CAB 4023

PLANT DESIGN PROJECT II

JAN SEMESTER 2011

PRODUCTION OF

330, 000 TONNE PER YEAR POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE

GROUP 2

ASMA BINTI AHMADON 9879

KUHANESAPATHY T. 9949
MOHD AMIR NAZMI BIN ROMLI 9621
NURLIYANA BINTI ABDUL RAOF 9919

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS

JAN 2011
 CAB 4023

PLANT DESIGN PROJECT II

JAN SEMESTER 2011

PRODUCTION OF

330, 000 TONNE PER YEAR POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE

GROUP 2

ASMA BINTI AHMADON 9879

KUHANESAPATHY T. 9949
MOHD AMIR NAZMI BIN ROMLI 9621
NURLIYANA BINTI ABDUL RAOF 9919

APPROVED BY,

________________________

(AP DR. HILMI MUKHTAR)

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................ viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ x
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................ xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..........................................................................................................................xvi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Project Background ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Scope of Project ............................................................................................................................ 2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Thermoplastics .............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Polyesters ...................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.2 History.......................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.3 Processability ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) ................................................................................................ 7
2.3.1 General ......................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Process Description ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Applications of PET ..................................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Esterification, Transesterification And Polymerization .............................................................. 12
2.4.1 Transesterification...................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.2 Esterification .............................................................................................................................. 13
2.4. 3 Polymerization .......................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 DMT Versus PTA Process .......................................................................................................... 15
2.5.1 Comparison ................................................................................................................................ 15
2.5.2 Environmental Considerations ................................................................................................... 16
2.6 Technology Comparison ............................................................................................................... 18
2.7 Site feasibility study ...................................................................................................................... 19
2.7.1 Criteria of selection .................................................................................................................... 19
2.7.2 Primary factors ........................................................................................................................... 19
2.7.2 Specific factors.......................................................................................................................... 20

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 2.7.3 Characteristics of potential locations ......................................................................................... 21
2.8 Economic Evaluation .................................................................................................................. 29
2.8.1 Economic Potential 1 ................................................................................................................. 30
2.8.2 Economic Potential 2 (EP2) ....................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 3: SAFETY ISSUES AND PRELIMINARY HAZARDS ANALYSIS ................................. 32
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 32
3.2 Previous Plant Accidents ............................................................................................................ 32
3.2.1 Georgia-Pacific Resins Plant Explosion .................................................................................... 32
3.2.2 Philips Petroleum Company’s K-Resin Plan Explosion ............................................................ 33
3.3 Identification of Material and Chemical Hazards ....................................................................... 34
3.3.1 Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA).............................................................................................. 35
3.3.2 Ethylene Glycol ......................................................................................................................... 36
3.3.3 Bis (2-hydroxyethyl) Terephthalate (BHET) ............................................................................. 36
3.3.4 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) ............................................................................................. 38
3.4 Inherent Safety Aspects .............................................................................................................. 41
3.4.1 Use of substitute hazardous chemical ........................................................................................ 41
3.4.2 Reduced inventories ................................................................................................................... 41
3.4.3 Lower temperature and pressure ................................................................................................ 41
3.4.4 Safe plant location...................................................................................................................... 41
3.4.5 Mode of transportation ............................................................................................................... 42
3.4.6 Plant layout ................................................................................................................................ 42
3.5 Local Safety Regulations ............................................................................................................ 42
3.5.1 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994 .................................................................. 42
3.5.2 Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 ................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 4: CONCEPTUAL PROCESS DESIGN ANALYSIS ............................................................ 44
4.3 Preliminary Reactor Design ........................................................................................................ 46
4.3.1 Batch versus Continuous............................................................................................................ 46
4.3.3 Reactor Design and Recycle Structure of Flowsheet ................................................................. 48
4.3.4 Separation System Synthesis ..................................................................................................... 52
4.3.5 Heat Recovery Network ............................................................................................................. 58
CHAPTER 5: HEAT INTEGRATION....................................................................................................... 59
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 59

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 5.2 Stream Identification ................................................................................................................... 59
5.3 Minimum Temperature Difference, ∆tmin.................................................................................... 60
5.4 Pinch Technology Method .......................................................................................................... 61
5.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 61
5.4.2 Temperature ............................................................................................................................... 61
5.4.3 Problem Table Algorithm : ........................................................................................................ 62
5.4.4. Heat Cascade ............................................................................................................................ 63
5.4.5 By Sprint .................................................................................................................................... 64
5.4.6 Composite Curve By Sprint ....................................................................................................... 64
5.4.7 Heat Exchanger Network ........................................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER 6:PROCESS FLOWSHEETING ............................................................................................. 67
6.1 Process Flow Diagram (PFD) ..................................................................................................... 67
6.2 Mass Balance .............................................................................................................................. 67
CHAPTER 7:INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ........................................................................... 78
7.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 78
7.1 Basic Concept of Process Control..................................................................................................... 79
7.1.1 Feedback Controller ................................................................................................................... 79
7.1.2 Feedforward Control .................................................................................................................. 80
7.1.3 Cascade Control ......................................................................................................................... 80
7.2 Degrees of Freedom .......................................................................................................................... 81
7.3 Reactor Control Systems................................................................................................................... 81
7.4 Distillation Column Control Systems ............................................................................................... 85
7.5 Heat Exchanger Control System ....................................................................................................... 90
7.6 Pump Control Systems ...................................................................................................................... 93
7.6 Compressor Control Systems ............................................................................................................ 95
7.7 Discussion ......................................................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER 8 : SAFETY AND LOSS PREVENTION ............................................................................... 98
8.1 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) ....................................................................................... 98
8.1.1 Description ................................................................................................................................. 98
8.1.2 Prerequisite ................................................................................................................................ 98
8.1.3 Advantage and success rates ...................................................................................................... 98
8.1.4 HAZOP Study Procedures ......................................................................................................... 99

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 8.1.5 HAZOP Analysis worksheet .................................................................................................... 101
8.2 Plant Layout ................................................................................................................................... 115
8.2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 115
8.2.2 Plant Layout Consideration Factors ......................................................................................... 116
8.2.3 Site Layout ............................................................................................................................... 117
8.2.4 Non-Process Area .................................................................................................................... 117
8.2.5 Process Area............................................................................................................................. 119
CHAPTER 9: WASTE TREATMENT .................................................................................................... 123
9.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 123
9.1.1 Definition ................................................................................................................................. 123
9.1.2Wastewater Treatment Methods ............................................................................................... 123
9.2 Laws and Regulations on Industrial Waste (Malaysia)............................................................. 124
9.2.1Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 124
9.2.1Solid Waste ............................................................................................................................... 125
9.2.2Liquid Waste ............................................................................................................................. 125
9.2.3Gaseous Waste .......................................................................................................................... 126
9.3 Waste Identification .................................................................................................................. 126
9.4 Waste Characterization ............................................................................................................. 126
9.5 Influent Rate to the Plant .......................................................................................................... 127
9.6 Unit Process and Equipments ................................................................................................... 128
9.6.1Receiving Chamber ................................................................................................................... 128
9.6.2Grit Removal ............................................................................................................................. 129
9.6.3Activated Sludge Process .......................................................................................................... 131
9.6.4Overall Plant Size...................................................................................................................... 133
CHAPTER 10: PROCESS ECONOMICS AND COST ESTIMATION ........................................... 134
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 134
10.2 Capital Investment ................................................................................................................ 136
10.2.1Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) .............................................................................................. 136
10.2.2Working Capital (WC) ............................................................................................................ 137
10.2.3Start-up Cost ........................................................................................................................... 138
10.2.4 Estimation of Capital Investment ........................................................................................... 138
10.2.5 Purchased Equipment Cost .................................................................................................... 139

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 10.3 Estimation of Total Production Cost ......................................................................................... 140
10.3.1Variable Production Costs ...................................................................................................... 141
10.4 Fixed Costs................................................................................................................................ 142
10.5 Economic Analysis ................................................................................................................... 142
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................................................................ 147
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 149
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... 152
Process Flow Diagram Before Heat Integration ....................................................................................... 152
APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................... 154
PET Production Technologies .............................................................................................................. 154
UOP SINCO Solid State Polymerization .............................................................................................. 154
Zimmer DHI.......................................................................................................................................... 157
Zimmer DHI Process Flow ................................................................................................................... 158
UHDE INVENTA-FISCHER Melt to Resin (MTR) and Melt to Preform (MTP) ............................... 159
AQUAFIL/ BUHLER S-HIP Combined Design .................................................................................. 160
Aquafil/ Buhler Process Flow ............................................................................................................... 162
EASTMAN INTEGREX ...................................................................................................................... 163
APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................................... 165

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 List of Figures

Figure 2.1 : Basic blocks of monomer to form polymer

Figure 2.2: Molecular structure of thermoplastics and thermoset
Figure 2.3: Molecular Structure of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
Figure 2.4: Production of PET from DMT and EG
Figure 2.5: Production of PET from PTA and EG
Figure 2.7: Condensation
Figure 2.8: Esterification
Figure 2.9: Gebeng Industrial Estate map
Figure 3.1: Georgia-Pacific after the 1997 explosion
Figure 4.1: Input-output structure of the process
Figure 4.2: Basic distillation equipment
Figure 4.3: Basic vapour-liquid separator
Figure 5.1: Table Algorithm
Figure 5.2: Heat Cascade
Figure 5.3 : The Grand Composite Curve
Figure 5.4 : Heat Exchangers Network
Figure 7.1: Feedback Control Loop
Figure 7.2: Feedforward Control Loop
Figure 7.3: Cascade Control Loop
Figure 7.4: Reactor Control System
Figure 7.5: Distillation Control System
Figure 7.6: Heat Exchanger Control System
Figure 7.7: Heater Control System
Figure 7.8: Pump Control System
Figure 7.9: Compressor Control System
Figure 8.1: HAZOP Study

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Figure 8.2 : Plant Layout 153

ix
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 :POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET) 22

Table 2.2: Properties of Dimethyl Terephthalate 23
Table 2.3: Properties of PTA 24
Table 2.4: Technology Comparison 30
Table 2.5 Comparison of the feasible plant locations 34
Table 2.6 Weighted marks and explanation on the plant site location factor 36
Table 2.7: Weight method to choose the site for the plant 38
Table 2.8: Current market price for each component 41
Table 2.9: Total revenue and raw material cost 42
Table 2.10: Total revenue and raw material cost 42
Table 3.1 List of Chemicals/Materials Involved 46
Table 3.2 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from
Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA) 47
Table 3.3 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from Ethylene Glycol 48
Table 3.4 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from BHET 49
Table 3.5 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) 50
Table 3.6 Hazard Identification for chemicals involved 51
Table 4.2: Summary of Level 2 decisions 63
Table 4.3: Comparison between CSTR and PFR 64
Table 4.4: Summary of Level 3 Decisions 67
Table 5.1 Stream Table 74
Table 5.2 Shifted Temperature 77
Table 6.1: Fraction of components in the feed stream 82
Table 6.2: Summary of molecular weight for each component and
degree of polymerization for PET 83

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Table 6.3: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 1 89
Table 6.4: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 2 90
Table 6.5: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 3 90
Table 6.8: Summary of Material Balance for Distillation Column 91
Table 6.7: Deviation between Manual Calculation and Simulation for Reactors 91
Table 6.6: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 4 91
Table 6.9: Summary of Material Balance for Knockout Drum 92
Table 7.1: Pre-Polymerization Reactor, R-201 Control System Details 98
Table 7.2: Distillation Column, C-401 Control System Details 102
Table 7.3: Heat Exchange E-4 Control System Details 107
Table 7.4: Heater E-501 Control System Details 107
Table 7.5: Pump P-101 Control System Details 110
Table 7.6: Compressor C P-401 Control System Details 111
Table 8.1 : List of Basic HAZOP guideline 115
Table 9.1: Wastewater Treatment Methods 137
Table 9.2: Parameter Limits of Effluents of Standard A and Standard B 139
Table 9.3: Calculated BOD and COD values 141
Table 10.1: Total Cost of the Main Equipments in the project 152
Table 10.2: Fixed Capital Investment Estimation 153
Table 10.3: Raw Material Consumption per Annum 154
Table 10.4: Utilities Consumption per Annum 154
Table 10.5: Total Production Cost (TPC) for the project 155
Table 10.6: Non-discounted cash flow 156
Table 10.7: Cash Flow Profile for i at 0% 157
Table 10.8: Discounted cash flow 158
Table 10.9: Cash Flow Profiles for various discount values 159

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a thermoplastic polyester resin importantly used in

the production of plastic bottles. Worldwide polyethylene terephthalate plants are large and
expendable. The primary objective of this project is to design a plant for the production of
polyethylene terephthalate in Malaysia with a production capacity of 330,000 Metric Ton per
Annum. The raw materials are purified terephthalic acid (PTA) and ethylene glycol (EG). The
reaction takes place commercially in liquid phase using antimony (III) trioxide catalysts. The
reaction occurs at temperatures around 250°C to 280°C and at pressures of 0.5 mbar to 2.2 bars.
For the conceptual design part, based on Hierarchical Decomposition Approach, we have
identified the process operating mode of this plant as a continuous process.

