MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART

AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARMENT OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT

COUSRE UNIT: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR TECHNOLOGY

GROUP 5: FERROUS METALS

NO NAMES REG NO STUDENT NO PROGRAM

1 NIMUSIIMA FAITH 19/U/8268/PS 1900708268 LE 2
2 MUKHAMA IVAN 19/U/8697/PSA 1900708697 LE 2
3 NINSIIMA CHARITY 19/U/8191/PS 1900708191 LE 2
4 KAKURU KASPAR 19/U/18958/PSA 1900718958 LE 2
5 NASASIRA EMMANUEL 19/U/8450/PS 1900708450 LE 2
6 RWOTOMIO ISAAC 19/U/8355/PS 1900708355 LE 2
7 NABAWENDA JOAN 19/U/0561 1900700561 QS 2
8 NANKWATSA DISMAS 19/U/21096 1900721096 QS 2
9 ANGWEN ANGELLA 19/U/0573 1900700573 QS 2
10 RUTANGYE JOSEPHINE 19/U/8178/PS 1900708178 QS 2
11 BUKULU STEPHEN LUBOWA H. 19/U/8835/PS 1900708835 QS 2
12 AHIMBISIBWE ANTHONY 19/U/19408/PS 1900719408 CM 2
13 LUGANDA KEITH JACOB 19/U/19752/PS 1900719752 CM 2
14 KIZZA SAMUEL 19/U/0916 1900700916 CM 2
15 BUHWA EMMANUEL 19/U/19557/PSA 1900719557 CM 2
16 RUHUNDWANGEYE PAUL 19/U/17831/PS 1900717831 CM 2
17 19/U/0175 1900700175 CM 2
18 ACAN FLAVIA MWA 17/U/2002/PSA 217015562 QS 4
Table of contents
1. GENERAL............................................................................................................................................................................ 1

2. PREFACE............................................................................................................................................................................. 2

2.1. TYPES OF FERROUS METALS.............................................................................................................................2

3. PIG IRON............................................................................................................................................................................. 3

3.1. MANUFACTURE OF PIG IRON..........................................................................................................................................3

3.2. TYPES OF PIG IRON.........................................................................................................................................................6
3.3. COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON...........................................................................................................................................7
3.4. PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON...............................................................................................................................................7
3.5. USES OF PIG IRON...........................................................................................................................................................7

4. CAST IRON..........................................................................................................................................................................8

4.1. MANUFACTURE................................................................................................................................................................8
4.2. METHODS OF CASTING....................................................................................................................................................9
4.4. PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON.................................................................................................................................11
4.5. DEFECTS IN CAST IRON.................................................................................................................................................13

5. WROUGHT IRON.............................................................................................................................................................14

5.1. MANUFACTURE..............................................................................................................................................................14
5.2. PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT IRON..................................................................................................................................15
5.3. USES OF WROUGHT IRON..............................................................................................................................................15

6. STEEL................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

6.1. MANUFACTURE OF STEEL.............................................................................................................................................16

6.2. CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS...............................................................................................................................21
6.2.1. Plain carbon steels...........................................................................................................................................21
6.2.2. Alloy Steels....................................................................................................................................................... 23
6.3. STEEL AS USED IN CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION...........................................................................................25
6.4. PROCESS FOR THE STEEL SHAPES....................................................................................................................28
6.4.1. Casting............................................................................................................................................................. 28
6.4.2. Mechanical Working........................................................................................................................................29
6.5. PROPERTIES OF STEELS.......................................................................................................................................32
6.5.1. Heat Treatment................................................................................................................................................32
6.5.2. Chemical composition......................................................................................................................................35

7. CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................................................... 37

8. REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................................... 37
List of figures

Figure 1: Materials joining Technology..........................................................................................4

Figure 2: showing the blast furnace.................................................................................................7
Figure 3: Grey Pig Iron....................................................................................................................9
Figure 4: White Pig Iron..................................................................................................................9
Figure 5: Bessemer Pig Iron............................................................................................................9
Figure 6: cupola furnace................................................................................................................11
Figure 7: Puddling furnace............................................................................................................17
Figure 9: Bessemer Converter.......................................................................................................19
Figure 10: Open Hearth Furnace...................................................................................................20
Figure 11: Electric Arc Furnace....................................................................................................22
Figure 12: crucible furnaces..........................................................................................................23
Figure 13: concrete reinforcement.................................................................................................28
Figure 14: pre-stressed concrete steel............................................................................................28
Figure 15: suspension bridge.........................................................................................................29
Figure 16: cladding steel................................................................................................................29
Figure 17: Railway steel................................................................................................................30
 FERROUS METALS

1. GENERAL
Metals are generally solid materials which are typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile with
good electrical and thermal conductivity. They include silver, aluminum, iron and alloys such as steel.
Metals are highly extensively used in the engineering industry. Any description of engineering materials
without metallic materials will be a practically incomplete effort. Metals are categorized into two types
namely;
i. Ferrous metals. These are metals that contain iron. These include steel and cast iron which have
been greatly used in quite a good number of structural purposes. Such as construction of bridges,
roofing, columns, reinforcement bars amongst others.
ii. Non- ferrous metals. These are those that contain no iron. These include aluminum and
its alloys which are becoming fast engineering materials of great usage next to steel.
Aluminum rods, sheets, bars, and frames are commonly used in non-load and light-
loading circumstances of buildings.

Other metals that are also used the engineering industry include copper, brass, zinc, lead amongst
others.

NOTE: The branch of science and technology that is concerned with the properties of metals,
their production and purification is referred to as metallurgy.

Figure 1: Materials joining Technology

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 FERROUS METALS

2. PREFACE
Ferrous metals include all types of iron, steel and its alloys. The principal component of all
ferrous metals is Iron (Fe), which is typical in one form or another. Ferrous metals take up the
most dominating roles in the engineering industry, in the manufacture of primitive agricultural
implements up to the advancement of different types of aircrafts. Ferrous metals and their alloys
still take up the most prominent position in automobiles, light and heavy machinery, construction
of buildings and bridges amongst others.

