also monitored by
varying the number of stalks, leaves, and height growth.
Nevertheless, a weak statistical relationship between plant
development and pollutant removal was found. The species
Bambusa vulgaris presented the best performance in most
of the analyzed parameters, except for COD and N-NH3.
The study carried out in China by Yu et al. (2012) com-
pared the efficiency of CWs with vertical and horizontal
flow, between two species, Dracaena sanderiana, popu-
larly known as “lucky bamboo,” and Ipomoea aquatica, a
tropical semi-aquatic plant. Lucky bamboo was used in the
HFCW and Ipomoea aquatica in the VFCW. The effluent
analyzed was of domestic/rural origin and passed through
an anaerobic tank and a cascade biological filter, allowing
for the aeration of the effluent before entering the wetlands.
Despite the small surface area, 1.8 ­m2, the cell received a
continuous flow of effluent with an average organic load
(COD) of 11 g/m2 day and hydraulic load of 200 mm/m2
day with 2 days of HRT.
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67653
The pollutant removal efficiency of the HFCWs for the
parameters of COD, TN, and TP was of 47.6% ± 29.1%,
58.3% ± 15.6%, and 85.5% ± 11.7%, respectively. The root
system of Dracaena sanderiana (lucky bamboo) showed
greater development when compared to Ipomoea aquat-
ica, which probably enabled greater removal efficiencies
of organic matter and nutrients. The positive correlation
between root biomass development and nutrient removal
efficiency suggests that bamboo, having a longer and
more complex root system (> 20 cm compared to 8–12 cm
aquatic Ipomoea roots), probably enhanced root functions,
promoting oxidation of ammonia ion in the deeper area
and benefiting soluble phosphorus adsorption in the mid-
dle of the bed.
Tandon et al. (2010) investigated the treatment of efflu-
ents from a dairy industry in India. The results obtained
by the authors showed a higher efficiency of Bambusa vul-
garis in comparison to other two commonly used species
of macrophytes, Typha latifolia and Cyperus rotundus. The
HFCW was developed in a cell filled with gravel and with
a capacity to contain 27 L of effluent diluted in water (3:1).
The seedlings were acclimated for a period of 1 month in
diluted effluent, ranging from 10 to 50% water. Three reten-
tion times were tested, 1, 2, and 3 days, with organic (­ BOD5)
and hydraulic loads ranging from 7.8 to 31.5 g/m2 day and
37.5–112.5 mm/m2 day, respectively. The highest COD and
­BOD5 removal rates were observed in wetland using bamboo
and 3-day HRT, with 94% and 89%, respectively.
Nkeshita et al. (2020) evaluated the application of Bam-
busa vulgaris in pilot-scale CWs for the treatment of abattoir
wastewaters. The pilot units were composed of 1 × 1 × 1 m
tanks filled with sand. Samples were collected every 7 days
from day 0 to day 28 and compared it with a control unit
without the bamboo plants. The authors verified that, over-
all, the CW units vegetated with bamboo efficiently reduced
phosphate (99.6%) and nitrate (98.5%) whereas for COD
and BOD, it reached only 39.3% and 49.9%, respectively.
For improving the treatment performance, they suggested
to increase the number of bamboo shoot in order to increase
the root system.
Figure 7 was elaborated in order to better understand the
designs used in these studies. It presents the three different
designs of CWs with subsurface flow: saturated horizontal
flow, saturated vertical flow, and unsaturated vertical flow.
The first design in Fig. 7a outlines the VFCW from the study
by Quege et al. (2013), filled with clayey textured red lato-
sol in the upper layer and gravel #3 in the lower layer. The
wastewater is drained by the tube located above the gravel
layer, indicating that the internal medium is saturated, based
on the theory of communicating vessels. This may be con-
sidered an unusual aspect for this type of flow, since satu-
rated media tend to be anoxic, which in this case, can favor
denitrification processes.