The detailed process flow sheet, PFD is generated based on the reactions taking place,
required separations, change in parameters (e.g. temperature, pressure) and application of heat
integration. In the PFD, the material balances simulated from iCON have also been included. On
the other hand, the Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) with all process equipments,
piping systems, control loops and applied heat integration processes is generated too. The
symbols in all drawings are based on the PETRONAS Technical Standard, PTS. The summaries
of important specifications of major and minor equipments in the plant are shown in the tables
below:
Capacity / Requirement,
Raw material
kg/hr
Purified Terephthalic Acid 35801.20
Ethylene Glycol 22840.97
Capacity / Requirement,
Product
kg/hr
Polyethylene Terephthalate 41671.87

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 Major Dimension /
Description Operating Condition
Equipment Specification

Reactor A pre-esterification Temperature = 255oC

reactor that converts the raw
(R-201)
materials into monomer.
Reactor A post-esterification reactor
that further converts the raw
(R-202)
materials into monomer at
Reactor A pre-polymerization reactor
that transforms monomers
(R-301)
into polymers (PET).
Reactor A post-polymerization reactor Temperature = 278oC
that further increases the
(R-302)
molecular weight of the
Purification A distillation column to
separate water and ethylene
Distillation
Column glycol where highly purified
ethylene glycol could be
(C-401)
recycled into the process.
Pressure = 2.2 bar
Conversion = 0.92
Temperature = 260oC
Pressure = 500 mbar
Conversion = 0.98
Temperature = 272oC
Pressure = 60 mbar
Conversion = 0.975
Pressure = 0.5 mbar
Conversion = 0.993
Feed Ethylene glycol
65 ⁰C, 101.35 kPa purity = 99.74%
Top Product Column inner
100 ⁰C, 101.35 kPa diameter = 1.6808m
Bottom Product
Column total
196.3 ⁰C, 101.35 kPa

Height = 9.6356m

Minor Description
Equipment
Pump The use of centrifugal pump and piston pump to transport fluid (i.e. viscous
fluid) at a prescribed pumping rate/ pressure.
To increase the pressure of the vapour outlet stream from the reactors
Compressor to achieve a prescribed operating condition in subsequent reactors.
Operating condition for inlet stream: 50 kPa

Mixer Operating
Mixers condition
mainly used to for
mixoutlet stream: and
raw materials 101.35
also kPa
to re-combine split
streams in heat integration application.

xiii
 Splitter Splitter used to split streams to meet requirements of heat integration.

Cooler Additional cooling requirement besides heat exchangers used in the plant
among process streams.
Heater Additional heating requirement besides heat exchangers used in the plant
among process streams.
Heat Exchanger Used to optimize the heat dissipation from process streams.

For heat integration, the software package SPRINT (Process Integration Software
Version 2.4 by Centre for Process Integration, University of Manchester) has been used in the
development of the heat exchanger network. Comparison between results obtained using
SPRINT and through manual calculations (e.g. table algorithm and heat cascade approach) were
carried out. A total number of six heat exchangers are required in this process. The minimum
utilities consumptions before and after heat integration are shown in the table below:

Before Heat Integration After Heat Integration Remarks

Hot Utility 30828.2236 kW 16011.8816 kW Save 48.0 %

32445.7738 kW 17629.2511 kW
Cold Utility Save 45.7 %

Exchangers 0 unit 7 units

The most suitable location to build the Polyethylene Terephthalate Plant is at Gebeng
Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang. A plant layout indicating the access routes, safety appliances,
control room, storage area and plant area is illustrated and attached. Weaknesses in the
arrangement of facilities in the process area can lead to fire (via conduction, convection and
radiation), explosions and toxic gas releases. Therefore, the plant area is located far from
vulnerable areas but close to the supply of raw materials storage area so that transportation can
be made at ease.

xiv
 The parameter limits of effluents are according to the Standard B of Environmental
Quality Act 1974 in the constitution of Malaysia. The waste treatments in this plant are mainly
emphasis on wastewater treatment that contains ethylene glycol and acetic acid impurities. The
major treatment in the plant is activated-sludge treatment which is used to treat the biodegradable
organic materials from microbial consumption. There are three different types of wastewater
treatment method, i.e., physical, chemical and biological treatment methods that used for
wastewater treatment. The treatment methods for wastewater are shown as the table below:

Properties Physical Chemical Biological

Types of process Grit Removal, Sedimentation Neutralisation Activated-sludge treatment

For the process economics and cost estimation, we estimated the capital costs, operating
costs and economic potential of the plant. The Detailed Factorial Method with approximately
25% accuracy must be used for detailed economic evaluation and the plant lifetime is fixed at 20
years. The economic potential at level 1 and level 2 are calculated according to Douglas (1988).
From the economic analysis, the Total Capital Investment for this project has been determined to
be RM 60, 409, 697.52, with the Rate of Return to be at 22.4%. Although initially the economic
potential (EP1) was analyzed to be having a negative value due to no recycle stream. The plant
was further improved with an EG recycle stream in order to optimize raw material consumption.
As a result, EP1 yields a positive value. Further economic analysis on the project has proven that
the project is economically justified, having a payback period of 6 years since the project
commences, which is equal to 3 years after plant start-up. The calculated Discounted Cash Flow
Rate Of Return (DCFRR) is larger than the assumed Minimum Attractive Rate of Return
(MARR), enabling this project to be worth invested.

In the report, process control and instrumentation are included for each stage of the
process. Preliminary hazards analysis, safety and loss prevention are also included in this report.
For safety and loss prevention, a hazard and operability study, (HAZOP) was carried out with the
selection of process nodes revolving around the distillation column. The preliminary hazard
analysis is carried out during the feasibility study of safety-related aspects that influence the
design. In this chapter, the material and chemical hazards in the process has been identified. The
MSDS of all the chemicals involved in the process have been compiled in the appendices. The
xv
previous accidents on similar type of plants have been studied and reported. The concept of
inherent safety has been discussed further and vital concepts included in the study of this plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we would like to express our gratitude to the Almighty for making the Plant
Design Project (PDP) a successful and beneficial one for us. All members in Group 2 are to be
credited for participation and dedication on performing each task in an admirable way.

A token of appreciation also goes to Associate Professor Dr Hilmi Mukhtar, our supervisor for
his guidance and advises throughout the progress of creating a feasible, running design of a
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plant. To all lecturers involved in PDP, we express our
gratitude in hearing and solving our doubts and problems throughout the course this semester.

Deepest gratitude to the examiners for the oral presentation of PDP for being supportive and
guiding us through our mistakes to make the project even better. Thanks to all lecturers and
staffs that have directly or indirectly got involved in making this project a success.

Lastly, special thanks to our family and fellow colleagues for their support and company in
making this PDP something to be proud of.

Thank you.

xvi
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background

The final year design project team has been assigned to design a plant that produces 330, 000 ton
per year (pre determined by team) of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), using Purified
Terephthalic Acid (PTA) and Ethylene Glycol as the feedstock. The reaction takes place in a
liquid phase with antimony (III) trioxide catalyst.

The design is to include facilities that are located within the battery limits, thus designs for
offsites or utility plant are not required. However, the design must include the offsites and utility
plants in the economic evaluation.

1.2 Objectives

The aims of the design are to:

Identify the path for PET manufacture and develop the flow sheet.

Determine the economically feasible production capacity.

Develop energy and material balances.

Design reactor, separator, heat exhanger, pumps and storage tanks.

Develop appropriate control strategy.

Attend issues on environmental and safety.

Locate the site for the plant construction.

1
1.3 Scope of Project

This project is subjected to the designing phase of the process plant. All researches and
literatures used for this project falls under the scope of the chemical compositions, current
productions of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), preliminary hazards analysis, process design
configurations and selections, and configuration of plant equipments (i.e. reactor, separation
system, heat integration, etc). The designing phase is then executed using manual engineering
calculation and also PETRONAS iCON software. The project is aimed at achieving the objective
of the plant design process.

2
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Thermoplastics

2.1.1 Introduction

A polymer is a long chain molecule of hydrocarbons consisting of many (poly) small repeating units
(mono) joined end to end. These molecules, like ethylene and propylene are the basic building blocks of
plastics production. In a chemical reaction called polymerization, a large number of individual molecules
are linked together to form polymer chains. There are many types of polymers including synthetic and
natural polymers. Examples of natural polymers include proteins, carbohydrates and deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), while a synthetic polymer for instance is epoxide (EP).

Figure 2.1 : Basic blocks of monomer to form polymer [1]

Different synthetic plastics have different polymer chain structures which determine many of their
physical characteristics. There are three main polymer families: thermoplastics, thermosets and
elastomers. Thermoplastics soften when heated. This is because their molecules are separate from each
other and can move about easily at higher temperatures. Their structure can be linear or branched, and the
polymer molecules can be of different sizes. But in all cases, they can be melted and reshaped an
indefinite number of times without sever damage, allowing reprocessing and recycling. Among the types
of thermoplastics currently in the industry are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP) and
polystyrene (PS). As for thermoset, additional chemical bonds are created between the molecules during
thermosetting, called crosslinking, to produce a three-dimensional, tightly woven network. Because of
these additional chemical bonds, thermosets cannot be re-melted and changed in shape, and if enough
heat is applied, they will suffer chemical degradation. Examples of thermosets include epoxide (EP) and
phenol-formaldehyde (PF).

3
 Figure 2.2: Molecular structure of thermoplastics and thermoset [2]

Often some additives or fillers are added to the thermoplastic to improve specific properties such as
thermal or chemical stability and UV resistance. Thermoplastic composites are obtained by using short,
long or continuous fibres. Thermoplastic consumption is roughly 80 percent or more of the total plastic
consumption. Alloys of compatible thermoplastics allow applications to benefit from the attractive
[4]
properties of each polymer while masking their defects. Below is listed the advantages and
disadvantages of thermoplastics.

Advantages
• The softening or melting by heating allows welding and thermoforming;
• The processing cycles are very short due to absence of chemical reaction of
cross-linking;
• Processing is easier to monitor as there is only a physical transformation;
• Thermoplastics do not release gases or water vapour if they are correctly
dried before processing;
• The wastes are partially reusable as virgin matter. This is because of the

reversibility of the physical softening or melting.

Disadvantages

• The modulus retention decreases when the temperature rises due to absence
of chemical links;
• For the same reason, the creep and relaxation behaviours are not as good as
thermosets;

4
 • During a fire, fusibility favours dripping and annihilates final residual
physical cohesion;
• Few thermoplastics are workable in liquid state.

2.2 Polyesters

2.2.1 Introduction

Polyester is a synthetic fiber derived from coal, air, water, and petroleum. Developed in a 20th-century
laboratory, polyester fibers are formed from a chemical reaction between an acid and alcohol. In this
reaction, two or more molecules combine to make a large molecule whose structure repeats throughout its
length. Polyester fibers can form very long molecules that are very stable and strong.

Polyester is used in the manufacture of many products, including clothing, home furnishings, industrial
fabrics, computer and recording tapes, and electrical insulation. Polyester has several advantages over
traditional fabrics such as cotton. It does not absorb moisture, but does absorb oil; this quality makes
polyester the perfect fabric for the application of water-, soil-, and fire-resistant finishes. Its low
absorbency also makes it naturally resistant to stains. Polyester clothing can be preshrunk in the finishing
process, and thereafter the fabric resists shrinking and will not stretch out of shape. The fabric is easily
dyeable, and not damaged by mildew. Textured polyester fibers are an effective, nonallergenic insulator,
so the material is used for filling pillows, quilting, outerwear, and sleeping bags.

2.2.2 History

In 1926, United States-based E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. began research into very large molecules
and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by W.H. Carothers, centered on what became nylon, the
first synthetic fiber. Soon after, in the years 1939-41, British research chemists took interest in the du
Pont studies and conducted their own research in the laboratories of Calico Printers Association, Ltd. This
work resulted in the creation of the polyester fiber known in England as Terylene.