Reasons as to why ferrous metals are extensively used

i. The wide abundance of the iron ores in most parts of the world.
ii. Economical extraction, refining, and fabrication techniques are available.
iii. The alloys may be tailored to have a wide range of mechanical properties.

However, Australia and Brazil are the world`s largest producers of ferrous metals (majorly iron
ore mine production). Ferrous metals take up the largest annual global production percentage
compared to the non-ferrous metals produced in all countries in the world.

2.1. TYPES OF FERROUS METALS

i. Pig iron
ii. Wrought iron
iii. Cast iron
iv. steel

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 3. PIG IRON
This is an impure form of iron and is termed as crude iron. It is the basic form of iron that is
prepared from its ore and requires to be processed in order to get other better forms of iron like
cast iron, wrought iron and steel.

3.1. Manufacture of pig iron

The manufacture of pig iron mainly involves three stages as follows.

A. Selection of the ore

The raw materials from which iron can be extracted economically are called iron ores. Iron can
be extracted from basically three ores which include;

1. Hematite (Fe2O3). It has a dark brown to red color and is the most common iron ore in
Uganda.it contains 70% iron.
2. Magnetite (Fe3O4). It is a black iron ore. it has the richest percentage of (72.4%).
3. Siderite (FeCO3). It is called spathic iron and has 48.2% iron. Siderite is rarely used as
the ore except for countries where the other ores are not in abundance.
B. Dressing of the ore

Here, the ore is deduced I size and impurities are removed by process called ore dressing. This is
because the ore is extracted from the earth in big lumps containing many other useless minerals.

This is achieved by passing the ore through a series of crushers and washing mills.

C. Calcination, roasting and smelting

This is done in the blast furnace, which is a cylindrical shell-like vessel made of steel and about
15-30m high and 6-8m in diameter. It tapers towards the top and the lower part is like an
inverted cone. The interior of the furnace is lined with refractory bricks.

The furnace is provided with the following.

i. Hoppers for loading at the top

ii. Gas outlets at the top
iii. Tuyeres for injecting hot gasses, near the base
iv. Cooling pipes around the tuyeres

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 v. Engines for creating and supplying the air blast for the furnace
vi. Stoves for pre-heating the blast furnace
vii. Coke ovens for converting coal to coke by heating.
viii. Equipment for cleaning the blast furnace gas, storage of raw materials and receiving the
molten iron from the blast.

Operation of the blast furnace

The mode of operation of the blast furnace is a continuous process as described below.

i. A blast of air is first created by blowing the engines. The blast passes through the
stoves at 500-600 0C and then is made to enter the furnace through the lower region.
ii. Meanwhile a charge is kept ready at the top in the hopper the charge consists of
alternate layers of coke, ore and flux (limestone) in predetermined proportions
iii. When the hot blast has heated the furnace to a desired extent, the charge is
introduced in to the furnace by operating the hopper
iv. The hot gases burn the fuel part of the hopper there by creating still higher
temperature
v. The hot molten ore gets reduced by reacting with carbon monoxide from the coke;
iron is produced in the molten form
vi. Molten iron and the impurities collect in the lower most region of the furnace
where from they are removed periodically
vii. New batches of charge are introduced at the top.

After the first charge and removal of the first melt of iron slag, the operation becomes
continuous. A charge is introduced at regular intervals at the top through the hopper and molten
are drawn from the lower zone

4
 Figure 2: showing the blast furnace

Working zones

The following three working zones may be distinguished in a blast furnace.

a) The Stack zones

It is the largest zone and extends from top to the middle of the furnace. The charge coming from
above and the hot gases coming from below interact resulting in the dehydration of the ore.

Temperature ranges from 400-600 o C in this zone.

b) The Bosch zones

It forms an inverted cone and is the hottest zone. It receives the hot air from the blowers through
the tuyeres, and the dehydrated charge from the stack zone. It is in the bosh zone that the
reduction of the ore take place.

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3Fe2O3 + C 2Fe304 + CO

3Fe2O3+ 9C 6Fe + 9CO

Fe3O4 + 4CO 3Fe + 4CO2

c) The Hearth zones

It forms the lower most part of the furnace. It serves as a receiving pot for the molten iron and
slag. Since the iron and slag have different densities (slag is much lighter), they form layers and
slag floating above the iron melt. These are drawn out from different holes provided with in the
blast furnace corresponding to the hearth zone. The pig iron as obtained from the above process
is generally impure in composition. It may have iron to the extent of 95% only. The rest being
carbon, Sulphur, silicon, manganese and phosphorus. The slag (called blast furnace slag) is an
alumino-silicate waste product. Earlier, it was always dumped away as a waste material. In
recent years, however, it has found applications as a raw material for making many types of
cement and concrete and also as a light weight aggregate.

3.2. Types of pig Iron

There are basically three types of pig iron and are classified according to their properties.

i. Grey Pig Iron. It is distinguished by a typical grey colored surface of iron when broken
fresh.it is soft in character and rich in carbon.it is produced when the raw material is
burnt at a very high temperature.

Figure 3: Grey Pig Iron

1. White Pig Iron. The broken surface shows dull white appearance. This type contains
surplus, as the main impurity and hence is considered as inferior in grade. It is also called
forge pig iron, as it is hard and brittle and can be converted only by using pressure.

6
 Figure 4: White Pig Iron
2. Bessemer Pig Iron. This type is practically free from Sulphur and phosphorous.
Therefore, it is used for the manufacturing of steel in the Bessemer process.

Figure 5: Bessemer Pig Iron

3.3. Composition of Pig Iron
Pig iron contains 3-4% carbon, 0.5-3.5% of silicon, 0.5-2% of manganese, 0.02-0.1% of Sulphur
and 0.03-1% of phosphorus.

3.4. Properties of Pig Iron

i. Pig iron is hard and brittle with a fusion temperature of 1200oC and melts easily.
ii. Its compressive strength is high but is weak in tension and shear.
iii. Pig iron does not rust and cannot be riveted or welded.
iv. It can be hardened but cannot be tampered and magnetized

3.5. Uses of Pig Iron

i. Pig iron is more suitable for making columns, base plates, door brackets, etc.

