MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND

TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND

MANAGEMENT

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III

GROUP 2

TOPIC: DAMS AND BRIDGES

GROUP MEMBERS

S/N NAME REGISTRATION NUMBER

1 AMPAIRE CATHERINE 19/U/19459/PSA
2 ONEKA LIT JOLLY 19/U/28368

3 WASSWA SSEMWOGERERE HASAN 19/U/0903

4 KAKEMBO MOSES ISAAC 19/U/19621/PS
5 NAKATO REBECCA MBATUDE 19/U/19924/PSA
6 MUSIIMENTA HOPE 19/U/19834/PS
7 AHIMBISIBWE ANTHONY 19/U/19408/PS
Contents
LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................................i
1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................1
2. DAM STRUCTURES.................................................................................................................1
2.1 Purposes of dams.......................................................................................................................1

2.2 Components of dams.................................................................................................................5

2.3 Classification of dams................................................................................................................8

2.3.1 Classification according to materials......................................................................................8

2.3.3 Classification according to use.............................................................................................15

2.3.4 Classification according to hydraulic design........................................................................18

2.3.5 Classification according to size............................................................................................19

2.3.6 Classification according to hazard potential.........................................................................19

2.4 Factors influencing the selection of types of dams..................................................................19

2.4.1 A case study on the reservoir triggered seismicity...............................................................22

2.5 Advantages of dams.................................................................................................................22

2.6 Disadvantages of dams............................................................................................................23

2.7 Sustainability of dams..............................................................................................................23

2.8 Ecological impacts of dams.....................................................................................................25

2.9 Spillways..................................................................................................................................26

2.9.1 Main components of spillways and their function................................................................26

2.9.2 Required spillway capacity...................................................................................................27

2.9.3 Types of spillways................................................................................................................28

2.9.4 Selection of spillway type.....................................................................................................35

2.9.5 Safety....................................................................................................................................35

3 BRIDGES...................................................................................................................................37

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3.1 Elements of a bridge................................................................................................................37

3.2 Other terminologies related to bridges....................................................................................38

3.3 Types of bridges......................................................................................................................39

3.2.1 Classification according to materials....................................................................................39

3.3.2 Span length classification.....................................................................................................40

3.3.3 Classification by position (moveable bridges).....................................................................40

3.3.4 Classification by geometric shapes.......................................................................................42

3.3.5 Classification by usage.........................................................................................................42

3.3.6 Inter span relation classification...........................................................................................43

3.2.7 Classification according to structural forms.........................................................................43

3.4 Construction process of a bridge.............................................................................................47

3.4.1 Planning for bridge constructions.........................................................................................47

3.4.2 The Processes........................................................................................................................47

3.5 West Seattle bridge case study................................................................................................47

4 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................49
References......................................................................................................................................50

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: showing a dam.............................................................................................................................1
Figure 2: Hydro -electric power dam...........................................................................................................3
Figure 3: use of dam for recreation..............................................................................................................4
Figure 4: Inland navigation dam..................................................................................................................4
Figure 5: mine tailing dam...........................................................................................................................5
Figure 6: image showing cut off of an earthen dam.....................................................................................6
Figure 7: Showing concrete gravity dam.....................................................................................................8
Figure 8: illustration of a concrete...............................................................................................................9
Figure 9: illustration of an arch dam..........................................................................................................10
Figure 10: showing and arch dam..............................................................................................................10
Figure 11: illustration of a buttress dam....................................................................................................11
Figure 12: Showing a buttress dam............................................................................................................11
Figure 13: showing a timber dam..............................................................................................................12
Figure 14: showing a steel dam.................................................................................................................12
Figure 15: illustration of an earth dam.......................................................................................................13
Figure 16: Showing earth dam...................................................................................................................13
Figure 17: illustration of a rock fill dam....................................................................................................14
Figure 18: Showing a rock fill dam...........................................................................................................14
Figure 19: Showing a storage dam............................................................................................................15
Figure 20: Showing a diversion dam.........................................................................................................16
Figure 21: Showing a barrage dam............................................................................................................16
Figure 22: illustration of a weir.................................................................................................................17
Figure 23: Showing a weir dam.................................................................................................................17
Figure 24: Showing a detention dam.........................................................................................................18
Figure 25: Showing an overflow dam........................................................................................................18
Figure 26: Showing a non-overflow dam..................................................................................................19
Figure 27: Straight drop spillway.............................................................................................................29
Figure 28 over fall spillway with guide.....................................................................................................30
Figure 29 Overflow spillway without guide..............................................................................................30
Figure 30: Chute spillway..........................................................................................................................31
Figure 31: Shaft spillway...........................................................................................................................31
Figure 32: Cross-section of a typical shaft spillway..................................................................................32
Figure 33: Side channel spillway...............................................................................................................33
Figure 34: siphon spillway........................................................................................................................33
Figure 35: Cross-section of a typical siphon spillway...............................................................................34
Figure 36: Baffle chute spillway................................................................................................................35
Figure 37: Longitudinal Direction and Cross Section of a Bridge.............................................................39

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Figure 38: the tower Bridge in London (Photo by Yoda)..........................................................................40
Figure 39 :Two Swing Bridges in Liverpool.............................................................................................41
Figure 40 Lift Bridge.................................................................................................................................42
Figure 41illustration of lift bridge.............................................................................................................42
Figure 42 showing curved bridge..............................................................................................................43
Figure 43: Beam Bridge............................................................................................................................44
Figure 44: cable stayed bridge...................................................................................................................45
Figure 45: Truss bridge.............................................................................................................................46
Figure 46: Arch Bridge..............................................................................................................................46
Figure 47: Tower Bridge (Sacramento, California)...................................................................................47

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1 INTRODUCTION
People from the beginning of recorded history have constructed barriers across rivers and other
water courses to store or divert water. The earliest of these dams were used to water farms. For
example, the ancient Egyptians built earth dams that raised the Nile river level and diverted
water into canals to irrigate fields above the river. Behind the dam, waters pile up to form an
artificial lake which sometime can be very long. The artificial lake backed up by a dam is called
a reservoir. (Gheaemian, 2000)

2. DAM STRUCTURES
A dam is a structure built across a stream, river or estuary to retain water. It prevents the flow of
water and accumulates it in a reservoir.