In 1946, du Pont purchased the right to produce this polyester fiber in the United States. The company
conducted some further developmental work, and in 1951, began to market the fiber under the name
Dacron. During the ensuing years, several companies became interested in polyester fibers and produced
their own versions of the product for different uses. Today, there are two primary types of polyester, PET
(polyethylene terephthalate) and PCDT (poly-1, 4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene terephthalate). PET, the
more popular type, is applicable to a wider variety of uses. It is stronger than PCDT, though PCDT is

5
more elastic and resilient. PCDT is suited to the heavier consumer uses, such as draperies and furniture
coverings. PET can be used alone or blended with other fabrics to make clothing that is wrinkle and stain
resistant and retains its shape [1].

2.2.3 Processability

Most polyesters are made from petroleum from which the constituent acids and alcohols are derived. The
types of processes that manufacturers use vary, and little is known about specific manufacturing
processes. Below is a general description of how polyester is synthesized:

1. Polymerization

Condensation polymerization occurs when the acid and alcohol are reacted in a vacuum at high
temperatures. The polymerized material is extruded in the form of a ribbon onto a casting through or
cooling wheel. After the ribbon hardens, it is cut into chips.

2. Spinning

The chips are dried and then put into hopper reservoirs for melting. Polyester is a “melt spun” fiber,
which means that it is heated, extruded through the spinnerets and cool upon hitting the air. From there it
is wound around cylinders.

3. Drawing

The fibers are then hot stretched until they are about five times their original length in order to decrease
their width. The drawing results in a optimal orientation of the molecules inside the fiber and results in
perfect strength [2].

Basic Industries

Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials
produced, it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5%) and polypropylene (19.5%).

6
The main raw materials as follows:

• Purified Terephthalic Acid – PTA – CAS-No.: 100-21-0

Synonym: 1,4 Benzenedicarboxylic acid,
Sum formula; C6H4(COOH)2 , mol weight: 166,13
• Dimethylterephthalate – DMT- CAS-No: 120-61-6
Synonym: 1,4 Benzenedicarboxylic acid dimethyl ester
Sum formula C6H4(COOCH3)2 , mol weight: 194,19
• Mono Ethylene Glycol – MEG – CAS No.: 107-21-1
Synonym: 1,2 Ethanediol
Sum formula: C2H6O2 , mol weight: 62,07
To make a polymer of high molecular weight a catalyst is needed. The most common catalyst is antimony
trioxide (or antimony tri acetate) [3].

2.3 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

2.3.1 General

Poly(ethylene terephthalate), or PET, is a thermoplastic polyester resin. Such resins may be classified as
low-viscosity or high-viscosity resins. Low-viscosity PET typically has an intrinsic viscosity of less than
0.75, while high-viscosity PET typically has an intrinsic viscosity of 0.9 or higher. Low-viscosity resins,
which are sometimes referred to as “staple” PET (when used in textile applications), are used in a wide
variety of products, such as apparel fiber, bottles and photographic film. High-viscosity resins, sometimes
referred to as “industrial” or “heavy denier” PET, are used in tie cord, seat belts and the like.

Whinfield and Dixon, in UK, developed polyethylene terephthalate fibers (Dacron, Terylene). This first
Dacron polyester plant went into operation in 1953. Ester interchange (also known as ester exchange or
alcoholysis) was once the preferred method for making polyethylene terephthalate (PET) because
dimethyl terephthalate can be readily purified to the high quality necessary for the production of the
polymer. In recent years methods have been developed to produce terephthalic acid with satisfactory
purity, and direct polycondensation reaction with ethylene glycol is now the preferred route to this
polymer.

7
 Figure 2.3: Molecular Str ).
Structure of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET).

2.3.2 Process Description

PET resins are produced commercially from ethylene glycol (EG) and either dimethyl terephthalate
(DMT) or terephthalic acid (TPA). DMT and TPA are solids. DMT has a melting point of 1400C (2840F),
while TPA sublimes (goes directly from the solid phase to the gaseous phase). Both processes first
produce the intermediate bis-(2-hydroxyethyl)
hydroxyethyl)-terephthalate
terephthalate (BHET) monomer and either methanol
(DMT process) or water (TPA process). The BHET mono
monomer
mer is the polymerized under reduced pressure
with heat and catalyst to produce PET resins. The primary reaction for the DMT process is:

Figure 2.4: Production of PET from DMT and EG

The primary reaction for the TPA process is:

Figure 2.5: Production of PET from PTA and EG

8
 Both processes can produce low- and high-viscosity PET. Intrinsic viscosity is determined by the high
polymerizer operating conditions of: (1) vacuum level, (2) temperature, (3) residence time, and (4)
agitation (mechanical design).

The DMT process is the older of the two processes. Polymerization grade TPA has been available since
1963. The production of methanol in the DMT process creates the need for methanol recovery and
purification operations. In addition, this methanol can produce major VOC emissions. To avoid the need
to recover and purify the methanol and to eliminate the potential VOC emissions, newer plants tend to use
the TPA process.

2.3.3 Applications of PET

PET is used extensively in the manufacture of synthetic fibers (i.e., polyester fibers), which compose the
largest segment of the synthetic fiber industry. Since it is a pure and regulated material meeting the FDA
food contact requirements, PET is also widely used in food packaging, such as beverage bottles and
frozen food trays that can be heated in a microwave or conventional oven. PET bottles are used for a
variety of foods and beverages, including alcohol, salad dressing, mouthwash, syrups, peanut butter and
pickled food. Containers made of PET are being used for toiletries, cosmetics and household and
pharmaceutical products (e.g., toothpaste pumps). Other applications of PET include molding resins, X-
ray and other photographic films, magnetic tape, electrical insulation, printing sheets and food packaging
film.

Table 2.1 :POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET)

PROPERTIES

Molecular Structure

Poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyloxycarbonyl-1,4-phenylenecarbonyl)
Other names
Poly(oxyethylene oxyterephthaloyl)

Molecular Formula (C10H8O4)n

Material Class Thermoplastic

9
Polymer Type Polyester

Density 1.3-1.4
1.4 g/cm³

Melting Point 245-2580C (melt, 3000)

GlassTransitionTemp. 730C (melt, 3000)

May be crystallised from the glassy state at 1200 and 2000. Structure is
Morphology
not a simple biphasic system and may be mesomorphic.
FLAMMABILITY:
Is completely combustible, leaving little residue. Burns more cleanly
than coal and other fossil fuels.
CHEMICAL STABILITY:
Good resistance to oils and fats, organic alcohols and hydrocarbons.
Poor resistance to phenols, ketones, esters and chlorinated organic
Stability solvents.
HYDROLYTIC STABILITY:
Good resistance to dilute acids and alkalis, poor resistance to
concentrated bases.
RECYCLABILITY:
Can be recycled through depolymerization.

Table 2.2: Properties of Dimethyl Terephthalate

PROPERTIES

Molecular Structure

Other names DMT; Dimethyl 1,4

1,4-benzenedicarboxylate; Dimethyl p-phthalate
phthalate

Molecular Formula C10H10o4 / C6H4(COOCH3)2

10
Molar mass 194.2 g/mol

Appearance White flakes

Density 1.2 g/cm³

Melting Point 140°C

Boiling Point 288°C

Solubility in Water at 13°C very poor

PHYSICAL DANGERS:
Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air.
CHEMICAL DANGERS:
Substance decomposes on burning producing irritating fumes.
Hazards INHALATION RISK:
Harmful contamination of the air will not or will only very slowly be
reached on evaporation of this substance at 20°C.
EFFECTS OF SHORT
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE:
May cause mechanical irritation.

Table 2.3: Properties of PTA

PROPERTIES

Molecular Structure

Other names Benzene-1,4

1,4-dicarboxylic acid/ para-Phthalic acid/ TPA / PTA

Molecular Formula C8H6O4

Molar mass 166.13 g/mol

11
Appearance White crystals or powder

Density 1.522 g/cm³

Melting Point 300°C in a sealed tube (sublimes at 402°C (675 K) in air)

Boiling Point Sublimes

Solubility in Water 0.0017 g/100 mL at 25°C

Specific Gravity 1.58

PHYSICAL DANGERS:
Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air.
CHEMICAL DANGERS:
Reacts violently with strong oxidants.
INHALATION RISK:
Hazards
Evaporation at 20°C is negligible; a nuisance-causing concentration of
airborne particles can, however, be reached quickly when dispersed.
EFFECTS OF SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE:
The substance is irritating to the eyes and the skin.

2.4 Esterification, Transesterification And Polymerization

2.4.1. Transesterification

Transesterification is the process of exchanging the organic group R" of an ester with the organic group
R' of an alcohol. These reactions are often catalyzed by the addition of an acid or base catalyst.Two
reaction are utilized for the dimethyl terephthalate-based process :

12
 Figure 2.6: Transesterification process

Figure 2.7: Condensation

2.4.2 Esterification

Esterification is the chemical process for making esters, which are compounds of the chemical structure
R-COOR', where R and R' are either alkyl or aryl groups. The most common method for preparing esters
is to heat a carboxylic acid, R-CO-OH, with an alcohol R'-OH, while removing the water that is formed.

13
 Figure 2.8: Esterification

To practice the direct esterification process, one must solve the fundamental problem of keeping glycol
and acid in intimate contact of long enough for high conversion under condition limiting the amount of
terephthalic acid that sublimes.

2.4. 3 Polymerization

Thermoplastic polyesters are step growth polymers that need to be made to high molecular weight
(12000-50000) to be useful. The first stage is an esterification or ester-exchange stage where the acid and
dimethly ester is reacted with the appropriate diol to give the bis(hydroxyalkyl)ester and some linear
oiligomers. Water and methanol is evolved at this stage and is removed by fractional distillation, often
under reduce pressure at the conclusion of the cycle. Weak basis metallic salt catalysts are used for ester-
interchange. Certain ester interchange has undesirable effect of the letter stages of high polymerisation.So
by adding phosphorus compound such as triphenyl phosphate can overcome this issue. For manufacture
of poly(butyleneterephthalate), ester exchange using DMT and titanium catalyst is the route of choice
since butane-diol readily cyclises to tetrahydrofuran(THF) in the presence of acid.

The final polimerization stage is usually done in autoclave fitted with a powerful mechanical stirrer to
handle the viscous melt, under high vacuum at a high temperature above the melting point of the final
polymer. During polycondensation stage, the linear oligomers and the bis(hydroxyalkyl-terephthalate)
ester undergo a succession of the EI reactions, eliminating the diol that is removed under high vacuum,
and thus molecular weight increase steadily. For PET antimony trioxide is the usual polymerization
catalyst. Antimony become active at high temperatutes and thus can be added at the start of the EI stage
along with the other catalyst.

14
As the polymer molecule weight increase, so does the melt-viscosity and the power to the stirrer drive is
monitored so that an end point can be determine by each batch. Usually, the polymerization process end
point is taken at a slightly lower than molecular weight (MW) than this limiting value. When desire melt-
viscosity is reached the molten polymer is discharge.

Continuous polymerization units of either type are quite satisfactory for fibers, film or cast object of
relatively modest molecular weight produced on large continuously perating equipment. When high
molecular weight polymer of high purity is required, however particular for discontinuous operation, solid
phase polymerisation can be attractive.

Polyester can degrade by one of several routes:

O O

R C O CH2CH2OH R C OH+CH3CHO

(Endgroup degradation)

O O O O

R C O CH2CH2 O C R1 R C OH + H2C =CHOC R1

(Chain Scission)

O O

R C O CH2CH2OH + HOCH2CH2O C R1

O O

R C O CH2CH2OCH2CH2 O C R1 + H2O

2.5 DMT Versus PTA Process

2.5.1 Comparison

PET resins are produces commercially from ethylene glycol (EG) and either dimethyl terephthalate
(DMT) or purified terephthalic acid (PTA). DMT and PTA are solids. DMT has a melting point of 140°C

15
(284°F), while PTA sublimes (goes directly from the solid phase to the gaseous phase). Both processes
first produce the intermediate bis-(2-hydroxyethyl)-terephthalate (BHET) monomer and either methanol
(DMT process) or water (PTA process). The BHET monomer is then polymerized under reduced pressure
with heat and catalyst to produce PET resins.

Both processes can produce low- and high-viscosity PET. Intrinsic viscosity is determined by the high
polymerizer operating conditions of: (1) vacuum level, (2) temperature, (3) residence time, and (4)
agitation (mechanical design).

The DMT process is the older of the two processes. Polymerization grade PTA has been available only
since of methanol in the DMT process creates the need for methanol recovery and purification operations.
In addition, this methanol can produce major VOC emissions. To avoid the need to recover and purify the
methanol and to eliminate the potential VOC emissions, newer plants tend to use the TPA process
(Polyethylene Terephtalate, 1995). While there is not much difference in prices of the two materials,
input-output ratio for PTA is 0.87 as compared to 1.03 for DMT. Use of PTA leads to superior quality
and better efficiency. The use of PTA requires marginally lower quantity of monoethylene glycol (MEG).
Moreover, there are more suppliers of PTA than there are for DMT (Ester Industries Ltd, 2003).