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 4. CAST IRON
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content more than 2%. Its usefulness
derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its color when
fractured. White cast iron has impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through, grey cast
iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the
material breaks, and Ductile cast iron has spherical graphite “nodules” which stop the crack from
further progressing

4.1. Manufacture
It consists essentially of remelted pig iron. It contains carbon from 2-4 percent and small portions
of manganese, silicon and Sulphur. The remelting of pig iron is done ion a special furnace called
cupola. A cupola is in essence a small sized blast furnace. It is about 5 m in height. about 1m in
diameter and cylindrical in shape. The cylinder has an inner lining of refractory bricks and
provided with tuyeres near the bottom for injecting the supply of air blast.

The working of copula is similar to blast furnace except it can works intermittently. The raw
materials pig iron and steel scrap, fuel and fluxes, are added from the charge door at the top to
the previously heated cupola. The air blast is continuously fed through the tuyeres. All the
impurities of pig iron get oxidized and form a slag that starts floating at the upper layer. The
molten cast iron is removed from the lower draw hole and charged directly into molds of desired
shapes. These are called castings of cast iron

8
 Figure 6: cupola furnace

The role of the various impurities that are deliberately kept in the cast iron is broadly as follows.

i. Phosphorus-it increases the fluidity of the cast iron which is an important property. Its
percentage varies between 1-1.5.
ii. Sulphur-Its presence causes rapid solidification.
iii. Manganese-Gives the cast iron its hardness.

4.2. Methods of casting.

a) Sand Casting. The most common casting procedure involves pouring molten metal into a
cavity in a mass of packed sand. Wooden patterns are used for molds which are removed
when the sand has dried. Each mold has a hole for casting through which the molten iron
is poured. Air and hot gases escape through another hole. Cast material is taken out by
breaking the mold after iron cools down.

9
 b) Hollow Casting. This is used for making columns and piles. For hollow casting of the
objects, a solid core is placed where the hollow is to be maintained. After casting the core
and mold are taken out. Cast iron becomes hollow due to the core.
c) Vertical sand casting. The mold box and the solid core are kept in vertical position.
After cooling, the core is taken out by the crane. Good quality pipes can be obtained by
this method.
d) Centrifugal casting. Many blow holes are left in ordinary casting methods because of
little control over temperature and the solid mold. The problem is overcome by
centrifugal casting. Molten material is poured in a revolving metallic cylindrical mold in
a controlled manner, rotating at a rate of 10,000 rev per minute. Large diameter pipes,
gun barrels, are cast by this method. The castings are dense and have a fine-grained
structure with uniform and high physical properties. They are least subjected to
directional variations on properties than static casting.
e) Die casting. Die casting is cheap for commercial production. Casting is done under
pressure, which may be as high as 140MN/mm2, into a split die cavity. Since the die is
water cooled, the molten metal solidifies quickly, permitting early removal of the casting.
4.3. CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

Cast iron is classified as grey, white, malleable, mottled, chilled and toughened. The
nomenclature white and grey signify the appearance of the fracture of the casting. The rest of the
terms signify the special properties developed in the classes by heat treatment and alloying.

a) Grey Cast iron. This iron is composed of 2.50-3.75% carbon, 1.0-2.0% silicon, 0.40-
1.0% manganese, 0.06-0.12% Sulphur and 0.10-1.00% of phosphorus. It is obtained from
foundry pig iron. It has good machinability, low melting point of 1200oC and rusts easily
in air. It is readily acted upon by acids and is grey in color.

It is used to make pipes, fittings, locomotive wheels and machine beds.

b) White cast iron

The usual composition of this iron is; 1.75-2.3% of carbon, 0.5-0.9% of silicon, 0.15-0.5% of
manganese, 0.20-0.70 of phosphorus and 0.15-0.25% of Sulphur. It is hard and brittle. It can
hardly be machined and has a white silvery color.

10
It is used in the manufacture of malleable iron and wrought iron.

c) Malleable Cast Iron. It is usually “White cast iron” in which the property of malleability
has been developed by the process of heat treatment. It is obtained by partial removal of
carbon, silicon, phosphorus, Sulphur and manganese from white cast iron. The white cast
iron is subjected to the process of annealing like heating in an annealing oven at the
temperature of 875oC for 24-72 hours/ after that, it is cooled gradually to room
temperature. Malleable cast iron is tough, ductile, and strong. It has a uniform structure
and can easily be machined. It possesses useful properties of both cast iron and mild
steels.

The malleable cast iron finds extensive applications in

i. Automobile industry for making rear-axle housing, steering, gearing housing, hubs and
pedestals.
ii. Railway equipment of a great variety.
iii. Agricultural machinery and
iv. Carpentry tools.

d) Mottled cast iron. This iron is made by heating cast iron with powdered Hematite to
redness. Fractured surface shows grey and white patches. It is used for small castings
e) Chilled cast iron. This iron is made by cooling cast iron rapidly causing the outer layer
of the product to become hard. It is applied in the manufacture of roller mills, grinding
mills, cylinders, pistons, spoked wheels of railways, guide rails and crossings in railway.
f) Toughened cast iron. It is produced by melting cast iron with 1/4 -1/2 of its weight of
wrought iron scrap. It is used to make studs.

4.4. PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON

No generalization of the properties of cast iron is possible because the ultimate properties of cast
iron depend on 3 factors, namely

a. The composition of cast iron

b. The rate of cooling
c. The nature of heat treatment

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Following is the general account of the properties that depend on composition;

1. Carbon. The amount of carbon and the nature in which carbon is present in the cast iron
greatly affect the properties of cast iron. Thus,
i When most of carbon is present in graphite (free carbon), cast iron is soft and
weak (like grey cast iron). But when carbon is present as cementite (fixed as Fe carbide),
the metal is hard and strong. Thus, cast iron can be both hard and strong and soft and
weak.
ii The tensile strength decreases with an increase in the graphite content.
2. Alloying elements. The most important elements often added to cast iron and their
effects are:
a) Nickel. It may be added in amounts varying between 0.5 to 20%. The common
types of nickel-alloyed cast iron are:
• Nickel cast iron. It contains nickel between 0.5 and 3%. It is uniform in
machinability.
• Chilled cast iron. Nickel proportion is kept between 3-5%. This type is
very resistant to abrasion.
• High nickel cast iron. In this nickel content may be increased to 20%.
This variety is resistant to corrosion (chemical attack).
b) Chromium. It is also added in small proportion to cast iron. Addition of
chromium increases hardness and tensile strength of cast cast-iron. Generally, chromium
and nickel are added together.
c) Molybdenum. This alloying element is added to increase the hardness of cast
iron.