By definition a reservoir refers to the large mass of water body which forms behind the wall
constructed across the river (dam). Reservoirs are readily classified in accordance with their
primary purpose. (Novak, 2007)

Figure 1: showing a dam

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2.1 Purposes of dams
A management tool used to control, regulate, and deliver water for a variety of purposes.

Irrigation

Water reserved in dams is mostly used for irrigation. By constructing a dam in a specific water
source, the water is directly transported to a crop field.

Flood Control

The dams are used to effectively regulate the level of water flowing in the river by temporarily
storing the flood volume and releasing it later under control to the river below the dam or store or
divert the water for other uses. This strategy eliminates flooding which prevents the loss of life
and property.

One of the prominent examples of such a dam is the Tennessee Valley Authority dams in the
U.S.A which was mainly constructed to help control floods on the Tennessee lower Ohio and the
lower Mississippi River.

Hydropower Generation

Hydropower generated by the dams is the most plentiful and most efficient renewable energy
resource, contributing to 24% of all renewable electric energy produced all over the world.
(Britanniaca, 2021)

The electricity comes from a dam where we convert the mechanical energy of water into
electrical energy.

Some examples of dams that have been constructed for hydro-electricity generation are listed as
follows;

1. Three Gorges Dam, China (installed capacity of 22,500 MW).

2. Itaipu Dam, Brazil (Installed capacity of 14,00MW).

3. Belo Monte Dam, Brazil (installed capacity of 11,233MW).

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 Figure 2: Hydro -electric power dam

Water Supply

Dams play an important role in the water supply for domestic and industrial use e.g. For
agriculture, municipal and industrial usage. Dams store the water in the reservoir and supply it
during the shortage of times.

The major percentage of rainfall precipitates on the ocean and the rainfall on the earth is wasted
as runoff, a mere 2% of infiltrated to replenish the groundwater. So properly planned and
designed dams can store and contribute significantly toward fulfilling our water supply
requirements.

Recreation

Dams provide prime recreational facilities such as boating, skiing, camping, picnic areas, and
boat launch facilities are all supported by dams. The large water stored due to the construction of
dams facilitates the growth of flora and fauna in the region due to which many recreational
activities such as natural history, bird watching; landscape painting, walking, and hiking are on
the rise.

Some of the examples of such a dam can be listed as follows:

1. Spring bank Dam, London

2. Mitchell Dam, Thames River

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 Figure 3: use of dam for recreation

Navigation of flow

We can also navigate water flow in a particular area by just constructing a dam or lock.

Figure 4: Inland navigation dam

Mine Tailing

A mine tailing dam is usually constructed by earth-filled embankment for the purpose of storing
by-products of mining operations (Tailings) which can be liquid, solid, or slurry of fine particles,
and are usually highly toxic and potentially radioactive.

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 Figure 5: mine tailing dam

The mines of copper, coal, gold, and uranium produce many kinds of waste, much of which are
toxic by-products which pose varied challenges for long-term containment of the environment,
To mitigate this challenge, tailing dams are constructed to contain the effects of these harmful
by-products.

Therefore, Dams can help safeguard the environment by storing harmful items (hazardous
materials)

2.2 Components of dams

Abutments:

The part of the valley sides of the dams, constructed with concrete material or masonry work.
The function of the abutments is to provide support to the wall of the dam.

The base of the Dam: The base is the total width of the basement of the dam, which descends
with vertical ascend of the dam.

Heel: 

The heel is the part that touches the ground on the upstream side of a dam.

Toe: 

The toe is a structure that remains in contact with the river-bed on a downstream slope.

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Crest: 

The crest is the top part of a Dam, used for providing a walkway above.

Cut-off: 

The cut-off of the dam is an impervious material, which prevents the seepage of water through
the base section of the dam.

Figure 6: image showing cut off of an earthen dam

Cut-off Wall: 

The wall of impervious material like wood panels, concrete, or steel is constructed in the core of
the dame. The purpose of this wall is to prevent seepage. Keep in view that seepage harms the
solidarity of the dam.

The face of the Dam

 The side of the dam which is faced by the downstream

Upstream: 

Upstream of a dam is the level of water reservoir held back by the dam. The water of Upstream
flows through the conduit toward the downstream.

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Parapet walls: 

Parapet walls are the protecting walls on each side of the roadway or walkway of the crest.

Gallery: 

These are hollow openings passing through the dam .The main purpose of providing drainage
gallery is to collect seepage water from the foundation and body of the dam, and drain it out. The
seepage water received by foundation galleries is drained away under gravity

Spillway: 

For the surplus water movement from the pool, a sort of passage was made known as a spillway.

Sluice way: 

The structure near the bottom part arranged for cleaning the silt gathering in the reservoir.

Freeboard:

The freeboard is the gap between the uppermost level of water in the reservoir and the structure’s
cap.

Dead Storage level: 

It’s the permanent storage level below which water won’t be taken out.

Diversion Tunnel:

The purpose of the diversion canal is to redirect the water. Diversion tunnels are constructed
during the construction stage of dams to divert the way of water flow to bypass it to the
construction site. Therefore, the river flows through it during the construction of hydraulic
structures.

A diversion tunnel may also be constructed to divert floodwaters to divert water from
mountainous regions to low lying areas experiencing a water shortage supply

(GOPINATH, 2021)

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2.3 Classification of dams
The design, inspection, and maintenance criteria for a dam are based on the classification of the
dam (Resources, 2013)

Dams are classified by their use, materials used in dam construction, their size and according to
their hazard potential.

2.3.1 Classification according to materials

Dams can be classified according to the materials used in their construction and the way they
resist hydraulic pressure. This classification is divide into rigid and non-rigid dams

2.3.1.1 Rigid dams

These are dams constructed with rigid material such as concrete timber etc. These dams deflect
and deform very little when subjected to water pressure. Examples include;

1. Gravity dams

A gravity dam is proportioned such that its own weight provides for the major resistance to the
forces exerted upon it. If the foundation is adequate and the dam is properly designed and
constructed, the concrete dam will be permanent and will require little maintenance (H.L. Boggs,
1987)

Figure 7: Showing concrete gravity dam

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 Figure 8: illustration of a concrete

Advantages of gravity dams

i. Their cost of maintenance is very low as compared to other dams and the benefit of the
cost ratio is the highest.
ii. They are more suitable in steep valleys where earth dams may tend to slip.
iii. Gravity dams do not fail suddenly, their failure can be predicted well in advance so that
loss of life and property maybe be saved.
iv. Such dams, when built with a strong foundation may be built up to a maximum practical
height. For example the Grande Dixence Dam in Switzerland which is 285m in height.