2.5.2 Environmental Considerations

As to recognises the commitment to environmental protection as a vital part of existing high quality
production and operating standards, most of the PET plant (such as Amcor) around the world has
accredited the ISO 14001 certification. ISO 14001 is a further development of ISO 9000 accreditation,
involving the addition of the increasingly important area of environmental responsibility to a company's
existing quality management programme.

ISO 14001 demonstrates the commitment to ensuring the best and safest working practices, covering
areas such as noise reduction, safe and clean work environments, effective waste management and
recycling initiatives. To achieve accreditation, the PET plant need to carry out an environmental review of
all its processes and procedures and from this introduced new initiatives and working practices. Particular
challenges included ensuring the plant complied fully with recently introduced local environmental
legislation and introducing selective waste collection systems throughout every department.

Emphasis was also placed on staff training to ensure all employees were aware of the importance of
environmental issues and the contribution individuals could make to the process
(foodproductiondaily.com, 2002). Most PET manufacturers/fabricators recycle 10% of their industrial
waste. The following practices are conducted to recycling or manage this type of waste:

16
 a) selling to scrap buyers
b) remixing with virgin materials
c) selling directly to exporters/consolidators
d) recycle back to bottles.

Wastewater management is also crucial to PET industry. At polymerization process, the stream exiting
the vacuum system is sent either to a cooling tower where the water is recirculated through the vacuum
system, or to a waste water treatment plant. Anaerobic technology has now been fully accepted as the
main treatment technology for effluents of the PET industry (EPA, 2002). Anaerobic wastewater
treatment is the biological treatment of wastewater without the use of air or elemental oxygen (Sam Z.
Scandaliato, P.E. and David Wyatt, M.D., 2009)

17
 2.6 Technology Comparison

Process IPT Invista Buhler M&G Easy Inventa- Lurgi Zimmer DHI Eastman
Up Fisher (2R) InteRex

Step 5 5 2 3 6 1

Esterificatio Esterification Esterification Esterification Estarification Pipe

n Reactor

Piper Prepolymerization Rotary kiln Espree Prepolymerisation

Reactor SSP

Column Crystalizer FB 185 Discage SSP

finisher

Rotoformer Annealing root Granulation

type 220

SSP SSP Crystallizer

Dealdhydation

Intrinsic More than More than 0.6 More than 0.55-1.3 0.86 0.75
viscousity 0.6 0.6

Phase Melt-SSP Melt-SSP Melt-SSP Melt Melt

Utilities N2 closed N2 No No No SSP NO

circuit intermediate intermediate moving
Pipe Pipe part No
SSP

Plants 77 3 6 12 1

Scale t/d 1150 1000 1250 1000 1500 1100

Table 2.4: Technology Comparison

For further explanation of the all the technology is compile in the Appendix B.

18
2.7 Site feasibility study

2.7.1 Criteria of selection

Site location plays an important role in ensuring the profitability and productivity of a plant. The
basic aim of the site selection is to choose a location that maximizes income and minimizes cost
where compromises are usually made. The suitable location should allow future expansion. The
potential location is considered by evaluating industrial areas in a few states to find the most
strategic place. There are a few factors involved in the selection of a location for the plant which
can be divided into primary and specific factors. The factors are explained further in the
following. Three existing industrial estates have been evaluated to choose the most suitable
location for the construction of the new plant in Malaysia.

2.7.2 Primary factors

i. Availability of feedstock

The cost of transportation can be reduced by a closer source of feedstock to the operating plant.
In order to produce large quantities of product which is Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) in this
case, large volumes of raw materials would be required. Therefore, the closer the plant site is to
the source of raw materials, the lower the transportation and storage cost for raw materials.
Besides, factors such as supply, freight or transportation cost, availability and reliability of
supply, level of purification of raw materials and storage requirements also need to be
considered. Location that is nearer to the seaport would be very essential if the feedstock has to
be imported, in order to minimize the cost of shipping and fuel to the plant site.

19
ii. Market prospective

This chosen site should be close to the distribution centre. This is because the cost of product
distribution and requirement for cargo is influenced by this factor. It is very crucial to consider
the proximity of the major markets in locating suitable area for the plant development.

iii. Reasonable land price and size

The land price depends on the location and its size. Making the right choice of economical land
price can give a lower total investment cost. Besides, it is important to choose the lowest land
price and right size for constructing a new plant so that the highest profit and economic value can
be achieved.

iv. Utilities

Electricity supplies power to run the machines and equipments in a petrochemical plant. Large
amount of water supply would also be required to perform processes such as cooling and other
general uses in a chemical plant. Hence, adequate supply of power and water is very important to
ensure a smooth operation of the plant.

2.7.2 Specific factors

i. Transportation facilities

The plant should be situated near to the road network, seaport and airport. These main
transportation facilities enable a smooth import and export activities. Further more, the costs for
transportation of feedstock, product, plant equipments and personnel can be reduced.

ii. Availability of labour and services

A sufficient supply of labour should be considered in selecting the location of the plant.
Normally, non-local workers with high construction skills will be brought in while the low
skilled local workers will undergo training of plant operations. The operation costs will be
decreased if within the vicinity inexpensive manpower is readily available and could be used to
operate the plant.

20
iii. Waste and effluent disposal facilities

Location of the plant should provide capable and adequate disposal system. This is important to
ensure that the industrial waste and effluent will be treated properly if those are to be treated off-
site.

iv. Government incentives

The state governments attract other investors to invest in their state by giving a good offer of
incentives. The incentives are in the form of partial or total relief from income tax payment for a
specified period. Indirect tax incentives are also given to the investors where they receive
exemptions from import duty, sales tax and excise duty. All of the incentives assist a reduction in
the initial operating costs of the plant.

2.7.3 Characteristics of potential locations

The plant should be located in special zones set by the government. Three main locations have
been considered as strategic and feasible locations for the plant:

1. Kerteh Integrated Petroleum Complex, Terengganu

2. Gebeng Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang

3. Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate, Johor

Evaluation for each location is summarized in the following tables:

21
 Table 2.5 Comparison of the feasible plant locations

Selection Kerteh Integrated

Gebeng Industrial Estate Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate
Criteria Petroleum Complex
Main city Paka (5 km) Kuantan (30 km) Johor bahru (36 km)
Land price
RM2.00 to RM60.30 RM32.30 to RM118.40 RM88.10 to RM 236.80
(per m2)
Land availability
± 2000.00 acres ± 1618.78 acres ± 44.16 acres
(Area )
• Optimal Glycol (M),
• Optimal Glycol • Optimal Glycol
Raw material Kerteh
(M), Kerteh (M), Kerteh
Supplier • Amoco Chemicals (M),
• Amoco Chemicals • Amoco Chemicals
Gebeng
(M), Gebeng (M), Gebeng
• Tasik Kenyir
• Tanjung Gelang
Hydroelectric Dam • Sultan Iskandar Power
Power Supply TNB (1200MW),
• IPP YTL (600 MW) Station (644 MW)
• CUF Gebeng
• Paka Power plant • IPP YTL Power
(42MW)
(900 MW) Generation Sdn. Bhd.
• CUF Kertih
• Bukit Sah
• Loji Air Semambu • Loji Air Sungai Layang
• Sungai Cherol
Water Supply • CUF Gebeng • Syarikat Air Johor
• Sungai Kemasik
• Loji Air Sungai Buluh
• CUF Gebeng
• Karak highway • Karak highway • Federal highway
(KT-Kuantan-KL) (KT-Kuantan-KL) (Bukit Kayu Hitam-Singapore)
• East-West highway • East-West highway • Pasir Gudang
Roadways (federal road KT- (federal road KT- (Kim Kim River)
Kerteh-Telok Kerteh-Telok • highway from Pasir
Kalung-Gebeng- Kalung-Gebeng- Gudang-Tanjung Kupang-
Kuantan-KL) Kuantan-KL) Tuas Singapore

22
 Kerteh Integrated Petroleum Pasir Gudang Industrial
Selection Criteria Gebeng Industrial Estate
Complex Estate
• Kerteh port (5 km)
Port • Kuantan port (5 km) • Johor port
• Kemaman port (30 km)
Railway facilities Singapore and North
Kuantan-Kerteh Railway Kuantan-Kerteh Railway
Peninsular Malaysia
• Infrastructure
• Infrastructure
Allowance. • Incentive for exports
Allowance.
• Five-year exemption on • Incentives for research
• Five-year exemption on
import duty. development
import duty.
• 5 % discount on • Incentives for training
• 5 % discount on
monthly electrical bills tariff protection
monthly electricity bills
for first 2 years.
for first 2 years. • Exemption from import
• 25-38 % exemption on duty on direct raw
Incentives • 85% tax exemption on
daily water cost for materials/components
gross profit
4545 m3 of water • Pioneer Status and
• Pioneer Status and
• Pioneer Status and Investment Tax
Investment Tax
Investment Tax Allowance and
Allowance and
Allowance and Reinvestment
Reinvestment
Reinvestment Allowance.
Allowance.
Allowance. • Incentives for high tech
• Incentives for high tech
• Incentives for high tech industries
industries
industries
• Effluent Treatment • Effluent Treatment
Plant of CUF Plant of CUF • Effluent Treatment
Waste water
• Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd • Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd Plant of CUF
management
• Indah Water • Indah Water • Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd
Konsortium Konsortium
Local people
650 000 peoples 350 000 peoples 500 000 peoples
(15-30 years old)
(Reference: Malaysia Industrial Development Authority, 2010)

23
 Table 2.6 Weighted marks and explanation on the plant site location factors

Factors 0-1 Marks 2-3 Marks 4-5 Marks

• Incapable to obtain
• Source of raw materials • Able to obtain large
feedstock from close
from neighbouring states supply locally thus
sources with the distance
or countries with the saving on import cost.
exceeding 80km.
Supply of feedstock distance not exceeding • Having long pipeline
• Forced to import from
80km. networks for the
foreign countries.
• Uses a pipeline system transportation of raw
• Uses a pipeline system as
as well. materials.
well.
• Land area below 1000 • Land area exceeding
• Land area below 500 acres
acres 1000 acres
Land price and size • Price of land exceeds
• Price of land exceeds • Price of land less than
RM30/m2
RM 20/m2 RM 20/m2
• Incentives from the
• No incentives from the • Incentives from the Local Organization of
Local Government
Local Organization of Local Organization of Country Development
Incentives
Country Development. Country Development. • Incentives from special
company
• Good federal road and • Complete network and
highway systems well maintained
• Limited railway system highways, expressways
• Average road systems access and roads.
• No close highway or • More distant from the • International Airport
expressway system ports facilities access to the
Transportation
• No railway system. • Airport facilities which main locations around
• Very distant from the may not have the world.
ports and airports international flight • Location near to
facilities – only international port with
providing domestic import and export
flights. activities.

24
 • Reliable railway lines to
remote areas not
accessible by roads.

25
 Pasir Gudang Industrial Kerteh Petrochemical
Selected Site Gebeng Industrial Estate
Estate Integrated Complex

Types of Industrial 5 5 5

Price and Land Areas 4 3 5

Raw Material Sources 4 3 3

Transportation 4 4 3

Utilities 5 4 4

TOTAL MARKS 22/25 19/25 20/25

PERCENTAGES (%) 88 76 80

RANKING 1 (Selected) 3 2

Table 2.7: Weight method to choose the site for the plant

26
According to the weighted evaluation done, Gebeng Industrial Estate has maximum scores.
Hence, it has been chosen as the strategic location for the production plant of Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) due to a few reasons as listed below:

i) Gebeng Industrial Estate is situated at East coast of peninsular Malaysia and it is

only 25 km from Kuantan city and 5 km from Kuantan Port. Any trade involving
the import and export of products and, if necessary, raw materials can be achieved
with relative ease.

ii) Raw materials required in large quantities, mainly Purified Terephthalic Acid can
be obtained from Gebeng itself, whereas Mono Ethylene Glycol could be
purchased from neighbouring area, Kerteh.

iii) Kuantan Port has centralized tankage facilities, pipeline and pipe rack system
connecting Gebeng to Kuantan Port, container and bulk liquid port and railway
linking Kerteh, Gebeng and Kuantan Port.

iv) Existence of all major transportation networks to the proposed plant location
offers wider range of marketability options, locally or internationally.

v) Strategically located in the heart of South East Asia, one of the world’s fastest
growing economic regions, where Kuantan Port allows for ease of transportation
all over the world with all year round deep-water seaport.

vi) Constant supply of utilities such as cooling water, power supply, steam and waste
management.

o Power supply: CUF Gebeng (42MW) & Tanjung Gelang TNB (1200 MW)

o Water supply: CUF Gebeng, Semambu Water Treatment Plant

o Waste management: Effluent Treatment Plant of CUF Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd &
Indah Water Konsortium

vii) Inexpensive cost of land and availability of vacant site for construction and
expansion.