3. Heat treatment. This type of treatment changes the properties of cast iron to a great extent.
Thus, white cast iron when subjected to annealing becomes a soft, very ductile and easily
machinable variety called the malleable cast iron. This type of treatment effects the nature of
carbon present in the metal. The combined carbon of cast iron gets converted to free particles of
carbon.

4. Impurities. As discussed earlier, the influence of certain common impurities like

phosphorous, Sulphur and manganese are quite pronounced.

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Effects of the impurities

Carbon. The melting temperature of cast iron is reduced as the carbon content or the percentage
of combined carbon is increased.

Silicon. In small percentages silicon increases the fluidity of the molten iron, decreases the blow
holes and increase the density of the casing. It also increases the solubility of carbon in iron.
When silicon is increased up to 6%, the iron becomes hard and has a mirror like fracture.

Sulphur. High Sulphur content makes the iron casting brittle and weak at higher temperatures. It
also increases shrinkage and causes hard, brittle iron

Phosphorus. When the phosphorus is less than 0.5%, it has no marked effect on the cast iron. If
more than 2%, the cast iron is embrittled and the strength diminishes.

Manganese. It increases the tensile strength and hardness of cast iron when in the range of
0.41.2%. it also increases the solubility of carbon in the iron and opposes the liberation of
graphite, which is a cementite stabilizer. High percentage of manganese increases the hardness
and shrinkage of the cast iron.

4.5. Defects in cast iron

Cast iron with high Sulphur content is liable to have small cracks running transverse to
longitudinal axis, called checks due to shrinkage and lack of strength.

Cast iron with high phosphorus is affected by segregation where carbon and silicon segregate in
such a manner that the interior portions of the metal are white and the exterior parts are grey
rendering it difficult to machine the casting.

Blow holes are caused due to the improper venting of the mold or due to high proportion of
Sulphur.

A coarse or open grain in the cast iron is caused by to slow cooling or due to the high
phosphorus content

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 5. WROUGHT IRON
It is the purest form of iron with a percentage ranging from 99-99.8% (Iron only) and contains all
impurities below a limit of 0.5% with the percentage of carbon, C ranging from 0.05-0.25%,
phosphorus, P 0.05-0.2%, silicon, Si 0.02-0.2%, sulfur, S 0.02-0.1%, Manganese, Mn 0.01-0.1%.
Wrought iron always contains a small proportion of slag as a silicate component. It is soft,
ductile, magnetic, and has high electricity and tensile strength

5.1. Manufacture
The source material for the manufacture of wrought iron is Pig Iron. There are two processes for
manufacture of wrought iron: Puddling and Aston process.

1. Puddling process

Wrought iron is produced from pig iron using puddling furnace which is also called
reverberatory furnace. It is a coal fired furnace with an inner lining of iron oxide of hematite,
Fe2O3. In this furnace, the charge does contact with direct fire but receive its heat by reflection
from the furnace roof. The molten charge is regularly stirred through puddling holes and the
impurities are separated from the surface; carbon is driven off as carbon dioxide. The remaining
molten charge containing some slag forms the wrought iron and is squeezed to remove any extra
slag.

Figure 7: Puddling furnace

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 2. Aston process

In this process pig iron is first refined by heating in a Bessemer converter. All impurities get
removed by directing a strong current of air over the molten material. The pig iron is cast into
molds.

A mixture or iron oxide and silica in predetermined proportions is heated separately in a furnace
to fusing temperatures. This forms slag (iron silicate). It is poured into ladles. The refined pig
iron is put into the mixing machines where it is first granulated. When still very hot, slag is
poured on to it from the slag ladles. The slag is essentially at a lower temperature than the pig
iron. The pouring results in abrupt solidification of iron. This step of mixing the slag with iron is
called shooting. The iron-slag balls are formed and subjected to pressing machines where the
extra quantity of slag is squeezed out of them. The resulting material is wrought iron.

5.2. Properties of wrought iron

a) Wrought iron is ductile, malleable and soft
b) Wrought iron effectively resists corrosion
c) The modulus of elasticity of wrought iron is 1.86*105 N/mm2. / low strength due to its
high purity.
d) Wrought iron can easily be forged and welded. (with its high melting point of 15000C)
e) It is tough, shock-resistant fibrous structure and can neither be hardened nor tampered.

5.3. Uses of wrought iron

i. Wrought iron is used for making crane hooks, chain links, bolts and rivets
ii. It is used for making decorative items such as railings, outdoor stairs, fences and
gates in buildings.
iii. Wrought iron is extensively used as a material for making plates, sheets, pipes
and tubes due its superior corrosion and fatigue resistance and better welding qualities.

15
 6. STEEL
Steel is a form of iron that contains less carbon than cast iron but considerably more than
wrought iron. The carbon content is from 0.03-1.7%. Basic carbon steels are alloyed with other
elements, such as chromium and nickel, to increase certain carbon properties of the metal.

6.1. Manufacture of steel

Steel is manufactured under the following processes namely;

1. Bessemer Process
2. Open Hearth Process
3. Duplex process
4. Electric Process
5. Lintz and Donawitz process
6. Crucible process

In each of these methods, the process may either be acid or basic in principle signifying that the
furnace lining used and the slug maintained in the furnace may either be acidic or basic
respectively

1. The Bessemer Process

This process takes its name from the Bessemer Converter which is used in the steel making.

The converter is egg shaped vessel supported on trunnions and can be tilted and rotated about the
horizontal axis. The inner walls are lined with a refractory material which is either acidic or basic
in character.

When an acidic refractory material is used, the process is called acidic Bessemer process
whereas if the material is basic in character, the process is called the basic Bessemer process

16
 Figure 8: Bessemer Converter

The process is divided into four stages which include:

Stage 1. The Bessemer converter is first tilted to a horizontal position. Molten pig iron is then
fed directly from the furnace. Air is also simultaneously blown into the converter through the
tuyeres and the converter is straightened up.