Disadvantages of gravity dams

i. The initial cost of construction of this type of dam is high.

ii. The construction period is comparatively more.
iii. Skilled labor is required
2. Arch dams

An arch dam is curved in plan, comparably thinner and has its convexity towards the upstream
side. They transfer the water pressure and other forces to the abutments mainly by arch action
and gravity action. It is most suitable for narrow gorges.

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 Figure 9: illustration of an arch dam

Figure 10: showing and arch dam

Advantages of arch dams

i. Arch dams require less material to construction thus cheaper in terms of cost.
ii. Because of much less base width, the problems of uplift pressure are minor.

Disadvantages of arch dams

i. Requires skilled labor and sophisticated form work during its construction.
ii. The speed of construction is normally slow.

3. Buttress dams

A buttress dam has a solid, water tight upstream side that is supported at intervals on the
downstream side by a series of buttresses or supports. The dam wall can be flat or curved

The dam consists of columns placed in front of the arch or flat surface to resist the bending
action in cases where the gauge is wide, which leads to increased formwork and reinforcing steel

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involved. Buttress spacing varies with the height of the dam. Closely spaced buttresses can be
less expensive and the slabs can be thinner but more formwork is required but the best buttress
spacing is usually quite flat over a wide range of spacing’s. (Novak, 2007)

Figure 11: illustration of a buttress dam

Figure 12: Showing a buttress dam

Advantages of buttress dams

i. Safety factor of a buttress dam is considerably greater as compared to a gravity dam

ii. The height of the dam can be raised to stretching the buttresses
iii. Uplifting strain on the dam is significantly lower which improves the overall stability of
the dam

Disadvantages of buttress dams

i. Skilled labor is required in construction of the dam

ii. Stress at the foundation is greater and thus a sound rock foundation is required which
would increase the overall cost of the dam
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 4. Timber and steel dams

Dams can also be constructed using steel or timber as the main material, it is important to note
these are secondary dams and store smaller amounts of water

Figure 13: showing a timber dam

Figure 14: showing a steel dam

2.3.1.2 Non rigid dams

These are dams constructed with non-rigid materials such as earth and rock fill. There are
relatively large settlements and deformations in non-rigid dams. These are also called
embarkment dams. They include;

1. Earth dams

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These dams are also called embankment dams, they are built up by compacting successive layers
of earth, using the most impervious materials to from a core and placing a more permeable
substances on the upstream and downstream sides. (Britanniaca, 2021)

Figure 15: illustration of an earth dam

Figure 16: Showing earth dam

Advantages of earth dams

i. Earth materials are readily available

ii. Easy handling of earth, earth can be excavated by use of hand tools and then transported
easily
iii. Cost of construction the dam is lower compared to construction of other types

Disadvantages

i. Greater maintenance cost

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 ii. They are unsuitable for spillways

2. Rock fill dams

Rock fill dams have been defined as follows “A dam that relies ‘on rock, either dumped in lifts
or compacted in layers, as a major structural element”. An impervious membrane is used as the
water barrier and can be placed either within the embankment (internal membrane) or on the
upstream slope (external membrane). Various materials have been used for this membrane
including earth materials concrete, steel, asphaltic concrete. (E.A. Seaman, 1992, p. 3)

Figure 17: illustration of a rock fill dam

Figure 18: Showing a rock fill dam

Advantages of rock fill dams

i. They are cheaper to build as compared to concrete dams

ii. They take less time to build as compared to concrete dams

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Disadvantage of rock fill dams

i. Spillways on this dam must be strong enough to prevent overtopping of the embankment

2.3.3 Classification according to use

1. Storage dams

Storage dams are constructed to impound water during periods of surplus supply for use in
periods of deficient supply. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for use in the dry
season. Storage dams are further classified according to the purpose such as water supply,
recreation, fish and wildlife, hydroelectric power generation, irrigation etc. (McDaniel, 1987, p.
187)

They include gravity dams, earth dams, rock fill dams, arch dams

Figure 19: Showing a storage dam

2. Diversion dam

A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the river into an off taking
canal, it’s usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream.

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 Figure 20: Showing a diversion dam

Types of diversion dams

i. Barrages

This is a dam which consists of a large gate that can be opened or closed to control the amounts
of water passing the dam

Figure 21: Showing a barrage dam

ii. Weir

This is any control or barrier placed in an open channel to permit measurements of water
discharge. A variety of weirs have been used in streams, the sharp crested and trapezoidal being
the most common. (Britanniaca, 2021)

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 Figure 22: illustration of a weir

Figure 23: Showing a weir dam

3. Detention dams

Detention dams are constructed to retard flood run off and minimize the effects of sudden floods.
Detention consists of two main types; in one type the water is temporarily stored and released
through an outlet structure at a rate that doesn’t exceed the carrying capacity of the channel
downstream , in another type, the water is held as long as possible and allowed to seep into
pervious banks or into the foundation. The latter type is less commonly used on small projects
than on large development. (Blair, 1987, p. 339)

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 Figure 24: Showing a detention dam

2.3.4 Classification according to hydraulic design

This classification is divided into overflow dams and non-overflow dams

1. Overflow dams

This is a dam which is designed to carry discharge over its crest or through spillways along the
crest, concrete is the most commonly used material for this dam type. (McDaniel, 1987)

Figure 25: Showing an overflow dam

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 2. Non overflow dams

These are dams that are designed not to be over topped. This type of design extends the
choice of material to include earth fill and rock fill dams. Often the two dams are combined
to from a composite structure. (Blair, 1987)

Examples are gravity dams, earth dams, rock fill dams

Figure 26: Showing a non-overflow dam

2.3.5 Classification according to size

According to the International Commission On Large Dams (2002), a dam is large if its
height is over 15 meters, if the crest length is bigger than 500meters,if its reservoir capacity
is more than one million cubic meters, if the flood discharge is more than 2000 cubic meter
per second

2.3.6 Classification according to hazard potential

This classification assesses extent of the likely results should there be failure in the dam
structure. There dams of minimal and low hazard potential which are normally small in size
and then there are dams of significant and high hazard potential which vary from medium to
large in size (Resources, 2013)

2.4 Factors influencing the selection of types of dams

At the event of planning to build a dam, it must be decided which type of dam will be most
suitable and most economical. Different conditions and factors favor the construction and

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existence of different kinds and types of dams. Therefore, great care has to be taken to ensure
that the dam to be constructed is well situated, structurally stable and financially economical.
Explained below are the factors that influence the selection of types of dams.
Geology and foundation conditions
Geology deals with the physical structure and substance of the earth.
The geological and foundation conditions should be thoroughly surveyed because the foundation
carry the weight of the dam.
Particular foundations may or may not be suitable for particular types of dams as further detailed
below.