27
The map of Gebeng Industrial Estate is shown in the Figure 1.

Figure 2.9: Gebeng Industrial Estate map

28
2.8 Economic Evaluation

Process economics is required to evaluate design options, carry out process optimization and
evaluate overall project profitability. Consider what happen to the product revenue from product
sales after the plant has been commissioned. The sales revenue must be able to pay for both raw
materials and utilities consumption costs. For preliminary process design analysis, economic
evaluation potential has been used. According to Douglas (1988), the economic potential can be
divided into several analyses where the first estimate is based on current product prices which
correspond to

1. EP1 = Revenue – Raw Material.

2. Second estimate (EP2) can be done after completing the material energy balances and by
considering the amount of by-product formation as well as the waste (gas) that has been
generated.

3. Last estimates are by subtracting the cost utilities; EP3 = EP2 – cost of utilities

Material Price ( USD $/Ton)

Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA) 895-910

Monoethylene Glycol (EG) 790-810

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 1280-1300

Table 2.8: Current market price for each component

(Source: ICIS pricing, 2010)

After retrieving the current price of the products and raw materials, the Economic Potential can
be calculated. The process plant is estimated to run for 7920 working hours per year. The current
exchange for USD$ 1.00 is MYR 3.09948 (source: www.x-rates.com, 2010) as of October 2010.

29
2.8.1 Economic Potential 1

I. Recycle Stream Neglected

Mass Flow Total Running

Price USD Annual Value of
Component Rate Hours in Year
$/kg Product USD $/year
(kg/hr) (Hrs)

RAW MATERIALS
PTA 38180.00 7920 0.91 275,170,896
EG 28520.00 7920 0.81 182,961,504
TOTAL RAW MATERIALS 458,132,400.00
PRODUCT
PET 41671.87 7920 1.30 429,053,573.50
TOTAL PRODUCT 429,053,573.50
Table 2.9: Total revenue and raw material cost

EP1 (Recycle Stream Neglected) = Revenue – Costs of Raw Materials

= USD $ 429,053,573.50/yr – USD $ 458,132,400.00/yr
= USD $ -29,078,826.50/yr
= RM $ -90,129,241.16 /yr
II. Recycle Stream Included

Mass Flow Total Running

Price USD Annual Value of
Component Rate Hours in Year
$/kg Product USD $/year
(kg/hr) (Hrs)

RAW MATERIALS
PTA 38180.00 7920 0.91 275,170,896
EG 22816.00 7920 0.81 146,369,203.2
TOTAL RAW MATERIALS 421,540,099
PRODUCT
PET 41671.87 7920 1.30 429,053,573.50
TOTAL PRODUCT 429,053,573.50
Table 2.10: Total revenue and raw material cost

30
EP1 (Recycle Stream Included) = Revenue – Costs of Raw Materials
= USD $ 429,053,573.50/yr – USD $ 421,540,099/yr
= USD $ 7,513,474.30/yr
= RM $ 23,287,863.32 /yr

So, by including recycle stream, the EP1 has changed from negative valu
valuee to positive value,
which indicates that this production of PET is feasible and profitable.

2.8.2 Economic Potential 2 (EP2)

Our by-product
product is only water. Water will not be considered in the calculation of EP because it
cannot be sell. Thus,

EP2 = EP1 = RM $ 23,287,863.32 /yr

2.8.3 Economic Potential 3 (EP3)

EP3 = EP2 - Cost of cooling utilities – Cost of hot utilities

= RM 23,287,863.32 /yr - RM 176,292.50/yr – RM 726,939.35
= RM 22,384,631.47/yr

From the economic potential calculation, all of them shows that the process plant is able to
produce good margin and gain profits from the production.

31
 CHAPTER 3: SAFETY ISSUES AND PRELIMINARY HAZARDS
ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction

Safety is the most important element in a plant. Lack of safety awareness will lead to potential accidents
and near misses at the workplace which results in loss of production time, property and life. Hence, safety
regulations and obligations are established in order to ensure the health and welfare of employees and
public by introducing a systematic approach that covers a proactive identification, evaluation and
mitigation of chemical release which occurs due to failures and problems in processes, procedures and
equipments.

Industrial hazard includes fire and explosion, mechanical and electrical hazards from moving machinery,
biological hazards such as allergic reactions to chemicals, physical hazards for instance falling and
tripping as well as ergonomically hazards due to carrying heavy loads. Hazards can be occurred due to
accidental losses of chemicals and mishandling of machines or operations. Besides, work-related stress
caused physical and mental illnesses.

A preliminary hazard analysis is delivered at pre-feasibility study stage to assess the development activity
impacts. During this stage, alternatives and important residual environment impacts are identified.

3.2 Previous Plant Accidents

There are a few Polyethylene Terephthalate plant incidents that have been identified and recorded. These
accidents occurred during plant operations as well as while handling and transporting the materials.

3.2.1 Georgia-Pacific Resins Plant Explosion

Figure 3.1: Georgia-Pacific after the 1997 explosion

32
The Columbus Georgia-Pacific manufacturing plant consists of two separate but related processes. One
process converts highly flammable methanol (wood alcohol) to formaldehyde. Formaldehyde vapors are
toxic and flammable. Formaldehyde is stored on site to be used in the production of resin. The resin
process uses two reactors to react phenol and formaldehyde to produce resins, which are used in adhesive,
coatings, and molding compounds.

Georgia-Pacific has had a series of environmental and health and safety problems, including spills and
chemical releases. A major explosion in 1997 caused the death of a worker, numerous injuries, and
degradation of neighbors’ health and property. On September 10, 1997, a batch kettle reactor in Georgia-
Pacific’s (GP) resin process area exploded.

This September 1997 explosion released a phenol/formaldehyde resin mixture over the grounds of the
site, and onto a limited area of the adjacent Sherwin-Williams property. Several above ground chemical
storage tanks, process piping and water were also damaged by the explosion. During the subsequent
emergency response (ER) activities to stabilize conditions at the site, many of the proposed Remedial
Investigation Phase II activities were completed by GP. These ER activities included collecting 35 on-site
soil samples and 13 soil samples at Sherwin-Williams, installing 11 shallow and 2 deep ground water
monitoring wells, controlling on-site perched ground water and removing the explosion damaged facility
structures. The ER activities were completed in November 1998 with the reconstruction of the resin
process area.

3.2.2 Philips Petroleum Company’s K-Resin Plan Explosion

Phillips Petroleum Company was founded in 1917 by L.E. Phillips and Frank Phillips, of Bartlesville,
Oklahoma. Throughout its operation, this plant has experienced two explosions, one in the year 1999 and
the other in the year 2000.

The 1999 explosion killed two contractors and injured three other men. It occurred on the morning of
June 23rd at its chemical complex at 1400 Jefferson Road, Pasadena, Texas 77506. An alarm sounded at
11:30 am when the blast occurred and a fire erupted. It took more than an hour for Phillips' onsite fire
department to extinguish the blaze.

Another explosion and fire occurred in 2000 resulting in one death and sending at least 66 workers to
local hospitals while keeping area residents indoors for more than two hours. The fire produced huge
plumes of black smoke that spread over the heavily-industrialized Houston Ship Channel and neighboring
residential areas. The fire is reported to be related to "knock down" effects from the blast in a reactor.

33
The explosion occurred at the K-Resin facility and involved a type of plastic made with butadiene. At the
time of the explosion, a dry butadiene tank was out of service for cleaning and had no pressure or
temperature gauges that would have provided the workers with an alert to the approaching crisis. The
most plausible scenario is that the dry butadiene tank had sufficient 'popcorn' polymer and butadiene in
the tank to react. The popcorn polymer plugged the purge lines so that an effective purge was not taking
place. Under these circumstances, it appears that a reaction of residual popcorn polymer and butadiene
provided enough heat to overpressure the vessel, resulting in vessel failure.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration's six-month investigation concluded that failure to
train workers properly was a key factor in the explosion and fire, and it proposed that Phillips Petroleum
be fined $2.5 million in penalties for 50 alleged violations of safety standards at the facility (Gullett,
2003).

3.3 Identification of Material and Chemical Hazards

The materials or chemicals involved in this process may pose potential hazards to the people involved as
well as to the environment. Thus, it is vital to identify the potential hazards of all the chemicals involved.
In a Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plant, the materials or chemicals involved are listed in Table 1
below.

Table 3.1 List of Chemicals/Materials Involved

Type Chemicals/Materials

Purified Terephtalic Acid (PTA)

Feed
Ethylene Glycol

Intermediate Product Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalate (BHET)

Products Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

Byproducts Water

Catalyst Metal Catalyst

34
3.3.1 Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA)

The normal state of PTA is white crystalline powder with a slight acidic odor. It is mildly irritating to the
eyes, skin and respiratory tract. The material is moderately discomforting to the gastrointestinal tract and
may be harmful if swallowed in large quantity. The substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation
of its aerosol and by ingestion. Evaporation at 20°C is negligible; a nuisance-causing concentration of
airborne particles can, however, be reached quickly when dispersed. A summary of the types of
hazard/exposure caused by this chemical is listed in Table 2 below.

Table 3.2 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA)

Types of Hazard/ Acute Hazards/ Prevention First Aid/ Fire Fighting

Exposure Symptons
Fire Combustible No open flames Water spray, foam,
powder, carbon dioxide
Explosion Finely dispersed Prevent deposition of In case of fire: keep
particles form dust; closed system, drums, etc., cool by
explosive mixtures dust explosion-proof spraying with water.
in air. electrical equipment
and lighting.
Inhalation Cough Local exhaust or Fresh air, rest
breathing protection
Skin Redness Protective gloves Remove contaminated
clothes. Rinse skin with
plenty of water or
shower.
Eyes Redness Safety goggles First rinse with plenty of
water for several minutes
(remove contact lenses if
easily possible), then
take to a doctor.
Ingestion Do not eat, drink, or Rinse mouth
smoke during work.
Wash hands before
eating.

35
3.3.2 Ethylene Glycol

Ethylene Glycol is normally in the state of colourless viscous hygroscopic liquid and is odourless. The
substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation and through the skin. A harmful contamination of
the air will be reached rather slowly on evaporation of this substance at 20°C. A summary of the types of
hazard/exposure caused by this chemical is listed in Table 3 below.

Table 3.3 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from Ethylene Glycol

Types of Hazard/ Acute Hazards/ Prevention First Aid/ Fire Fighting

Exposure Symptons
Fire Combustible No open flames Powder, alcohol-resistant
foam, water spray,
carbon dioxide
Inhalation Cough. Dizziness. Ventilation Fresh air, rest. Artificial
Headache. respiration may be
needed. Refer for
medical attention.
Skin Dry skin Protective gloves Remove contaminated
clothes. Rinse skin with
plenty of water or
shower.
Eyes Redness. Pain Safety goggles First rinse with plenty of
water for several minutes
(remove contact lenses if
easily possible), then
take to a doctor.
Ingestion Abdominal pain. Do not eat, drink, or Rinse mouth. Induce
Dullness. Nausea. smoke during work. vomiting (ONLY IN
Unconsciousness. CONSCIOUS
Vomiting. PERSONS!). Refer for
medical attention. If no
medical personnel are
available and the patient
is conscious, ingestion of
alcoholic beverage may
prevent kidney failure.

3.3.3 Bis (2-hydroxyethyl) Terephthalate (BHET)

Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalate (BHET) is in solid state normally found as white crystalline powder.

Exposure to any chemical should be kept to a minimum. Skin and eye contact may result in irritation.
May be harmful if inhaled or ingested. Always follow safe industrial hygiene practices and wear proper

36
protective equipment when handling this compound. A summary of the types of hazard/exposure caused
by this chemical is listed in Table 4 below.