13
67654
Fig. 7  Constructed wetland units vegetated with bamboo species. Saturated vertical flow (a), unsaturated vertical flow (b), and saturated hori-
zontal flow (c). Adapted from Yu et al. (2012) and Osei et al. (2019)
The second design (Fig. 7b) illustrates the VFCWs from
the publications by Piouceau et al. (2020), Arfi et al. (2009),
and Osei et al. (2019), filled with sandy loam and sandy soil
for studies carried out in France, and sand in the case of the
Burkina Faso study. The internal environment was unsatu-
rated, as the effluent outlet was located below the level of
the substrate layers, thus favoring nitrification due to the
tendency to oxygenate the effluent in the soil pores.
The third design (Fig. 7c), representing the HFCW from
the study by Yu et al. (2012), is filled with 3 layers: cracked
brick at the bottom, ash at the middle and sand at the top.
The internal environment is saturated and has vertical baf-
fles in order to extend the trajectory of the effluent and its
retention time, allowing anoxic zones at the base of the bed
and aerobic zones, close to the surface.
Despite the development of studies using bamboo in
floating wetlands, researchers have been using bamboo
species to remove contaminants through hydroponics, a
technique for cultivating plants without using soil. Chua
et al. (2019) investigated the copper (Cu) removal potential
of three bamboo species Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa
blumeana, and Bambusa merilliana in artificial solutions
13
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
containing 40, 80, and 120 µM ­C uSO 4 for a period of
3 weeks. Analysis of the plant tissues indicated a higher Cu
concentration in the roots, transferring to the stalks over the
period. Moreover, kinetic analysis showed that the greatest
Cu removal was achieved by the species D. asper, removing
about 67% in 21 days.
Saber et al. (2018) used lucky bamboo, Dracaena sande-
riana, to remove sulfate in an artificial solution with concen-
trations ranging from 50 to 3000 mg/L. The species showed
its peak of sulfate removal at concentrations of 600 mg/L
and results from the dimensionless Elovich model showed
that about 80% of sulfate uptake occurred during the contact
time of the first four days. According to the authors, CWs
with filter beds have advantages and disadvantages com-
pared to hydroponics for phytotreatment processes. Saber
et al. (2018) mention as advantages: greater plant perfor-
mance due to the presence of nutrients in the soil, higher
treatment efficiencies and less water loss by evaporation.
As disadvantages, the authors cite the following: higher
implantation cost, need of pretreatment to avoid clogging,
and requirement for irrigation water distribution systems to
avoid short circuits.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
Ranieri et al. (2020) evaluated the capacity of Moso
bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) for phytoremediation
of soils contaminated by chromium. The authors monitored
the use of this species and the effects of the metal on plant
growth capacity, tolerance as well as the phytoextraction
capacity of Moso bamboo and thus its mitigation potential.
After months of monitoring, it was verified that the high-
est concentrations of chromium in the plant tissues were
present in the root system of the plants (68%), and that this
species showed a good response in terms of tolerance (solu-
tions of up to 100 mg Cr/L) and an interesting performance
for chromium removal from contaminated soils considering
Mediterranean conditions (Ranieri et al. 2020).
In general, the use of bamboo species as an alternative
to macrophytes can bring advantages, but it also has limi-
tations. The analysis of the removal rates of COD, ­BOD5,
nitrogen, and phosphorus showed minimum and maximum
of 82.1–99.7%, 89–99.7%, 82 (N-NH3)–99.9% (TN-N), and
86.4 (phosphate)–99.4% (TP), respectively, in VFCWs, and
of 47.6–94%, 89%, 58.3% (TN), and 85.5% (TP) in HFCWs.
The removal of pollutants with bamboo tends to be higher
when compared to macrophytes, but the limited number of
studies carried out with bamboo does not allow to confirm
this evidence in a robust way. The explanation for this evi-
dence may be due to the morphological differences of the
roots of these plants, the rhizomes or underground stems,
which are larger and more widespread. Furthermore, they
have to support the weight and stresses caused by the plant’s
stalks and branches, thus promoting a greater contact area
between root and effluent.