1) Solid-rock foundation
This foundation is strong enough to withstand the self-weight of the dam due it's composition
such as granite, gneiss which have strong bearing power and almost every kind of dam can be
built on such foundations. That is; rigid dams, non-rigid dams
Etc.
2) Gravel foundation
Gravel foundation is suitable for earth and rock fill dams. This is so because of the
Less bearing capacity of these foundations compared to solid-rock foundation. Low
Concrete gravity dams up to a height of fifteen meters can also be considered for
Such foundations
3) Silt and fine sand foundations
This type of foundation suggests the adoption of earth or very low gravity dam, up to a height of
eight meters. This is so because of the low bearing capacity of these foundations.
4) Clay foundations.
These are likely to cause settlement of the dam due to the behavior of clay when subjected to
weight. Therefore, gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such foundations.
However, earthen dams after special treatment can be built upon such foundations.

Topography
Topography is the arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area. This
greatly influences the choice of the dam type.

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A narrow V-shaped valley favors the choice of an arch dam.
A narrow U-shaped valley flowing between high rocky walls can suggest a concrete dam.
A low plain area would suggest an earth fill dam.
A wide and gently sloping valley upstream of the dam site is favorable for storage dams, narrow
and steeply sloping valley suggests hydropower dams so that the flowing water has the necessary
potential energy and speed to generate electricity.
Height of dam
The different dams accommodate different heights for their structural stability and sustainability.
Earthen dams are usually not a good option for the height of more than thirty meters. For greater
heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.
Spillway size and location
A spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of water from a dam.
The capacity of spillway depends on the magnitude of the floods to be by-passed.
The cost of constructing a separate spillway may be enormous or sometimes a suitable site for
construction of spillway may not be available. Therefore in such a case, combining the spillway
and dam into one structure may be desirable thus the choice of a concrete overflow dam.
For circumstances where material has been excavated for a separate spillway, this material (soil
or rock) can be used for an embankment dam.
Location and type of suitable material to be used in dam construction.
For economic purposes, the materials required for dam construction must be available locally or
at short distances from the construction site.
Other factors being held constant, the most nearby or accessible material shall be used for the
construction of the dam thus the type of dam as per the material.
For example;
The availability of timber favors the construction of a timber dam, gravel and sand favors
concrete dams and presence of soils or rocks for embankment dams.
This happens so to ensure transportation expenses are not so high in case the desired construction
material is at a far distance from the construction site thus implicating a high total cost.
Seismic tremor zone
A seismic zone describes an area with a particular level of hazard due to earthquakes. A high
seismic hazard zone is nearest to the zone where there are more earthquakes whereas a lower

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seismic hazard zone is farther away from the seismic zone and has less earthquake effect.
Site selection for dams should ensure that no seismic and tectonic activities or active faults in
and near the site should be present to avoid any disaster and save costs on design of dam.
However, in case a dam is arranged in a tremor zone, it's plan must incorporate seismic tremor
forces. The kind of structure most appropriate to oppose seismic tremor stuns is earthen dams
and Solid gravity dams.
If a dam is to be situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake force.
The type of structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams and
concrete gravity dams.
(C.Jackson, 1998)
2.4.1 A case study on the reservoir triggered seismicity.
Turkey is one of the most seismically active regions in the world. There are so many dams which
are under the effect of near-source zones in Turkey. There are some examples of embankment
dams in Turkey which were damaged during the earthquakes that occurred in the past. However,
there is no concrete dam which was damaged as a result of the earthquake in Turkey
(Tosun, 2015)

2.5 Advantages of dams

1. Water Supply. Dams gather water which people can use for both domestic and industrial
functions.
2. A good example is Warragamba, a water supply dam of Australia, supplies water to more
than 3.7 million people in Sydney in the New South Wales.
3. Irrigation. Dams help farmers bring water to their farms for irrigation.
4. Example.
5. Burrinjuck Dam, an irrigation dam of Australia which was built as the main headwater
storage for the Murrumbidgee irrigation area in New South Wales.
6. Hydro electric supply. Dams help to create power and electricity from water.
7. The Three Gorge Dam in China is capable of producing 22500 Mega Watts of electricity
which can reduce coal usage. This makes it one of the largest hydroelectric producer I’m the
World.
8. Flood control. Some sources show that dams keep areas free from floods, however to my
opinion dams control floods only in the short run and they become triggers in the long run.

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9. Dams create lakes for people to swim in and sail on.

2.6 Disadvantages of dams

1. Dams destruct from natural settings and ruin natures work.
Usually the establishment and construction of dams interrupts the ecosystem for example
destruction of the green environment, killing and displacement or small micro living
organisms.
2. Dams have inhibited the seasonal migration of fish.
3. Dams have endangered some fish species.
4. Dams can foster diseases if not properly maintained. If dam shores are not cleared off think
vegetation, they may 17 harbor vectors such as mosquitoes and tsetse flies that can spread
diseases to both human and livestock respectively.
5. Reservoir water can evaporate significantly. Dams are in most case exposed to direct
sunshine which is a great agent of evaporation.
6. However much dams can be constructed to control dams, this effect is of a short run because
sudden release of large quantities of water from reservoirs causes floods in the low lying
area.

2.7 Sustainability of dams

Economic sustainability

In the short run, building thermal plants, importing food, and accepting flood damages is less
expensive than building dams and more easily sustainable financially. But dams are usually
much more sustainable economically.