Stage 2. Air is continuously blown through the charge. During the process, most of the
impurities of the pig iron like silicon, manganese, Sulphur and phosphorous get oxidized on
reacting with iron oxide formed as a result of iron and air.

Stage 3. When oxidization process is progressed sufficiently, predetermined quantities of ferro-

manganese are added. The material serves two purposes:

i. It supplies carbon content for the steel

ii. It deoxidizes any iron oxide left during oxidation of other impurities

17
Stage 4. The converter is then tilted into the discharge position and molten metal poured into
molds of special rectangular shapes. The solidified steel is known as ingot, which is the starting
material for preparing other steel shapes.

2. Open Hearth Process

This is the most common process of steel making. It consists of an elaborate assembly of

mechanical and metallurgical devices.

The main part of the plant is known as the Hearth which consists of a steel pan lined with a
refractory material. The lining can either be acidic or basic in character. The plant has various
openings such as charge doors, tapping holes and entry ports for gases. Raw materials include
molten or cold pig iron, scrap of iron or steel and limestone.

Figure 9: Open Hearth Furnace

The Open-Hearth furnace works according to the following stages

Stage 1. The molten charge of the raw material is loaded into the hearth

Stage 2. A mixture of hot air and coal gas is blown in and made to pass over the charge. The gas
mixture starts burning and raises the temperature of the molten charge further to boiling. The

18
charge is allowed to remain in the boiling period for some time. It is during this period that all
the impurities get removed from the charge by oxidation.

Stage 3. This is the final stage during with predetermined quantities of ferro-manganese are
added. Some coke is also added to accelerate the process of deoxidization

Stage 4. Molten steel is drained into special rectangular molds to give the cold steel the typical
shape of ingots.

3. Duplex Process

This process uses the essential features of Acid Bessemer Process and Basic Open-Hearth
Process. The main objective is to remove all the impurities in the charge of pig iron to convert it
to pure steel.

The charge of pig iron is first treated in the acidic Bessemer converter. The process ensures the
removal of three main impurities: silica, manganese and carbon.

The molten charge is then treated in the Basic Open-Hearth Furnace, which is lined with bricks
of lime and magnesia. During the treatment, other two major impurities like phosphorus and
Sulphur get removed.

4. The Electric Process

This process ensures best and pure steel because conditions of temperature and chemical
environment can be kept under perfect control

The electric furnace can be generally categorized in two types:

i The Arc Furnace Process

The charge, consisting of steel scrap or ordinary impure steel which requires refining is placed in
the furnace in molten form. It forms the bath

A set of current electrodes are brought down into the bath

Arc current is made to pass through the bath from the positive to negative electrodes. This action
heats up the bath to high temperatures in a very short time. The impurities are all quickly
oxidized and expelled.

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 ii The Induction Furnace

It is also called High frequency furnace method.

This differs directly from the Arc process only in the manner in which the current is supplied to
the bath. The plant consists of a series of refractory crucibles. These crucibles are surrounded by
copper tubing that act as primary conductors of current of high frequency.

The charge is placed in the refractory crucibles. As soon as the current is passed through the
copper tubing, great heat is induced to the charge. It becomes greatly heated up and in process all
the impurities escape and the charge gets purified

5. Linz-Dinowitz process

This is a modification of the Bessemer process. In this method, a blast of Oxygen is blown into
the converter containing the heated charge of pig iron and scrap. This oxygen blast oxidizes even
the smallest quantities of the common impurities like silicon, carbon, phosphorus and Sulphur
very effectively.

During the operation of this process, a zone of high reactivity is created in the lower region of
the converter where oxygen blast enters into the converter. Most of the molten scrap iron being
confined in this zone ensures its thorough conversion to a very low carbon steel.

This process is suitable for making pure steels from ores rich in phosphorus and Sulphur

6. The crucible process

This process involves melting of blister steel or bars of wrought iron in fire clay crucibles. Cast
steel obtained is very hard and is used for making surgical equipment.

The three types of crucible furnace are;

a) Lift-out crucible
b) Stationary pot, from which molten material must be ladled
c) Tilting pot furnace

20
 Figure 11: crucible furnaces
6.2. CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
Steel can be classified in many ways but the classification on the basis of their chemical
composition is commonly adopted. Two main categories are recognized namely:

6.2.1. Plain carbon steels

This is the first major group of steels. Carbon is the only controlling component in them besides
iron. They are further subdivided into three subcategories.

i. Low-carbon steel (carbon content ranging from 0.05-0.25%)

This steel is soft and ductile and can be rolled, punched, sheared and worked when either hot or
cold. It is easily machined and can readily be welded by all methods. It does not harden to any
great amount; however, it can easily be case hardened.

ii. Medium-carbon steel (carbon content ranging from 0.25-0.50%)

This steel may be heat-treated after refabrication. It is used for general machining and forging of
parts that require surface hardness and strength. It is made in the bar form in the cold-rolled or
normalized and annealed condition. During welding, the weld zone will become hardened if
cooled rapidly and must be stress-relieved after welding.

iii. High-carbon steel (carbon content ranging from 0.50-1.50%)

This steel is used for the manufacture of drills, taps, dies, springs and other machine tools that
are heat-treated after fabrication to develop the hard structure necessary to withstand high shear
stress and wear.

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It is manufactured in bar, sheet, and wire forms and in the annealed or normalized condition in
order to be suitable for machining before heat treatment. This steel is difficult to weld because of
the hardening effect of heat at the welded joint.

Functions of carbon in steels.

Carbon plays a very vital role in controlling the properties of steel. Thus

a) The tensile strength of steel increases with an increase in the carbon content till its
proportion reaches 0.83%. any increase in carbon content beyond this limit will affect the
tensile strength adversely.
b) The ductility of steel decreases with the increase in the carbon content.
c) The hardness of steel increases with the increase in carbon content. So is the case with
regard to heat treatment. High carbon steels give better results on heat treatment
compared with the low carbon steels.

The highest carbon content is 1.5%. when carbon goes beyond this point, the material does not
remain a steel. It becomes a variety of cast iron

Usual impurities in steel

Despite all the care at the manufacturing stage, some impurities like manganese, silicon,
phosphorus and Sulphur may still be present in minute properties.