The accelerated growth of some bamboo species may be
another important factor. This aspect was already observed
by da Silva et al. (2011), in a study carried out at the Parque
Municipal de Maceió (Brazil), in which the species Bambusa
vulgaris presented an average shoot growth of 28 cm/day.
Moreover, according to Ueda (1968), bamboo stalks only
grow in height, with speeds that can reach up to 120 cm per
day for the species Phyllostachys edulis. For clogged species
(tropical or sympodial-growing bamboos), the growth rate
of the stalks can reach 40 cm per day.
Another advantage of using bamboo is associated with the
evapotranspiration of some species, as observed by Quege
et al. (2013), in a study developed in Brazil. According to the
authors, the species Guadua angustifolia was responsible for
the evapotranspiration of 86% of the effluent. In these cases,
high evapotranspiration can be an excellent alternative, since
the final discharge of treated effluent can be a problem in
many cases, as there is no receiving body; that is, bodies of
water or rain and sewage networks.
Other advantages, already described above, are the pos-
sibility of commercializing bamboo biomass, the recycling
of wood for energy recovery and the capacity to prevent
clogging of the CW bed. Although Bambusa vulgaris has
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67655
been a species frequently used in CWs, found in three of the
six studies analyzed, it is necessary to pay attention to the
dispersion of shoots and rhizomes, as well as to carry out
periodic monitoring plantations, as this species is recognized
as having an invasive capacity.
An important aspect to be considered when applying
bamboos for the phytoremediation of effluents is the toler-
ance of the intended species to periods of flooding, espe-
cially in systems with the presence of substrate saturation.
Mills et al. (2011) evaluated the influence of flooding peri-
ods on two species of Arundinaria bamboos (A. gigantea
and A. tecta). The authors found that the species showed sig-
nificant differences in physiological and growth character-
istics in response to periods of flooding. From the obtained
results, they concluded that the species Arundinaria tecta
was more resistant to flooding conditions, and, therefore, is
more indicated for situations where the flooding of the roots
frequently occurs.
Despite being popular for their high biomass productiv-
ity and resistance to high concentrations of heavy metals
in the soil (Zhang et al. 2020), the tolerance of bamboos to
environments with an excess of these metals can vary con-
siderably according to the species used. In some cases, for
example, the presence of heavy metals can cause oxidative
stress and physiological damage to the plants used.
According to Bian et al. (2020), processes related to
absorption, transport, and detoxification by different bam-
boo species for phytoremediation of contaminated soils are
still a gap in the literature. Thus, more studies should be
developed for a better understanding of these processes and,
thus, to improve the efficiency of bamboo phytoremediation
systems, as well as to investigate the proper reuse of the
biomass generated in the bioremediation of heavy metals,
which can be forwarded, for example for the production of
bamboo “biochar” and biofuels (Bian et al. 2020).
Therefore, it is first necessary to assess the existence of
native species where the CWs will be deployed, using, for
Brazilian cases, for example, the species Guadua chacoen-
sis, naturally distributed in northern Argentina, southeast-
ern Bolivia, southern Paraguay and Brazil (Judziewicz et al.
1999). More studies and research are needed in this innova-
tive area of using terrestrial species in CWs, aimed not only
at system efficiencies, but also as part of a circular economy
focused on ecosystem services of environmental, social and
economic value.
Bamboo’s phytoremediation and circular economy
concept
The concept of circular economy is based on the conversion
of linear flows of natural and anthropogenic products into
circular and closed resource flows, through strategies such as
13
67656
Fig. 8  Potential benefits of
bamboo phytoremediation in
terms of ecosystem services
and in relation to the concept
of circular economy. Adapted
from Langergraber et al. (2020),
Milani et al. (2020), and Mlih
et al. (2020)
the “3Rs”: reduce, reuse, and recover. In this context, nature-
based solutions (such as CWs systems) can promote diverse
ecosystem services to urban environments, such as micro-
climate regulation, flood reduction, water treatment, food
production, and other benefits (Langergraber et al. 2020).