When a rough analysis is done for hydro-power, which has a direct financial return. The
cumulative overall investment for more than 800 GW at a present rate of US$1 to 1.5 million per
GW is in the range of $1,000 billion (including the cost of plants) with a further increase of
about 2% per year or $20 billion. (Berga, J.M. Buil, 2006)

Social aspects

The first and most important step in social aspects has been improved public involvement in the
planning process. This allows the owner to describe and discuss the need for a project,

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alternatives being studied, the required resettlement for each alternative, a cultural evaluation,
environmental impacts and their associated mitigation and the cost associated with each
alternative.

Experience has shown that it is essential for the engineers who will design the selected project to
be involved in the planning process and public meetings. This results in the development and
presentation of realistic costs for each alternative. This also improves the detailed descriptions
and discussion of each alternative that is presented at the public meetings. Public involvement
early in the project planning process also allows the affected people not only to better understand
the project but plan for and obtain assistance for real estate acquisition and resettlement. It also
provides an opportunity for the affected people to document the cultural sites that will have to be
relocated and preserved.

Environmental aspects

Where large quantities of water are needed for domestic and/or industrial water supply,
irrigation, energy, navigation and flood control, multipurpose dams have proven to be the best
solution. Once these dams and reservoirs are completed, they become an integral part of the
environment. Therefore, it is essential that environmental assessments be made to identify
potential impacts by the project. Then the designers can plan, design and implement appropriate
mitigation.

However, some potential impacts such as carbon dioxide and chlorine are related to natural
water quality and are complex issues that require research to find the best method for mitigation.
The environmental aspects of dams and reservoirs have been addressed by ICOLD since 1973).
Besides ICOLD, other professional organizations, NGO’s, engineers and their firms, as well as
national and local governments have developed guidance, programs and regulations concerning
mitigation of environmental impacts. (Berga, J.M. Buil, 2006)

Detailed “Environmental Impact Assessments” are now required by most governments. A wide
range of technology and operational procedures are being used to ensure sustainability of the
project. (Berga, J.M. Buil, 2006)

Some examples are:

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a) Remote sensing and GIS are being used to find locations and optimize all aspects of
resettlement.
b) Research to better define the source and methods to mitigate CO2 and CH4.
c) Methods to eliminate ice jams and ice damming in cold regions.
d) Studies and methods to address sediment transport and sedimentation in the reservoir.
e) Emphasis on providing waste water treatment to the inhabited locations in the reservoir area.
f) Methods to provide free passage of fish and screen systems to prevent entry into turbines.
g) Changes in the operating regulations for the project to improve both upstream and
downstream water quality

2.8 Ecological impacts of dams

1) Dams change the Way Rivers function. They can trap sediment, burying rock in river beds
where fish spawn. Gravel, logs and other important food and habitat features can also
become trapped behind dams. This affects the creation and maintenance of more habitats.
2) Water quality is altered. Nutrients and pollution accumulate in the reservoir. Water
temperatures generally increase; other parameters, like dissolved oxygen, may be reduced as
a result; which stresses the aquatic community and may shift species composition.
3) The natural movement of water and sediment is disrupted resulting in accumulation of
sediment in the reservoir with channel and bank erosion below the dam.
4) Aquatic biodiversity declines because many riverine fish and mussel species cannot endure
when they cannot reach spawning and feeding areas.
5) The altered habitat is unsuitable for the native riverine community, causing the riverine food
webs be altered. The native community suffers and becomes vulnerable to non-native species
adapted to lake like settings. The native fishes then cannot successfully compete. Research in
the Great lakes region found that non-indigenous species were 2.4 to 300 times more likely to
occur in reservoirs than in natural lakes.
6) Large dams have led to the extinction of many fish and other aquatic species, the
disappearance of birds in floodplains, huge losses of forest, wetland and farmland, erosion of
coastal deltas. (Johnson, 2008)

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2.9 Spillways
Is a structure constructed at or near the dam site to dispose of surplus water from the reservoir to
the channel downstream, It is provided as a safety measures against overtopping and subsequent
damages and failure. Spillway is thus safety valve for a dam

When the water in the reservoir increases, the large accumulation of water endangers the
stability of the dam structure. To avoid this, the structure is provided in the body of a dam or
near the dam or periphery of the reservoir.

At storage dams, built for irrigation and power development, spillways usually function to
discharge floods entering a full reservoir. At diversion dams, where storage space is limited and
diversions are relatively small compared to normal river flows, the spillways will be used almost
continuously during the rainy season or when the inflows are sizable (perruzzello, 2021)

In hydro-electric power generation dams, spillways has the function of discharging all the water
not utilized for generation Britannica,

2.9.1 Main components of spillways and their function

There are five different components of spillways

1) The approach channel admits flow to the spillway. The approach channel may be shallow
or deep, straight or curved, but is designed with low velocities so as to improve the discharge
efficiency of the control structures and with gradual transitions to avoid cross waves
2) Control structure. It controls or regulates the outflows from the reservoir. This structure
controls both the magnitude (intensity) and frequency of such flows. It prevents outflows
below fixed levels and regulates the release when the reservoir levels rise above those levels.
The control structure can be straight or curved in plan depending upon site conditions and the
needs of design
3) The discharging conduit/ discharge channel. It that portion of a spillway which conveys
the outflows from the crest of the control structure to the energy dissipater downstream
4) Energy dissipater. When the flood flow is discharged from the reservoir pool level to the
downstream river level, the discharge usually attains a high velocity at the downstream end
of the discharge channel. The spillway component which causes the energy to dissipate
before reaching the downstream channel without serious scour is called the energy dissipater.

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 In some cases, where there is erosion resistant rock at shallow depths in the river bed, the
discharge can be delivered at high velocities directly on this rocky bed where the energy is
absorbed by impact, turbulence and friction and no energy dissipater is necessary
5) The outlet structure (tail water channel) conveys the spillway flow from the energy
dissipater to the river channel below the dam. Where the spillway is away from the river and
where the ground level is sufficiently above that at which the water is to enter the discharge
channel, a tail channel has to be artificially excavated either as a pilot channel or for full
discharge. However, the geology and quality of the strata met with on the tail channel
alignment and the questions of erosion of tail channel with probability of damages to the
surroundings areas or to the spillway structures assumes importance in such cases
For safety, spillways should have sufficient capacity to discharge flood likely to occur during the
lifetime of a dam. (John lewi III, 1988)

Spillway Design Flood (SDF) can be selected using some prescribed guidelines or from a risk-
based analysis

2.9.2 Required spillway capacity

Required spillway capacity is determined by flood routing

The required spillway capacity should be equal to the maximum outflow rate determined by
flood routing. Flood routing is a method that is applied to describe the processes in the water
course, and it is used to predict the temporal and spatial variation of a flood wave, at one or more
points along a water course (river or channel). It is important in the design of the flood protection
measures, to estimate how the proposed measures will affect the behavior of flood waves in
rivers, so that adequate protection and economic solutions may be found.