Table 3.4 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from BHET

Types of Hazard/ Acute Hazards/ Prevention First Aid/ Fire Fighting

Exposure Symptons
Fire Combustible at No open flames SMALL FIRE: Use DRY
high temperature chemical powder.
LARGE FIRE: Use water
spray, fog or foam. DO NOT
use water jet.
Inhalation Cough. Dizziness. Ventilation If the victim is not breathing,
Headache. perform mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation. Loosen tight
clothing such as a collar, tie,
belt or waistband. If breathing
is difficult, oxygen can be
administered. Seek medical
attention if respiration problems
do not improve.
Skin Dry skin Protective gloves In case of contact, immediately
flush skin with plenty of water.
Remove contaminated clothing
and shoes. Wash clothing
before reuse. Thoroughly clean
shoes before reuse. Get medical
attention.
Eyes Redness. Pain Safety goggles Check for and remove any
contact lenses. In case of
contact, immediately flush eyes
with plenty of water for at least
15 minutes. Get medical
attention.
Ingestion Abdominal pain. Do not eat, drink, Induce vomiting by sticking
Dullness. Nausea. or smoke during finger in throat. Lower the head
Unconsciousness. work. so that the vomit will not
Vomiting. reenter the mouth and throat.
Loosen tight clothing such as a
collar, tie, belt or waistband. If
the victim is not breathing,
perform mouth-to mouth
resuscitation. Examine the lips
and mouth to ascertain whether
the tissues are damaged, a
possible indication that the
toxic material was ingested; the
absence of such signs, however,
is not conclusive.

37
3.3.4 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is an odourless chemical found in various forms namely chips, dice
noodles or lace. Its colours varies between milky white to black; several levels of translucence or luster.
Under normal conditions of use, this product is not expected to create and unusual emergency hazards.
Nuisance dust hazards are associated with the dry resin. Heating resin above 383ºF (195ºC) may cause
gas and vapor that are potent irritants. The primary routes of exposure are inhalation and absorption
through the skin and eyes. A summary of the types of hazard/exposure caused by this chemical is listed in
Table 5 below.

Table 3.5 Summary of types of hazard/exposure from Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

Types of Hazard/ Acute Hazards/ Prevention First Aid/ Fire Fighting

Exposure Symptons
Fire Combustible No open flames Class A or Class B fire
extinguishers or water
fog.
Inhalation Irritation of the Ventilation Remove to fresh air.
upper respiratory Drink water to clear
tract, coughing, and throat, and blow nose to
congestion may remove dust.
occur.
Skin Molten resin will Leather or cotton If contact with molten
cause thermal burns. gloves should be worn
resin occurs the affected
to prevent skin contact
area should be flushed
and irritation. with plenty of water.
Prompt medical attention
is advised for burns.
Eyes Temporary irritation Wear safety glasses Flush eyes with large
(itching) or redness with side shields. amounts of water for 5-
may occur. 15 minutes. If irritation
develops, or persists,
seek medical attention.

38
Table 9 below lists the summary of the potential hazards posed by all the materials or chemicals used and produced in this plant. Also
refer to Appendix for the MSDS for each chemical and feed properties table.

Table 3.6 Hazard Identification for chemicals involved

Auto-
Flash Fire and
Chemicals ignition Oral (LD50) Risk Exposure Reactivity Health Effect
Point Explosion
Temp

>6400 mg/kg Harmful by

(rat) inhalation, in contact Combustible at
Purified
with skin and if high temperature Reactive with strong
Terephthalic 496 ºC > 300 ºC Carcinogenic
swallowed. Irritating oxidizing agents.
Acid (PTA)
3200 mg/kg to eyes, respiratory
(mouse) system and skin.

Harmful by
Reactive with strong Repeated exposure may
inhalation, in contact Combustible at
oxidizing agents, produce general
Ethylene 5840 mg/kg with skin and if high temperature strong acids, strong
399 ºC 127 ºC deterioration of health by
Glycol (rat) swallowed. Irritating
alkalis (bases), and an accumulation in one
to eyes, respiratory
heat. or many human organs.
system and skin.

Repeated or prolonged
Bis (2- exposure to this
Combustible at Reactive with
hydroxyethyl) compound is not
NA > 200 ºC NA NA high oxidizing agents,
terephthalate known to aggravate
temperature alkalis (bases)
(BHET) existing medical
conditions.

39
 Auto-
Flash Fire and
Chemicals ignition Oral (LD50) Risk Exposure Reactivity Health Effect
Point Explosion
Temp

Not a skin irritant, Fumes irritating to the

Polyethylene but is a mild eye eyes, nose and throat
Terephthalate 375 ºC NA NA irritant. NA NA may be produced at
(PET) Low ingestion & temperatures above
inhalation hazard about 235°C.

Strong acids and

bases can cause
rapid heating.
Water NA NA > 90ml/kg NA Non-flammable NA
Reaction with
sodium metal can
result in explosion.

40
3.4 Inherent Safety Aspects

3.4.1 Use of substitute hazardous chemical

There are different routes for producing a chemical substance. Every method has a different
process flow, hence, chemicals used such as catalyst and utilities used are different. Each method
should be analyzed to determine which route is less hazardous.

3.4.2 Reduced inventories

Inventories are amount of raw materials and finished products at a given time. By reducing
inventories, whether it is the raw material (feed) or final product, accidents such as major
explosion and leakage can be reduced.

3.4.3 Lower temperature and pressure

An approach to use hazardous materials under less hazardous conditions should be considered.
Appropriate design and operating conditions such as temperature and pressure are needed to
ensure a safe process. Using a lower temperature and pressure can prevent serious accidents such
as major explosion as well as minimizing utility consumption.

3.4.4 Safe plant location

A plant should be located where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be
obtained, safe living conditions for plant operation as well as surrounding community. Factors to
consider when selecting the best location to minimize hazards:
• Raw material availability
• Availability of suitable land
• Transport facilities
• Nearest fire station and hospital
• Availability of labours
• Environmental impact and effluent disposal
• Local community considerations

41
• Climate

3.4.5 Mode of transportation

Transportation of feed or products within the plant or piping systems should be properly
constructed. Materials used for the pipelines must meet the specification as proposed by
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).

3.4.6 Plant layout

Plant layout is included in the safety aspect inherent. Factors to consider when planning on a
plant layout are as below:
• Keep minimum distance for transfer of materials between plant and storage units to
reduce costs and risks
• Interaction with existing or planned facilities on site such as roadways, drainage and
utilities systems
• Locate hazardous facilities as far as possible from site boundaries and people living in
local neighborhood
• Access for emergency services such as emergency assembly in case of emergency

3.5 Local Safety Regulations

3.5.1 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994

OSHA 1994 defines the general duties of employers and self-employed persons in relation to
safety and health at work. The regulations under this Act are as below:

• OSH (Employers' Safety and Health General Policy Statements) Regulations 1995

• OSH (Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards) Regulations 1996

• OSH (Safety and Health Committee) Regulations 1996-SHC

• OSH (Classification, Packaging and Labeling of Hazardous Chemicals) Regulations

1997- CPL
42
• OSH (Safety and Health Officer) Regulations 1997

• OSH (Use and Standards of Exposure of Chemicals Hazardous to Health) Regulations

2000

• OSH (Notification of Accident, Dangerous Occurrence, Occupational Poisoning and

Occupational Disease) Regulations 2004

3.5.2 Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974

EQA 1974 mainly addresses the pollution problems arising from industrial discharge and
emissions of land, water and atmosphere, as well as emphasizes public health and safety. The
legislations under this Act are mainly regulated by Department of Environment (DOE). The
department is the leading authority responsible for environment protection, implementing
pollution control programmes and regulations.

Before starting any industry, Environmental Impact Assessment report has to be prepared to
report the information about the industry itself and the consequences to the environment. The
EIA report has to be submitted to the Department of Environment of the state to be approved
before license is given. The following are the related act regarding to process plant industry:
• Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978
• Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations, 1977
• Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979
• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) Regulations 1986
• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (EIA) Order 1987
• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order
1987
• Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989
• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Treatment and Disposal
Facilities) Order 1989

43
 CHAPTER 4: CONCEPTUAL PROCESS DESIGN ANALYSIS

4.1 General
eneral Process Descriptions

The process chosen for the production of PET from feedstock containing purified terephthalic
acid (PTA), ethylene glycol (EG), consists of two major reactions, which are:
a) Esterification of Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA) and Ethylene Glycol (EG) to produce
Bis(HydroxyEthyl) Terephthalate (BHET)
b) Prepolymerization of Bis(HydroxyEthyl) Terephthalate (BHET) to produce short chains
of PolyEthylene Terephthalate
alate (PET)
c) Polymerization of short chains of PolyEthylene Terephthalate (PET) to produce long
chains of PolyEthylene Terephthalate (PET)
d) Separation section
The following are the reactions involved:
a) Esterification
2 C2H6O2 + C8H6O4 C12H14O6 H2O
EG PTA BHET Water
b) Prepolymerization
40 C12H14O6 C402H326O162 + 39 C2H6O2
BHET PET40 EG
c) Polymerization
150 C12H14O6 C502H1206O602 + 149 C2H6O2
BHET PET150 EG
To produce BHET, reaction of ethylene glycol (EG) and purified terephthalic acid (PTA) is
needed. From the suppliers, EG consists of mono ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol. First,
EG in liquid phase and PTA in powder form are mixed in the mixer to prod
produce
uce a slurry phase
feed. Then, the mixed feedstock is fed into the esterification reactors with the ratio of 1 mole of
PTA and 1.6 moles of EG. The outlets of the reactors are prepolymers that contain BHET,
water, short chain oligomers of PET with a degree of polymerization of ~1-7
7 and unreacted EG.
Some acid end-groups
groups of the PTA remain in the prepolymer. The unreacted EG is separated for
recycle stream into feed and water is distilled to be sent to waste water treatment. BHET and

44
short chain oligomers are then pumped to the prepolymerization reactor and the degree of
polymerization increases to 15-20 repeat units forming polyethylene terephthalate. Finally, in
the polymerization reactor, the polymer chains increase in degree of polymerization to ~70-100
repeating units. In the prepolymerization and polymerization reactors, excess EG is removed to
enable increment of the molecular weight of the PET chains.

4.2 Hierarchial Decomposition Approach

From to Douglas’ (1988) formulation of a decision hierarchy as a set of levels to guide the
selection of process alternatives, the levels are classified according to the following process
decisions:

• Level 1: Batch versus Continuous

• Level 2: Input–output structure of the flowsheet.

Level 3: Recycle structure of flowsheet

Decision 1. Reactor performance

Decision 2. Reactor operating conditions: (1) concentration, (2) temperature, (3)
pressure, (4) phase, (5) catalyst

Decision 3. Reactor configuration: reactor volume (capacity of reactor i.e., input and
output flow rates, orientation, and configuration;

Level 4: Separation system synthesis

Decision 1. Types of separators: type of suitable separators.

Decision 2. Sequencing of separators (for homogeneous mixtures): how are the
separators arranged? (sequencing of distillation columns)

Decision 3. Operating conditions: (a) temperature, (b) pressure, (c) concentration
• Level 5: Heat recovery network

45
4.3 Preliminary Reactor Design

4.3.1 Batch versus Continuous

The reasons for a production to be produced in batch process are due to:

a) The process is operational for a few months as the first company producing it wins an
enormous competitive advantage.

b) A few days’ production is sufficient for a year’s supply.

c) The process is sensitive to upsets and variations.

d) The product will likely have a short total lifetime before another product comes out and
replaces it.

e) The value of the product is higher compared to the cost of manufacture.

Based on the above reasons for choosing a batch process, none of them agrees for the
polytethylene terephthalate process. We may be in a rush to develop this process to enter the
high demand industry, but polyethylene terephthalate is already in the market and we are
going to be just one more producer. We note that we need to convert a continuous flowing
supply of ethylene glycol and purified terephthalic acid throughout the year, so we are not
going to produce the full year’s supply in a few days. The plant will also have a capacity of
300 000 ton per year production which is equivalent to 6.614 x 108 lb/yr. Plants having a
capacity of greater than 10 x 106 lb/yr are usually continuous processes while plants having a
capacity of less than 1 x 106 lb/yr are normally batch types. Polyethylene terephthalate has
been a high-in-demand plastic type for the production of fibres and plastic bottles and will
continue to be; we are not dealing with a product having a short lifetime in the market. The
demand will grow alongside with the increase of the world population. In addition, this plant
does not deal with heavy fouling raw materials or products that require frequent shut down
for maintenance. Finally, the cost to produce polytethylene terephthalate sets its price, so we
have to be a cost-effective producer to sell it to anyone. Therefore, we decided to consider
manufacturing polytethylene terephthalate using a continuous process.

46
4.3.2 Input-Output Structure of Flowsheet

The input-output structure of the production of polyethylene terephthalate is as illustrated in

the below figure:

Product:

Feed: Polytehylene Terephthalate

Ethylene Glycol Byproducts:

PROCESS
Purified Terephthalic Water
Acid
Ethylene Glycol

Acetic Acid

Figure 4.1: Input-output structure of the process

Based on the suppliers, feed quality is as follows:

a) Ethylene glycol:

• Ethylene glycol 99.9% purity, 0.05% Diethylene Glycol and 0.05%Water

b) Purified terephthalic acid:

• Purified Terephthalic Acid 99.8% purity and 0.2% Water

Since the impurities are insignificant (less than 1%), which will not affect the production
process; it is not necessary to purify the feed stream prior to entering the process.