Table 1: Showing the common impurities in steel

Impurity Tolerable limits effects they exert on property of steel

6.2.2. Manganese 0.2 to 0.8% Increases the tensile strength and Alloy
hardness of steel. It neutralizes the Steels
These excess Sulphur in the steel. are steels
made with the
Silicon Kept below it acts as a deoxidizer which facilitates
addition of a
0.4% the hot ingot to be free from blow holes
definite
on cooling. Contributes to the increase
in hardness

Phosphorus kept below increase in presence makes the steel

0.1% brittle
22
Sulphur kept below It increases ductility and decreases
0.05% hardness of steel
proportion of a selected element in addition to carbon at the manufacturing stage. The alloy
steels show some specific properties that are related to the alloying elements. The alloying
elements are grouped into two categories:

Table 2: showing alloying elements

Categories Examples Importance

Carbide forming Manganese, Each element from this

element Chromium, tungsten, group combines with the
molybdenum, carbon present in the
Vanadium steel to form a particular
carbide of a desired
property

Non-carbide Copper, nickel and Dispersed throughout the

Forming elements silicon body of the steel and
impart specific properties
without forming any
particular compound

Titanium and Used to remove

aluminum impurities at the
manufacture stages acting
  like scavengers

Benefits of alloying

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 a) The tensile strength of the steel may be increased without affecting its workability
b) The resistance against very high temperature, abrasion and corrosion may be improved
c) The electoral, magnetic and thermal properties may be modified in the desired direction

Subdivision of Alloy Steels. Two main types of alloy steels recognized in the basis of proportion
of alloying elements are: Low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels.

Table 3: Showing classification of Alloy Steels

Characteristi Element
No Class of steel cs comprised Importance

Low alloy High made up of Extensive

steels resistance to copper, application in
Limited to corrosion, chromium, railroad
8% only. high molybdenum, freighters,
1
machinabilit nickel, truck bodies,
y and high manganese and passenger
welding phosphorus cars, heavy
properties. duty plants

High alloy tungsten,

steels which molybdenum,
includes vanadium,
stainless chromium and
steels, nickel
2 electrical
steels, heat
resisting
steels and so-
called tool 24
and die steels
 6.3. Steel as used in Civil Engineering construction
This type of steel is classified as Structural steel. These are required to possess a certain set of
properties that make them specifically useful for a particular situation in the construction
processes.

This structural steel can further be explained under the following construction structures namely

1. Concrete reinforcement. Concrete is the most common material of construction. Plain

concrete has very high compressive strength but very low resistance against bending and
tensile forces. This shortcoming is of concrete and is overcome by incorporation in its
steel reinforcement. The resulting product, the reinforced concrete has very high tensile
strength and resistance against bending. The steels used belong to mild steels having a
low carbon content of 0.25% and these come in plain or indented bar of round or square
cross section.

Figure 12: concrete reinforcement

2. Pre-stressing steel. The steels used for pre-stressing have a relatively higher carbon
content of 0.6-0.9% than mild steels. In the process the steel reinforcement is tensioned at
the time of placement of the concrete. When the equipment for tensioning is removed
after placing of concrete, the reinforcement will try to regain its original shape but will
fail to do so. The result is the compressive strength of the concrete and the tensile
strength of the steel reinforcement establishing a useful balance.

25
 Figure 13: pre-stressed concrete steel
3. Bridge wire steel. This steel has a carbon composition of 0.55-0.75% and manganese
0.5-0.7%. It is commonly heavily galvanized to provide resistance against corrosion. This
steel possesses properties such as High strength with a minimum tensile strength of
1600MN/m2, toughness, resistance to fatigue, resistance to corrosion. Because of these
properties, this steel in form of steel cables is used for construction of suspension bridges

Figure 14: suspension bridge

4. Cladding steel. This steel is generally from a category of stainless steels with a
composition 17-18% of chromium and up to 8% of nickel. They’re thin sheets of proper
quality steel that are used to cover the walls, columns and other structures in buildings
and may be given attractive finishes by coating with vitreous enamel or Polyvinyl
Chloride.

26
 Figure 15: cladding steel
5. Railway steel. This steel has a composition of 0.45-0.6% of carbon and 0.95-12.5% of
manganese. This type of steel used for the construction of railways has the following
properties;
a) Must be strong in compression and bending
b) Must be very resistant against wear
c) Must be resistant against fatigue
d) Must be very stable against shock and impact.

Figure 16: Railway steel

6.4. PROCESS FOR THE STEEL SHAPES
The steel shapes produced in the steel plants are obtained through two methods which include:

27
 6.4.1. Casting
This is a method by which specified shapes are produced by pouring the molten metal into
specially prepared molds, where it is allowed to cool. The shapes obtained are designated as
castings. In steel, casting forms the first process of giving shapes. In this process, the molds are
made up of either cast iron or refracting material. These molds are long and rectangular.

Ingots are the basic castings of the metal and are made by the melt pouring from the furnace into
rectangular molds. A single ingot is a rectangular block with a length of 2-3m and a cross-section
between 40-100cm. During casting, some defects may develop in the casting if proper care is not
taken at the time of making the ingots.

i. Blow holes. These are small continuous or discontinuous holes like openings that are
formed on the ingot when the gases escape from the metal at the time of cooling in the
mold.
ii. Segregations. These are concentrations or accumulations of impurities in the interior of
the ingot. During the cooling process, the impurities are rejected by the primary metal
from the surface. These impurities are gradually brought into the innermost part of the
ingot where they cool last of all.
iii. Ingotism. This is the development of a coarse crystalline structure in the ingot because of
the slow rate of cooling in the ingot.
iv. Pipe. This is a central continuous cavity developing within the ingot. It is a major defect
in ingots.

6.4.1.1. Control of defects in casting

i. Blow holes and Ingotism are cured by mechanical working
ii. Development of the pipe is prevented by adopting such methods of cooling in which the
top portions remain hot till the end so that the pipe is formed in the exterior region of the
ingot.

6.4.2. Mechanical Working

All those methods in which desired shape of iron or steel are produced by applying pressure in
one way or the other are grouped under mechanical working. These form the most common
methods of producing the steel shapes. Three main processes are included;

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 1. Rolling

This is the reduction of iron or steel blocks to the desired dimensions and shapes by passing them
through a set of rolls in motion.