Flood routing requires the following data;

a) Inflow hydrograph (plot of rate of inflow Vs time)

b) Reservoir capacity curve (reservoir storage Vs reservoir water surface elevation)
c) Discharge curve of the spillway (rate of outflow through spillway Vs reservoir surface
water elevation)
d) Initial reservoir level

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LOCATION OF SPILLWAY

Generally, the spillways are provided at the following places;

 Within the body of the dam

 May sometimes be provided at one side or both sides of the dam
 Sometimes by-pass spillway is provided which is completely separate from the dam

2.9.3 Types of spillways

Spillways can be classified into different types based on various criteria:

A. classification based on purpose

1. Main or service spillway. Is one designed to pass a prefixed or the designed flood. This spill
way is necessary for all dams, it is the only spillway
2. Auxiliary spillway. It is provided as a supplement to the main spillway and its crests is so
located that it comes into operation only after the floods for which the main spillway is
designed are exceeded
Total spillway capacity (Q) = Qm + Qa, where Q is the designed flood
Qm is the Capacity of the main spillway
Qa is the capacity of the auxiliary spillway
3. Emergency spill way. It provided in addition to the main spillway but it comes into
operation only during emergency which may arise at any time.
B. Classification based on control

1. Controlled or gated spillway. Is one which is provided with the gates over the crest to
control the outflow from the reservoir. In the controlled spillway, the full reservoir level
(FRL) of the reservoir is usually kept at the top level of the gates. Thus the water can be
stored up to the top level of the gates.
2. Uncontrolled or ungated spillway. Here, the gates are not provided over the crest to control
the outflow of from the reservoir. The FRL is at the crest level of the spillway. The water
escapes automatically when the water level rises above the crest level.
C. classification based on prominent features

1. Straight drop spillway/ free over fall

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Water flows over a relatively thin spillway crest and falls freely to the downstream

Usually appropriate for thin dams having almost vertical downstream faces

This type of spillway may be economical for low heads as compared with overflow spillways
because of saving in concrete

Not recommended for high heads because the vibration of the falling jet might damage the
structure.

Figure 27: Straight drop spillway

2. Over fall spillways/ overflow spill ways

Also called ogee-shaped (S-shape) spillways

This type of spillway an improved form of straight drop spillway and it has the advantage over
other spillways for its high discharging efficiency.

The overflow is guided smoothly over the crest so that water do not break the contact with the
spillway surface.

It is widely used on gravity, arch, and buttress dam

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 Figure 28 over fall spillway with guide

Figure 29 Overflow spillway without guide

3. Chute spillway
In this type, water is conveyed from the reservoir to the river below the dam through an
excavated open channel, through fairly steep slope

A steep slope open channel is constructed in slabs with 25-50 cm thickness having lengths of
approximately 10 m

When the horizontal distance between the upstream of the spillway and the tail water is
considerably long, along a steep slope chute usually follows the overflow spillway until the tail
water

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 Figure 30: Chute spillway

4. Shaft spillway
The shape is just like a funnel

Water drops through a vertical shaft in the foundation material to a horizontal conduit that
conveys the water pass the dam

Lower end of shaft is turned at right angle and then water taken out below the dam horizontally

Also called as glory hole spillway

Figure 31: Shaft spillway

When the shaft is completely submerged, further increase in head will not result in appreciable
increase in discharge

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This type of spillway is not suitable for large capacity and deep reservoirs because of stability
problems

Figure 32: Cross-section of a typical shaft spillway

5. Side channel spillway

If a sufficient crest length is not available for an overflow or chute spillways in narrow valleys,
flood water is taken in a side channel

When the dam is not rigid and it is undesirable to pass flood water over the dam, this type of
spillway is used.

After passing crossing over the spillway crest, water flows parallel to the crest.

The discharge carrier may be an open channel type or conduit type.

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 Figure 33: Side channel spillway

6. Siphon spillway
It is designed by the principle of a siphon

It consists of a siphon pipe whose inlet leg is kept just below the normal pool level and an air
vent kept at normal pool level is connected to the crown of the siphon.

When the water rises to the pool level, a siphonic action starts automatically and the water
discharges to the downstream side.

When the water level falls below the pool level, air is entered through air vent and the
discharging of water stops.

Figure 34: siphon spillway

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 Figure 35: Cross-section of a typical siphon spillway

There is a possibility of cavitation for negatives pressures, which is affected by the head between
upstream and downstream water levels. Also, repair and maintenance of siphon spillways is
difficult

7. Baffled chute spillways

Is composed of chute whose surface is covered by a number of densely spaced baffled blocks

The baffle blocks dissipate the kinetic energy of the flowing water effectively

A separate stilling basin is not required

Special design is needed to maintain sufficiently small velocities at the entrance of a chute

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 Figure 36: Baffle chute spillway

8. Saddle spillway
This type is mainly used when other types are not favorable

In some basins formed by a dam, there may be one or more natural depressions or saddles in the
rim of the basin, which can be used as a spillway

It is essential that the bottom of the depression should be at full reservoir level

It is usually necessary for the saddle to be on firm rock

2.9.4 Selection of spillway type

In selection of spillway type, the following steps are to be considered;

1) A spillway with a certain dimension is selected

2) The maximum spillway discharge and maximum lake elevation are determined through
reservoir flood routing performed for design conditions
3) Other dimensions are determined
4) Cost of dam and spillway are determined
5) The above steps are repeated for :
 Various combination of dam height and reservoir capacities using elevation relationship
of reservoir, and
 Various types of spillways
6) The most economical and optimum relation of spillway capacity to the height of the dam are
chosen.
7) In economic analysis, the following should be considered;
 Repair and maintenance cost,
 The hydraulic efficiency of each type of spillway
There is an optimum spillway length, which minimizes the total cost of construction

(Reclammation, 2014)

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2.9.5 Safety
Spillway gates may operate suddenly without warning, under remote control. Trespassers within
the spill way run the risk of drowning. Spillways are usually fenced and equipped with locked
gates to prevent casual trespassing within the structure. Warning signs, siren and other measures
may be put in place to warn users of the downstream area of sudden release of water. Operating
protocols may require “cracking” a gate to release a small amount of water to warn persons
downstream.