Criteria Decision Justification

Is it necessary to The amount of impurities is

No
purify feed streams? insignificant.

Do we need to Yes The reaction must favour the

remove/recycle production of BHET for

47
 reversible byproduct? esterifcation and PET for pre-
polymerization and
polymerization.

The recycle stream prevents the

Do we need a purge
Yes formation of accumulation
stream?
inside the separators.

Should we Required raw material (EG) can

recover/recycle some Yes be reduced and the productivity
reactants? can be increased.

What are the design Reactor conversion, molar ratio of reactants, reaction
variables? temperature and pressure.

Table 4.2: Summary of Level 2 decisions

4.3.3 Reactor Design and Recycle Structure of Flowsheet

To achieve good reactor performance is the highest importance in deciding the most economical
and feasible deisgn which is also vital towards the environment impact of the process. Among
the issues to consider for good reactor design are:

1. Reactor type selection

2. Catalyst selection

3. Reactor operating conditions (Concentration, Temperature, Pressure, Phase)

It is very important in selecting the suitable reactor, so that the feed can be optimized. From the
Douglas approach, guidelines for selecting the best reactor design are given. It is stated that the
reactor that always maintains the highest concentration could maximize the conversion of the
feed.

A reactor type is necessary to select for the PET production: the production of BHET through
esterification and the production of PET through prepolymerization and polymerization.

48
 Reactor type selection

CSTR PFR

• Runs at steady state with • Arranged as one long

continuous flow of reactants
and products
• Exit stream has the same
composition as in the tank
Characteristics
• Primarily used for:
• Liquid phase reaction
• Steady state operation
• Perfectly mixed reactions
reactor or many short
reactors in a tube bank;
concentration changes with
length down the reactor
• Primarily used for:

Gas phase

• Continuous production • Continuous production

• Suitable for agitating • Large scale
processes • Fast reactions
Usages • Series configurations for • Homogenous and
different concentration heterogeneous reactions
streams • High temperature

• Uniform temperature • High conversion per unit

throughout the reactor
because of perfect mixing
• Easily adapts to two phase
runs
Advantages • Low operating cost
• Easy to clean
volume
• Continuous operation
• Heat transfer can be
optimized by using more
thinner tubes
• Run for a long period of
time without maintenance
• Residence time is the same
for all the reactants

Table 4.3: Comparison between CSTR and PFR

For the esterification process, the suitable reactor is the Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR). The selection of CSTR is based on several factors. The esterification process is in slurry
mixture, similar to liquid phase. A Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) is only suitable for gas phase

49
 reactions. The uniform temperature from the CSTR enables perfect mixing of the mixture. Both
esterification reactors have heating jackets and stirrer is fixed at the bottom of the reactor.

The reactor type selected for the prepolymerization reaction is the CSTR. This is based on the
factor that the mixture is in molten phase with a lower intrinsic viscosity which only allows the
reaction to occur best in this reactor type.

However, the phase in the polymerization reaction has a higher intrinsic viscosity which causes
the reactor selection to be beyond the two. The polymerization reaction is most suitable in a
horizontal vessel with rotating parallel discs. It is decided to use the DISCAGE Reactor, a
trademark design from the Uhde-Inventa Fischer, a German engineering company. This reactor
is chosen based on its features of continuous viscosity build-up, shortest residence time and
optimum heating with all welded closures avoiding polymer oxidation

a) Esterification reactor

During the esterification process, EG is mixed with PTA to produce BHET. In this reactor, EG
enters in liquid form while PTA in solid form (powder). Both are mixed into a mixer forming a
slurry mixture. From here, the slurry enters the esterification reactor that requires continuous
mixing and suitable temperature to prevent the mixture from hardening and plugging the reactor.
During this process, the feasible temperature is high (230-260 oC) in order to dissolve the free
PTA in EG at a reasonable rate and esterify it to create the BHET and oligomers.

The conversion rate for this step is 98%. A high conversion process requires a large volume
reactor for optimum conversion. However, the sum of two reactor volume in series is lower than
the volume of one reactor to achieve the same conversion. Therefore, two reactors will be
allocated for the esterification process; the first reactor having a lower conversion than the
second.

The pressure in the first reactor is high (2 bar and above) due to the high temperature above the
boiling point of EG and by the generation of water as the by-product from the esterification step.
As for the second esterification reactor, the temperature is slightly lower than the first reactor, so
is the pressure. The low pressure reflects the fact that in the second reactor less volatiles are
being generated, that the volatiles composition is substantially shifted from being rich in water to

50
 being rich in EG, and no free PTA remains, requiring high temperatures in order not to
precipitate out of solution.

For catalyst selection, this reaction does not require metal catalyst due to the presence of
carboxylic groups of terephthalic acid (TA) which are reactive and catalytic.

b) Prepolymerization reactor

The BHET monomers from the esterification reactor consequently enter the prepolymerization
reactor for the production of short chains of PET polymers. At this stage, the mixture is in
molten phase, thus also requiring continuous stirring and homogenous temperature.

High temperatures (280-290 oC) are necessary for the prepolymerization reaction to obtain
desired degrees of polymerization and maintain the product at molten state. The pressure is lower
than the vacuum (10-50 Pa) to allow the removal of water and EG as gases.

Starting from here, it is a catalyzable reaction, acquiring catalyst to increase the reaction rate.
Since minute amounts of water are to be found in the polycondensation reactors
(prepolymerization and polymerization), hydrolytic stability is demanded of the polymerization
catalysts. Examples of hydrolytically stable catalysts are antimony (III) oxide and germanium
(II) oxide. Antimony (III) oxide is selected as the catalyst for this plant as it is cheaper than
germanium (II) oxide.

c) Polymerization reactor

Short chains of PET, remaining oligomers and traces of EG enter the polymerization reactor to
be reacted to form long chains of PET polymers according to the desired intrinsic viscosity.
Phase in this reactor is also molten phase, yet, the molten has a higher intrinsic viscosity than the
prepolymerization reactor.

Reaction occurs at lower temperature than the first reactor, so is the pressure. The low pressure
reflects the fact that in the second reactor less volatiles are being generated, assuming most EG is
evaporated at the prepolymerization reactor leaving only traces into the polymerization reactor.

51
Recycle stream

Throughout the production of PET, it is found that there is excess amount of EG produced after
the esterification, prepolymerization and polymerization reaction. Therefore, recycle streams are
added to ensure all EG generated is recycled and reused in the PET production. Each reaction
has an EG recycle stream from the reactors towards the EG storage drum. As a result, the amount
of fresh EG can be reduced.

From the discussion; the reactor type, parameters and catalyst are decided below.

Esterification
Reaction Prepolymerization Polymerization
First Second

Reactor type CSTR CSTR CSTR DISCAGE

Temperature 255 260 272 278

(oC)

Pressure 2.2 bar 500 mbar 60 mbar 0.5 mbar

Conversion 0.92 0.98 0.975 0.993

Catalyst No No Antimony (III) oxide

Recycle stream Yes Yes

Table 4.4: Summary of Level 3 Decisions

4.3.4 Separation System Synthesis

Once the design of reactor is complete and the effluents from reactor are known, we proceed
with the separation layer to remove the impurities as well as unwanted by-products to obtain the
desired one. In this section, we will explain the types of separators being used and how we select
them in accomplishing the overall separation required. The selection and the sequence of the
separator must be the most effective way to separate the homogenous mixture of the effluents
that may be comprised of ethylene glycol, water, acetic acid, diethylene glycol, etc.

52
 The separators are needed in PET plant mostly to separate the by products of ethylene glycol and
water in the streams. The separated ethylene glycol will be recycled into the main stream while
water along with other substances will be treated in the waste water treatment system.

In US Patent No. 5,236,558, applicants have surprisingly found that, in spite of leaving water and
other byproducts in the recovered, recycled of spent ethylene glycol will be very useful. When
the recycled spent ethylene glycol is reacted with terephthalic acid, the polymer quality is
unaffected regarding its color and its ability. Also most surprising is the fact that the diethylene
glycol content of the polymer prepared is lower than that prepared from all pure ethylene glycol.
Therefore, for this project, the spent ethylene glycol will be recycled to the main stream system.

Decision 1: Decide on type of separator that will be likely used for the required separation

After each reaction, the heterogeneous mixture will occur. For instance, after esterification
process, BHET, water, unreacted ethylene glycol, acetic acid and diethylene glycol mixture will
be produced in both vapor and liquid phase. The separation of heterogeneous or multiphase
mixture can be done physically by exploiting the differences in density between the phases.

For this design project, the types of separators selected are the knockout drum and the distillation
column. The distillation column is used to recycle spent ethylene glycol during esterification of
PET.

Distillation Column

The reasons of selecting the distillation column are:

I. The distillation column is widely used in the petrochemical industry as a method of

separation process

II. The effluent from esterification process that is composed of ethylene glycol and water has
large relative volatilities.

III. The required top and bottom products of the separation are in liquid phase. Hence, all the
vapor leaving the top stage can be condensed in a total condenser to produce liquid

53
 Basic operation and terminology

The liquid mixture that is to be processed is known as the feed and this is introduced usually
somewhere near the middle of the column to a tray known as the feed tray. The feed tray divides
the column into a top (enriching or rectification) section and a bottom (stripping) section. The
feed flows down the column where it is collected at the bottom in the reboiler.

Heat is supplied to the reboiler to generate vapor that act as energy separating agent (ESA). The
source of heat input can be any suitable fluid, although in most chemical plants this is normally
steam. In refineries, the heating source may be the output streams of other columns. The vapor
raised in the reboiler is re-introduced into the unit at the bottom of the column. The liquid
removed from the reboiler is known as the bottoms product or simply, bottoms.

The vapor moves up the column, and as it exits the top of the unit, it is cooled by a condenser.
The condensed liquid is stored in a holding vessel known as the reflux drum. Some of this liquid
is recycled back to the top of the column and this is called the reflux. Purpose of the reflux is to
increase the purity of the desired product. The condensed liquid that is removed from the system
is known as the distillate or top product. Thus, there are internal flows of vapor and liquid within
the column as well as external flows of feeds and product streams, into and out of the column.

Basic distillation equipment and operation

Distillation columns are made up of several components, each of which is used either to transfer
heat energy or enhance material transfer. A typical distillation contains several major
components:

i. A vertical shell/column to separate homogenous liquid component

ii. Columns internal such as tray/plate and packing which are used to enhance the separation

iii. Reboiler use to heat up/vaporize the feed for the distillation process

iv. Condenser is used to cool down or to condense the vapor product leaving the top column

v. A reflux drum is used to hold condensed vapor from the top column before it is recycle back
to the distillation column (reflux)

54
Figure below shows the typical assembly of the distillation unit:

Figure 4.2: Basic distillation equipment

Knock-out Drum

The knock-out drum was selected to remove the water droplets from vapor stream after the
prepolymerization and polymerization reactions. The reason of selecting knocks-out drum is
because the mixtures are heterogeneous, contained mostly vapor (99.9%) and a little liquid. The
separation usually can be achieved by phase separation. A knock-out drum is a vertical vessel
into which a liquid and vapor mixture (or a flashing liquid) is fed and wherein the liquid is
separated by gravity, falls to the bottom of the vessel, and is withdrawn. The vapor travels
upward at a design velocity which minimizes the entrainment of any liquid droplets in the vapor
as it exits the top of the vessel. The usage of simple knock-out drum with gravity forces will be
very effective and cost-saving.

55
 Figure 4.3: Basic vapour-liquid separator

Decision 2: Sequencing of separators

As the number of major components to be separated is only water and ethylene glycol, there is
only one possible sequencing alternative for this distillation column. According to heuristic
guideline that can be used to design the sequencing, the direct sequence of distillation should be
favored. This is because the sequences that remove the lightest component, which is water, in
column overheads should be favored. As water is more volatile and have lower boiling point
compared to ethylene glycol, the water should be removed first, which is also favored the direct
sequence.

Component Boiling Point

Ethylene Glycol 197.3 °C
Water 100 °C

56
Decision 3: Decide on the optimum operating conditions

Distillation Column

For distillation column, a few parameters such as number of trays, feeding tray(s), and column
diameter need to be considered before starting the design of column. The concept of distillation
is based on the condensing and vaporizing temperatures and pressures of the components. In the
beginning of designing the column, this rule of thumb is applied and then the parameter is
optimized accordingly to obtain an optimum column operating condition. Although these
operational parameters is obtained from the literature reviews for initial design, the parameter
such as reflux ratio, number of stages, solvent’s feed and inlet temperature/pressure is re-
evaluated accordingly to optimize the plant operating condition.