Besides to reducing the pollutant load to safe levels of
disposal in nature, depending on the level and performance
of the treatment, CWs can enable the local reuse of waste-
water after its treatment for agricultural irrigation and other
purposes, thus reducing the demand for drinking water for
less noble purposes (Milani et al. 2020).
Due to its high biomass production, the use of bamboo
can represent an interesting tool for carbon sequestration
from the atmosphere, thus reducing the concentrations of
greenhouse gases. According to Gu et al. (2019), forests for
carbon sequestration, in which bamboo stands out in China,
are more cost-effective than several other emission reduc-
tion strategies. In a project in China using Moso bamboo
(Phyllos-tachy pubescens) for carbon sequestration from the
atmosphere, the authors estimate that the 8636-ha vegetated
area could remove about 1861.726 t of C ­ O2 equivalent, i.e.,
about 7.19 t per hectare (Gu et al. 2019). Figure 8 summa-
rizes the benefits of applying CWs and bamboo phytoreme-
diation systems.
The bamboo biomass produced during the treatment can
be used for the production of several bioproducts such as
handicrafts, construction material, energy generation, and
charcoal production (Van Dam et al. 2018). In addition, the
biomass generated in a CW system can enable the recovery
of nutrients removed from the effluent through composting
and the manufacture of fertilizers for crops or even for ani-
mal feed (Lin et al. 2020).
Another possibility of applying bamboo biomass is for
the manufacture of floating supports used in FCWs, in which
13
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
naturally emerged macrophytes are suspended on the sur-
face, while their roots grow directly in the water column
(Rehman et al. 2019). In this context, bamboo presents itself
as a promising material to be used as a support for macro-
phytes in floating systems, due to its low cost, high avail-
ability, and biodegradability, which can facilitate its disposal
after use in relation to other materials.
Thus, the applicability of bamboos in the phytoremedia-
tion of wastewater can promote an approximation of treat-
ment plants to the concept of circular economy, by obtaining
water for non-potable reuse, recovery of resources by the
biomass produced, and also several environmental and social
benefits. However, there is a knowledge gap in this topic,
and therefore, more studies focusing on the use of bamboo
in wastewater treatment are still needed.
Conclusions
CWs are proven to be an excellent alternative for the treat-
ment of liquid effluents, both of domestic and industrial
origin. There are several ways of combination, operation
and possible designs to be used, whether for secondary or
tertiary treatments. Based on natural systems, CWs promote
landscape harmonization, little or no sludge generation, low
maintenance and operation, and generally have a low imple-
mentation cost. Studies using macrophytes are diverse and
numerous, promoting greater reliability in the implementa-
tion of full-scale wetlands. As it is a biological system for
the treatment of effluents, frequent maintenance, through
pruning and care to avoid bed clogging are necessary.
The use of land plants, such as bamboo, represents
an alternative to macrophytes, since after pruning the
wood may be used for various purposes, such as: energy
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:67641–67658
recovery, sale for the manufacture of utensils, use as a
floating matrix for emerging macrophytes in FCWs and
use of their charcoal as substrate for subsurface flow wet-
lands. The possibility of a high rate of evapotranspiration
and great efficiency, possibly due to its accelerated growth
and root morphology, motivates and arouses interest in the
development of further studies and research, since, cur-
rently, the main limitation found is the lack of publications
on this topic. Therefore, the application of bamboo species
in CW can improve economic and environmental sustain-
ability of wastewater treatment systems through resources
recovery, bioproducts, carbon sequestration and landscape
integration.
Acknowledgements This work has been partially supported by the
Brazilian agency CAPES.
Author contribution All authors contributed to the study concep-
tion and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis
were performed by Maurício Reimann Nast and Gustavo Stolzen-
berg Colares. The first draft of the manuscript was written by
Maurício Reimann Nast and reviewed by Ênio Leandro Machado
and Lucia Ribeiro Rodrigues. All authors commented on previous
versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Data availability Not applicable.
Code availability Not applicable.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Not applicable.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
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