Also,

Hydro-electric developments include flood control structures designed to let excess water escape
safely from the reservoir. This “safety valve” prevents water from spilling over the dam crest. It
takes the form of a spillway, a weir or sometimes a combination of both

(GARUD, 1984)

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3 BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure built for crossing over large spans of land or huge masses of water.

The idea of a bridge is to connect two far of points eventually reducing the distance between
them. (J.Zhao, bridge engineering, 2007)

Typical highway bridge structure consists of a slab on stringer configuration crossing relatively
short span. The deck is usually a concrete slab which rests on set of girders composed one of the
following types; Steel rolled sections or plate girders, prestressed concrete beams, timber beams.

Bridges have a superstructure and a substructure. A superstructure contains all the elements of a
bridge above the supports and a substructure contains all the elements that support the
superstructure. . (J.Zhao, bridge engineering, 2007)

3.1 Elements of a bridge.

The following are the elements comprised in the superstructure;

1. Wearing surface: part of the deck that resists traffic wear.

2. Lateral bracing: secondary member used to resist lateral deformation caused by loads acting
perpendicular to bridges longitudinally.
3. Deck: the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction of the bridged. Main
function is to distribute loads transversely along the bridge cross section.
4. Primary member: these transmit loads longitudinally and resist flexure and shear.
The following are the elements of the substructure;

1. Piers: different size and shape that depends on specific application. These support the
superstructure at intermediate points between the end supports(abutments)
2. Abutments: resist the longitudinal forces of the earth underneath the overpass roadways.
3. Bearings: mechanical systems which transmit the vertical and horizontal loads of the
superstructure to the substructure e.g. steel rollers acting on steel plates.
4. Pedestals: a short column under a pier or bearing supporting a superstructure primary
member.

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5. Back wall: retaining structure at each approach.
6. Wing wall: assist in confining earth behind the abutment
7. Footing: transfers loads from the substructure to the subsoil or piles.
8. Piles: provides extra support from the footing to a stronger soil layer or to bedrock.

3.2 Other terminologies related to bridges

Bridge Length, Span Length, and Bridge Width

The distance between centers of two bearings at supports is defined as the span length or clear
span. The distance between the end of wing walls at either abutments or the deck lane length for
bridges without using abutments is defined as total bridge length. Obviously, the bridge length is
different from the span length.
Deck width

This is the sum of the carriageway width, sidewalk width, shoulder width, and the individual
elements required to make up the desired bridge cross section. The total bridge width not only
includes the deck width but also the width of the bridge accessories such as parapets. The lane
width is determined according to the bridge design codes, generally with the minimum width of
2.75 m and the maximum width of 3.5 m.
Bridge Clearance

There are two types of bridge clearance, including clearance of bridge span and clearance above
bridge floor. Clearance of bridge span is generally measured from the water surface (or ground,
if there is no water) to the undersurface of the bridge. The measurement from the mean highest
high water (MHHW) is the most conservative clearance, thus in most cases the real clearance is
larger than this value due to the lower water surface than the highest point at MHHW. Enough
clearance should be considered in the bridge design to ensure the traffic safety under the bridge.
Clearance above bridge floor is the space limit for carriageway and sidewalk, which is generally
specified in 53the bridge design specification to ensure the traffic safety (enough height or space)
above the bridge. (Weiwei Lin, 2017)

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 Figure 37: Longitudinal Direction and Cross Section of a Bridge

3.3 Types of bridges

Bridges can be classified under eight (6) categories;

Materials of construction, Span length, Position (for movable bridges), geometric shape, Usage,
Structural form.

3.2.1 Classification according to materials

There are various materials from which bridge superstructures can be constructed and hence
classified and these include concrete, steel, stone, aluminum, timber, and advanced composite
material. This doesn’t mean that a bridge will comprise of only one material but frequently most
bridges are constructed from a combination of materials such as a bridge may have a reinforced
concrete deck and steel main girders, which is typically used in highway bridge superstructures.

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New materials such as advanced composite materials have also been widely used in bridge
construction. . (Weiwei Lin, 2017)

3.3.2 Span length classification

It is general practice that bridges are classified as short, medium and long span bridges basing on
their span length but however, up to date, there is no standard criteria that define the range of
these span classifications.

3.3.3 Classification by position (moveable bridges)

Just as the name suggests, these kinds of bridges have the option of moving their superstructure
in order to create and allow room for the passage of boats and burgess.

This classification is further divided into three categories namely;

Bascule moveable bridges

Swing moveable bridges

Lift moveable bridges

Bascule bridges

This is the bridge whose superstructure i.e. the deck and the main girders are lifted about the
hinge located at the end of a span.

There are two types of bascule bridges namely; single leaf and double leafed bridges.

Figure 38: the tower Bridge in London (Photo by Yoda)

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Swing bridges

In swing bridges, the girders together with the deck can be swung about the vertical support ring
at the pier in the middle (or abutment at the end), to allow the traffic to cross. Small swing
bridges may be pivoted only at one end, opening like a gate, but require substantial base structure
to support the pivot.

Figure 39 :Two Swing Bridges in Liverpool

Lift bridges

In lift bridges, gantries are provided at the piers at either end of the span. Both girder and the
floor system are lifted up by a hydraulic arrangement to the extent required for free passage of
the ship

However, in comparison with other bridges, the moveable bridges are generally characterized as
higher inspection and maintenance costs, difficult to widen in the future, and poor seismic
performance.

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 Figure 40 Lift Bridge

Figure 41illustration of lift bridge

3.3.4 Classification by geometric shapes
According to the geometric shape, the bridge superstructures can be classified as straight (or
right) bridges, skew bridges, and curved bridges,

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Straight Bridges

If the bridge axis follows a straight line, then it is a straight bridge. The bridges should be
constructed in straight to avoid the extra forces such as torsions and to simplify the bridge
design, analysis, and construction.