The plant where this operation is performed is called the Rolling Mill. This mill may have a
numerous set of rolls made of cast iron, high carbon steel or special alloy steels in a great variety
of shapes and sizes depending upon the nature of the shape to be produced.

Rolling is further broken down in to two sub divisions which include; hot rolling and cold
rolling.

a) Hot rolling involves subjecting a preheated metal to a series of rolls. It is used both in
manufacturing semi-finished and finished metallic products. Shapes in the semi-finished
products include; billets, booms and slabs.

Advantages of hot rolling of steel

i. The process introduces a refinement in the grain size

ii. It brings about close contact among the constituent grains
iii. It creates elongation of grains in the direction parallel to the rolling
iv. It reduces the magnitude of the defects
b) Cold rolling is a finishing process aimed at obtaining shapes of very accurate
dimensions that are not possible with hot rolling.
A starting material which is a semi-finished product is often heat-treated before subjected
to cold rolling. A common finished product of cold rolling is Cold Rolled Sheet.
2. Forging

This is the mechanical process of obtaining the desired shapes of a metal by giving blows to the
metal held with dies. This is generally achieved by first heating the metals to a specified
temperature and then giving blows of definite pressure. Blows are given by hand hammers or
stream hammers depending on the size of the products required.

In the steam hammer blowing, the metal is given the desired shape with the help of specially
designed dies. The hammers are capable of giving 100 to 300 blows per minute.

29
Typical products obtained by forging include tools of all sorts, locomotive axles and wheels and
many other complicated shapes which cannot be obtained by rolling methods

3. Pressing

This is the method of mechanically working the shape of a metal and involves application of
heavy load on the metal placed on an anvil through the hydraulic press. During the application of
pressure, many original defects of the metal get removed. The structure of the metal also
undergoes a change towards a greater crystalline nature

This method is used for making amour plates and heavy shafting.

4. Drawing
a) Wire Drawing. This is the main method of shaping metals into wires of various cross-
section. It involves stretching the metal through a series of tapered dies, each die having a
hole slightly smaller than the preceding one. Wires obtained are used for making bolts,
springs, nails and screws
b) Tubular products the two most common methods of obtaining tubular shapes are
i. Welding
ii. Seamless drawing
i. Welding. Tubular products can be obtained by two methods in the welding process;

In butt welding, the starting material is a sheet of material named skelp. It is first heated and
then pulled through a funnel shaped die where it gets curled in such a way that its two edges
meet. These edges are welded together continuously as the pipe comes out from the other end.
The method is suitable only for preparing tubes of less than 10cm diameter

In lap welding, the ends of the sheet (skelp) are first beveled. These are made to overlap to a
shape as desired in the end products. The overlapped ends are then heated to welding
temperatures. The so heated tube-like sheet is subjected to rolls and mandrel which weld the
overlapping edges

ii. Seamless pipes

30
It consists of pipe which has been obtained without welding. It is curved out of solid metallic
billet. Seamless pipes are made by removing the external and internal material from the billet
with the help of specially designed rolls and mandrel. The millet from which pipe is to be carved
out is heated to 22000 F whereby it gets softened. The mandrel can the pierce the billet easily.

5. Extrusion

It is a method of shaping the metal by forcing it out through a die of requisite shape under great
pressure applies via ram and plunger. In this method, shapes can be formed by hot extrusion and
cold extrusion, using pre-heated or cold metal. In the hot extrusion, the hot metal must be first
heated to a desired temperature.

6. Powder Metallurgy

This method involves converting the metal to a proper grain size as the rolling. The metallic
powder is the compacted under pressure to the desired shape. The shapes obtained are then
heated very carefully.

This method offers the following advantages

i. It is economical and more shapes can be produced per unit time compared to other
methods
ii. Shapes obtained by powder metallurgy require least or no subsequent machining
iii. Very intricate shapes not possible in other methods can be developed by powder
metallurgy

The major disadvantages are

i. The maximum size of shape is considerably limited

ii. The cost of preparing metallic powders may be quite prohibitive
iii. The ductility and strength of shapes obtained are inferior

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 6.5. PROPERTIES OF STEELS
Factors influencing the properties are heat treatment, mechanical works and chemical
composition.
6.5.1. Heat Treatment
Refers to subjecting the metal (including steel) to high temperatures under controlled conditions
of environment and then cooling them back to the room temperature in a perfectly controlled
manner.

The objective of heat treatment is to develop desired properties of steel. The properties of steel
can be controlled and changed as well by various heat treatments. A steel of a given composition
can be made soft, ductile and tough by one heat treatment, and the same steel may be made
relatively hard and strong by another heat treatment. Heat treatment affects the nature, amount
and character of the metallurgical properties.

It also influences the solubility relations of the constituents, changes the crystallization either
with respect to form or degree of aggregation and introduces or relieves internal stresses in the
metal. Some of the principle purposes of heat treatment include:

i. To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and toughness

ii. To relieve internal stresses and strains
iii. To refine the grain
iv. To remove gases
v. To normalize steel after heat treatment

Four processes are commonly used

1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Quenching
4. Tempering
1. Annealing

This is the general term used for heating and slow cooling of metal which has developed strain
due to rapid cooling.

32
In this method, the metal is first heated to a temperature in a particular manner and then cooled
back to normal temperature. Annealing of steel in addition to removing strain introduces more
properties to steel which include:

a) Introduces softness, ductility and malleability.

b) Alters electrical, magnetic and other physical properties
c) Produces a definite microstructure and grain refinement
d) Removes gases

Thera are many variations of the process of which the following are important.

Full annealing. The steel or other metal is first heated to temperatures above the critical
temperature. It is then kept at that temperature for sufficient time. Subsequently it is allowed to
cool gradually to a room temperature. The net result is an increase in the ductility which makes
the metal easily machinable. Full annealing usually decreases hardness, strength and resistance to
abrasion.

Process annealing. In the process the metal is heated to sufficiently high temperature (5500 to
6500) and then allowed to cool gradually. The net effect is grain recrystallization. The high
temperatures in the process are always kept below the critical temperatures.

Isothermal annealing. The process involves heating the metal above the critical temperature and
keeping it at that for a definite time. The cooling is however achieved by first cooling the metal
rapidly to a temperature lower than the critical temperature and from there onwards it is allowed
to cool gradually to the room temperature.

2. Normalizing

It is a process of heat treatment aimed mainly at refining the grain structure of a metal resulting
from rolling, forging or other manufacturing processes. In this method, the metal is heated to a
definite temperature above the critical temperature and then allowed to cool gradually in air.

3. Quenching

Is a process of heat treatment by which a steel product can be sufficiently hardened to a desired
thickness. It consists of heating the steel beyond the critical temperature. It is then maintained at
that temperature for a sufficient length of time to allow for full reconstitution. Thereafter it is

33
cooled suddenly to room temperature by dipping it in water or brine or oil to produce a
martensite structure. Martensite is the chief constituent of hardened steel and is fibrous or needle
like structure.

The objective of this treatment may be to secure a given hardness to a desired depth of steel.
Fully hardened steel is not suitable for most commercial uses because they are hard and brittle
and have poor toughness.

4. Tampering

This is further heat treatment of hardened steels in order to make them more stable and suitable
for specific purposes. The temperature to which steel is reheated is of great significance and
controls the development of desired properties. Thus

For developing additional hardness and strength, temperatures should not exceed 400-600ͦ0

Any stresses and strains that might have developed during the quenching of these steel are
removed during tempering because cooling is also involved in the process.

6.5.1.1. Case hardening

Is a specific process of heat treatment in which only the outer part of a product is made extra
hard while the inner part may remain soft and coarsely crystalline. It is commonly applied in the
products developed from low carbon steel, cast iron and wrought iron.

This process involves heating the product above the critical temperature for 1 to 8 hours. The
product so heated is immediately plunged into the cold water, brine or oil this results in a hard
case or the hard-outer surface although the inner part of the core remains coarsely crystalline and
soft.

Case hardening is of two types:

i. Case carburizing. In this process the steel is heated beyond the critical temperature in an
atmosphere of carbon for 1-8hours and then suddenly quenched in water or oil. The
carbon bearing atmosphere can be created with the help of carbon monoxide or charcoal.
Steel surface absorbs some carbon from such an atmosphere during heating. The surface
becomes extra hard. Such steels are used for making shafts, gears and automobile axles.

34
 ii. Case Nitriding. It is that process of case hardening in which steel is heated in the
presence of ammonia at temperatures of 500C-600C and then quenched? As /a result, the
surface of the steel gets hardened due to the formation of iron nitrite. This method is used
for case hardening in alloy steels. Ball bearings, dies and valves are made from such
steels.

6.5.2. Chemical composition

The tensile strength of hot rolled steel bars is maximum between 1.0 and1.2% carbon.

The elastic limit and ultimate strength of steel increases with carbon content but at a lower rate.

The compressive strength of steel increases directly with carbon content up to 1.0%. the shear
strength of steel also increases with the carbon content.

The ductility of steel decreases markedly as the carbon content increases. The resistance of steel
to heavy shocks or blows decreases with increase of carbon content

Rusting and corrosion of steel

When steel is exposed to atmosphere, it is subjected to action of atmospheric agencies. The

humid air causes the rusting of steel (the formation of oxides on the surface of steel), also the
atmospheric conditions along with rain produces oxidation and corrosion. Consequently, the
physical and mechanical properties are affected. In due course of time cracks and discontinuities
may form in the oxide film, due to electro-chemical action on the metal surface, providing a
fresh source of atmospheric action resulting in further corrosion. Once rusting is initiated, it
gradually increases and corrodes iron. Rusts in the form of scales are peeled off from the swelled
surface of iron. It is serious problem as the surface becomes rough with rusted iron projections.
This may injure users. Also, the loss of steel sectional area may cause failure of structural
elements. Of the various theories of corrosion, the acid theory is applicable to the corrosion of
iron. According to this theory rusting is caused by action of oxygen, carbon di-oxide and
moisture converting the iron into ferrous bicarbonate. Further, the ferrous bicarbonate on
oxidation changes to ferric bicarbonate and subsequently to hydrated ferric oxide.

Fe + O + 2CO2 + H2O = Fe (HCO3)2

2Fe(HCO3)2 + H2O + O → 2Fe(OH)CO3 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

35
Fe(OH)CO3 + H2O → Fe(OH)3 + CO2 ↑

To safeguard iron and steel from rusting and corrosion some of the prevalent methods are
enameling; applying metal coatings – galvanizing, tin plating, electroplating; and applying
organic coatings – painting and coal tarring. Of these methods painting is the most common.
Enameling consists in melting a flux on the surface of iron in muffle furnace and then coating it
with a second layer of more fusible glaze.

Galvanizing is the process of coating iron with a thin film of zinc, whereas in tin plating a film of
tin is coated. Painting consists in applying a coat of red lead and then applying a coat enamel or
aluminum paint.

7. CONCLUSION
Following the above discussion about ferrous metals with unique combination of properties and
others that include a lot of different alloying elements. Those qualities make them usable in
construction of long-lasting structures. On top of that, they are utilized in making tools, vehicle
engines, pipelines, containers, automobiles, cutlery, etc.

8. REFERENCES
Barraclough, K. (1984). Steel before Bessemer: I Blister Steel: the birth of an industry. London:
The Metals Society.

Bringas, J. (2004). Handbook of comparative World Steel Standards (3rd. ed.). Chicayo: ASTM
International. 2007-01-27

Camp, J. M., & Blaine, F. C. (1920). The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (2nd ed ed.).
Pittsburgh: Carnegie Steel Co.

Fenton, M. D. (2008). Iron and Steel Scrap (ed ed., Vol. 1). in United States Geological Survey:
Government Printing Office. Retrieved 2008

Michael B,Taylor & Francis Group. (2013). Construction materials Reference Book (2nd ed.).
(D.K DORAN AND R.CATHER) Routledge.

S Ganguly, S Datta, & N Chakraborti. (2007). Materials and Manufacturing. Taylor & Francis.

Tylecote, R. (1992). A history of Metallurgy (2nd ed.). London: Institute of Materials.

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37