Skewed Bridges

Skewed bridges are often used in highway design when the geometry cannot accommodate
straight bridges. Skewed bridges are generally not preferred and sparingly chosen due to the
difficulties in the design. However, it is sometimes not possible to arrange that a bridge spans
square to the feature that it crosses, particularly where it is necessary to keep a straight.

Curved Bridges

In comparison with a straight bridge, a curved bridge is more difficult in both design and
construction. Most highway and railway bridges follow a straight alignment, while some bridges
need to be designed as partly or wholly curved in plan for different purposes. For road bridges,
like interconnected urban vehicular overpasses, curvature is usually required for the convenience
in spatial arrangement. For pedestrian bridges, curvature may be employed either for providing
users a unique spatial experience, to bring them into unattainable locations, or for esthetic
purposes. Like the skew bridges, the bearing arrangements in curved bridges also need to be
carefully designed.

Figure 42 showing curved bridge

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3.3.5 Classification by usage
Bridges can be designed accordingly basing on what they are to carry or basing on the loads to
be imposed on them such as road traffic, rail traffic, pedestrian, pipeline etc. Now based on the
function of the bridge, bridges are classified as highway bridges, pedestrian bridges, railway
bridges, aqueduct bridges, pipeline bridges, airport runway bridges, combined bridges

3.3.6 Inter span relation classification

Here bridges are classified into three major classes namely; simply supported, continuous and
cantilevered bridges.

3.2.7 Classification according to structural forms

1. Beam Bridge: This is the simplest bridge type and was derived from the log bridge. It
normally consists of one or more spans supported by abutment or pier at each end. Materials
used to construct this type of bridge are steel or reinforced concrete or both. The materials
may be prestressed, post-tensioned.

Figure 43: Beam Bridge

2. Cable-stayed bridge: in cable-stayed bridges, the deck slab is suspended using cables which
are attached to a tower that is a height greater than that in suspension. The deck rests on
piers at its end and in the middle. The cables used are highly in extensive and flexible. When
the bridge is experiencing a load, the cables are in tension. This is the most used in the states
of America due to the low cost, ease of construction and aesthetics for medium and long span
bridges. Example is the William Dargan Bridge in Dublin, Ireland, the Jinja Nile Bridge in
Uganda.

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 Figure 44: cable stayed bridge

3. Suspension bridge: in this type of bridge, the deck slab is suspended using ropes, cables
which are high tensile strength. The cables used are attached to or over two towers and
secured by anchors at both ends of the bridge. The anchors are made from solid concrete
blocks. The load beared by the bridge is converted into the tension in the cables. The
example is the bridge over River Mississippi.

4. Truss bridge: here, straight members are used to make triangular units with the help of
joints. The materials used can be steel, timber. In some countries such as the state of America
in the old times, the truss bridges where made using timber due its abundance but as
technology evolves, an upgrade to the steel has been made. Each member of the truss is
subjected to tension and compression but not bending forces but this is only theoretical.
There are various types of truss bridges namely; arch truss bridge, Allan truss bridge, Howe
truss bridge to mention but a few. But the use of Truss Bridge is close to end or has ended
already ended because the truss members are typically fracture critical i.e. there is no
redundancy in the load path, should one member fail, the whole structure would collapse.
Example can be the American bridge near Sacramento, California.

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 Figure 45: Truss bridge
5. Arch bridge: The bridge consists of a curved shaped abutment at each end. The abutments
push back on the arch to prevent the arch ends from spreading apart. The weight of the bridge
is forced into the supports at the end. The Mycenaean Arkadiko Bridge in Greece of 1300BC
is the oldest existing arch shaped bridge. There is also twin Thaddeus Kosciusko bridge
crossing Mohawk river in New York. Materials used can be steel, stones or concrete.

Figure 46: Arch Bridge

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 (J.Zhao, bridge engineering, 2007)

Figure 48 :Thaddeus Kosciusko bridge

Figure 47: Tower Bridge
(Sacramento, California)

Figure 49: Bridge crossing Mississippi

3.4 Construction process of a bridge

3.4.1 Planning for bridge constructions

1. Identifying need for the bridge
2. Assessment of traffic possible and required in the area proposed to construct the bridge
3. Study the location
4. Study all possible alternatives
5. Refining and shortlisting all possible alternatives
6. Identifying conceptual plans for the alternatives. This involve finding the materials
needed, the arrangement of the span and the form
7. Preliminary design and costs estimation
8. Evaluating the alternatives. Its risks and the final choice of the decision

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 9. Resource source identifications by detailed surveying
10. Implementation with the help of bidding documents

3.4.2 The Processes

1. Break ground
2. Compaction of soils
3. Pour abutments
4. Girder placement
5. Decking plan
6. Railing installed
7. Paint and decor
8. Testing
(Usbridge.com, 2017)

3.5 West Seattle bridge case study

West Seattle is located on a peninsula West of Duwamish waterway and east of the Puget Sound.

In March 2020, the west Seattle High Bridge (WSHB) was closed to traffic due to its increasing
rate of structural deterioration.

The total number of vehicle travel lanes crossing the Duwamish River was reduced from 21 to 12

The closure of WSHB disrupted passenger and freight mobility causing bottle necks on the
remaining bridges and this could negatively affect them.

The Seattle Department of Transportation is taking action to monitor changes in travel behavior
to/from WS so as to eradicate the negative impacts cause by the bridge closure. (Dr.Anne, 2020)

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4 CONCLUSIONS
Dams and bridges are an essential part of human development as they provide means of access in
form of transportation, drinking water supply and water for irrigation, hydroelectric power
among other advantages. However, very many dams do not fulfil their purposes. Majority of
these dams present a series of undesirable features and therefore require a very close attention
from Owners, designers and any other authorities in order to guarantee their safety. However,
communities in a great extension have been called to solve dam safety problems which in
practice mean a very risky situation since they do not have adequate trained or qualified
personnel.

Bridges are also an ancient work of construction as the first were made probably of spans of cut
wooden logs or planks and eventually stones using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement.
This has changed a lot over the years and design of bridges now varies depending on the function
of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material
used to make it and the funds available to build it as explained clearly in the report above,
construction of dams and bridges has however not only led to environmental degradation but also
destruction of homesteads for aquatic fauna and disruption of water movement in water bodies.

These visible effects of dams on various parameters of the river have been taken into
consideration

References

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