Operating pressure (P) and temperature (T) are decided by the vaporization and condensing
temperature of the mixture. For the separation of liquid mixture, pressure and temperature set in
the column should allow for condensation of the lighter component. If a total condenser is to be
used, and a liquid top product taken, the pressure should be set to atmospheric pressure.
Generally, higher pressure will lead to more difficult separation requiring higher reflux ratio for
a fixed no. of stages.

According to a patent literature, the distillation column should have 14 plates, where the feed is
fed to the third distillation plate of the column. The overhead of the column consists of 96.4% of
water, 3.6% of ethylene glycol and a small fraction of percentage of acetic acid. The bottom
from column consists of about 99.9% of ethylene glycol, 0.61% of water and 0.05% of
diethylene glycol.

The separation process of the product and by products of liquid phase in distillation column is
done under the following operating conditions:

Operating
Conditions Column

Temperature (OC):
- Feed 65

57
 - Top product 100.2
- Bottom product 195.1
Pressure (kPa):
- Feed 101.325
- Top Product 101.325
- Bottom Product 101.325
Molar Flow (kgmol/h)
- Feed 1793.7
- Top Product 467.22
- Bottom Product 1326.48
No. of Trays 14
Reflux Total reflux

Knock-out drum

Operating Conditions Drum

Temperature (OC) 272.3
Pressure (kPa): 101.325
Molar Flow (kgmol/h) 238.08

4.3.5 Heat Recovery Network

For Heat Exchanger Network for the plant, further information can be referred to Chapter 5: Heat
Integration.

58
 CHAPTER 5: HEAT INTEGRATION

5.1 Introduction

In industry, there are many kind of heat exchanger are used. But, the most common use is the shell tube
heat exchanger. Heat integration emphasizes on energy conservation which is very crucial in process
designing Heating and cooling duties for heat recovery system are done after the acceptance of major
processing steps (reactors, separators and recycles). ). Targets can be set for the heat exchanger network
to assess the performance of complete process design. These targets allow both energy and capital cost for
heat exchanger network to be assessed. The energy used during heating and cooling process is maximized
to its full potential by using pinch analysis.

5.2 Stream Identification

The analysis of heat integration is beginning with analysis of stream. We start to identify with source of
heat (hot stream) and source of sink (cold Stream). Heat exchange streams for condensers and reboilers
of distillation columns are not included in heat integration as operation involving these unit operations are
very sensitive towards temperature changes and might affect product purity. The result as shown below:

Stream Description Type Supply Target FCp Q (kW)

temperature temperature (kW/K)
(C) (C)

S11 & S35 Separator to Hot 272.3 100 11.28931 1945.147921

Mixture

S36 & S37 Mixture to Splitter Hot 169.6 25 48.4523 7006.202361

S16 & S17 First reactor to Hot 255 65 32.8043 6232.816339

distillation
column

Feed TPA Feed to mixture Cold 25 120 14.35305 1369.539528

& S1

S6 & S7 Pump to reactor Cold 44.7 248.1 67.81634 13793.84419

S11_1 & Reactor 1 to Cold 235.3 260 24.94468 616.13335896

S12_1 reactor 2

Table 5.1 Stream Table

59
 Where
∆H = FC p dT
∆H = Enthalpy Change (kW)
FCp = Heat Capacity Flowrate (kW/K)
∆T =K

5.3 Minimum Temperature Difference, ∆tmin

The minimum temperature difference, ∆Tmin is the driving force for heat transfer. The importance of
∆Tmin is that it sets the relative location of the hot and cold streams, and therefore the amount of heat
recovery. As the energy target (and hence ∆Tmin) is increased, the capital cost decreases. The optimum
∆Tmin varies in different industries.

Optimum ∆Tmin in different industries

Optimum ∆Tmin
Industrial sector Remarks
values (oC)

Relatively low heat transfer coefficients, parallel

Oil refining 20 – 40 composite curves in many applications, fouling of
heat exchangers

Reboiling and condensing duties provide better heat

Petrochemical 10 – 20 transfer coefficients, low fouling

Chemical 10 – 20 As for petrochemicals

Low temperature Power requirement for refrigeration system is very

3–5 expensive. ∆Tmin decreases with low refrigeration
Processes temperatures

Source: Pinch Analysis Foundation Training Course (1997)

As production of ethyl benzene is in petrochemical industries, ∆Tmin of 10oC is chosen.

60
5.4 Pinch Technology Method

5.4.1 Introduction

Pinch Technology Method is used to determine the energy requirement from the process and the amount
of energy recovery. This section will analyze on how to calculate the amount of energy for the process by
constructing composite curves to set energy target or develop the problem table algorithm and heat
cascade diagram. Composite curves are useful in providing the conceptual understanding of the process
but the problem table algorithm is a more convenient calculation tool.

The term Pinch Analysis is been used correspond to application of the tools and algorithms of Pinch
Technology related in industrial process. The application of First and Second Law of Thermodynamics
determine the direction of Pinch Analysis application. Heat energy only flows in the direction of hot to
cold. This prohibits the temperature crossovers of the hot and cold stream profiles through the exchanger
unit. There is two main important things in dealing with transfer of heat between hot and cold stream
which are, heat load and temperature. The minimum heat load between the two streams is selected when
comparing their value while in a heat exchanger unit a hot stream cannot be cooled below cold stream
supply temperature nor a cold stream can be heated to temperature more than hot stream supply
temperature.

Stream Delta T( C) CP(KW/K) Enthalphy(KW)

HOT 1 272.3 100 172.3 11.28931 1945.147921

HOT 2 169.6 25 144.6 48.4523 7006.202361

HOT 3 255 65 190 32.8043 6232.816399

COLD 1 120 25 95 14.35305 1363.539528

COLD 2 248.1 44.7 203.4 67.816343 13793.84419

COLD 3 260 235.3 24.7 24.94468 616.1335896

5.4.2 Temperature

The corrected temperature for hot streams and cold streams need to be determined first before calculating
the minimum utility requirement.

For hot stream, Corrected temperature = T – (∆Tmin)/2

61
 For cold stream,Corrected temperature = T + (∆Tmin)/2

Stream Description Type Supply Target Shifted Shifted

temperature temperature supply Target
(C) (C) Temperature Temperature
(C) (C)
S11 & S35 Separator to Hot 272.3 100 267.3 95
Mixture

S36 & S37 Mixture to Splitter Hot 169.6 25 164.6 20

S16 & S17 First reactor to Hot 255 65 250 60

distillation
column

Feed TPA Feed to mixture Cold 25 120 30 125

& S1

S6 & S7 Pump to reactor Cold 44.7 248.1 49.7 253.1

S11_1 & Reactor 1 to Cold 235.3 260 240.3 265

S12_1 reactor 2

Table 5.2 Shifted Temperature

After the shifted temperatures for both hot and cold streams are determined, the minimum heating
requirements, QH,min, minimum cooling requirements, QC,min, and pinch temperature are determined.

5.4.3 Problem Table Algorithm :

Stream data are calculate in table algorithm as shown below.

Table Algorithm Delta T CP Enthalphy Surplus/Deficit

267.3
11.289309 2.3 -11.28931 -25.96541044 Surplus
265
11.9 13.655371 162.4989131 Deficit
253.1
3.1 81.471714 252.5623133 Deficit
250
32.8043 24.9447 9.7 48.667417 472.0739462 Deficit
240.3
75.7 23.722737 1795.811221 Deficit
164.6
48.4523 39.6 -24.72956 -979.2906192 Surplus
125
30 -10.37651 -311.2954029 Surplus
95
35 0.9127955 31.94784101 Deficit
60
67.816343 10.3 33.717092 347.2860506 Deficit
49.7
14.35305 19.7 -34.09925 -671.7552413 Surplus
30
10 -48.4523 -484.5229849 Surplus
20 Figure

62
 5.1: Table Algorithm

5.4.4. Heat Cascade

Figure below is the manual calculation of the pinch point which is based on the table algorithm. The left
side of the cascade is to calculated the highest negative value that indicated the QHmin=2656.98. Than the
value is used to calculate the QCmin and estimated the pinch point 164.6oC.

Temperature ( C ) Temperature ( C )
267.3 267.3 2656.98 QQc
Hmin
Hot = 2656.98kW
25.96541
265 265 2682.95
-136.534
253.1 253.1 2520.45
-389.096
250 250 2267.88
-861.17
240.3 240.3 1795.81
-2656.98
164.6 164.6 0 Pinch
-1677.69
125 125 979.291
-1366.39
95 95 1290.59
-1398.34
60 60 1258.64
-1745.63
49.7 49.7 911.352
-1073.87
30 30 1583.11
-589.351
20 20 2067.63
-589.351
Qc min = 2067.63kW

Figure 5.2: Heat Cascade

63
5.4.5 By Sprint

*DTmin = 10.0000 [C]

Minimum Hot Utility = 2656.98 [kW]
Minimum Cold Utility = 2067.64 [kW]

Interval Temperature* Enthalpy

[C] [kW]
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1 267.30000 2656.9800
2 265.00000 2682.9400
3 253.10000 2520.4400
4 250.00000 2267.8800
5 240.30000 1795.8100
6 164.60000 0.0000000 Pinch
7 125.00000 979.29200
8 95.000000 1290.5900
9 60.000000 1258.6500
10 49.700000 911.36000
11 30.000000 1583.1200
12 20.000000 2067.6400
---------------------------------------------------------------------

From Table, Problem Table Algorithm indicates that the pinch temperature is found to be at 164.6oC.
About 2656.98 kW hot utilities requires to heat up the cold streams while 2067.64 kW of cold utilities are
required to cool down the hot streams to desired temperatures. For the conclusion of table algorithm, both
of the calculation by manual or SPRINT are showing same result and was verified.

5.4.6 Composite Curve By Sprint

Assumption made in constructing the composite curve is that all heat capacities for respective streams are
constant. It is represented on a T-H diagram by a line from stream supply temperature to stream target
temperature. The resulted composite curves from SPRINT are shown
Q mi

Hot
Cold

Q 64
From figure temperature vs enthalphy , the red line indicate that the hot stream and blue line indicate the
cold stream. Bot of the stream combined in a one graph to estimate the pinch temperature based on Tmin
which is equal to 10oC. Also, from this figure we can also indicate the enthalpy for hot utilities QHmin
and cold utilities QCmin .

Heat Recovery Area

Figure 5.3 : The Grand Composite Curve

The figure show the grand composite curve for the stream and also the area for heat recovery.

5.4.7 Heat Exchanger Network

Pairing of streams is determined from the Maximum Energy Recovery (MER) method,

for the above pinch region, CPc > CPH

for the below pinch region, CPH > CPc

As a rule of thumb, do not transfer heat across pinch. Heat Exchanger Network Diagram shows how the
heat transfers operations. Hot streams run from the left to the right. Cold streams run from right to the left.

65
A heat exchanger transferring heat between the cold and hot streams are indicated by a vertical line
connecting two circles on the two matched streams.

169.6
785.735

272.3 100
Hot 1 1
DH=1159.41 CP: 11. 2893 DH: 785.735 CP: 11. 2893

1281.9

169.6 169.6
Hot 2 2
DH=7006.2 DH=7006.2

255.0 65
Hot 3 3
DH=2801.49 CP: 32.8043 DH: 3431.33 CP: 32.8043

120.0 65
Cold 1 2040.9 3
DH: 1363.54 61.9 CP: 32.8043
248.1 218.006 176.7
44.7
Cold 2 4
DH=6001.74 CP: 67.8136 DH: 5194.72 CP: 45.2180
616.134
260.0 235.3
DH:2597.36 CP:22.6054
Cold 3 5
DH: 616.134 CP: 24.9447

159.6

Figure 5.4 : Heat Exchangers Network.

From the figure, we can state that, there are 6 heat exchanger use to fully utilize the heat provided from
the hot streams to bring the cold streams to the desired temperatures. The minimum hot utility is
2067.635kW mean while for minimum cold utilities is 2657.034kW.

66
 CHAPTER 6:PROCESS FLOWSHEETING

6.1 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

The Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of the Polyethylene Terephthalate production process
can be referred at the Appendix A.

6.2 Mass Balance

Production of Polyethylene Terephthalate

41,672 kg 24 hr 330 operating days

hr 1 day 1 yr

= 330, 041 MT / yr

Feed PTA EG

Water 0.002 0.0005

Acetic Acid 0.00001

DEG 0.0005

Table 6.1: Fraction of components in the feed stream

67
 Table 6.2: Summary of molecular weight for each component and degree of polymerization for
PET
Molecular Weight
Deg. Of Polymerization
(kg/kgmole)

Purified Terephthalic
166
Acid

Mono Ethylene Glycol 62

Di Ethylene Glycol 106

Acetic Acid 60

Water, H20 18

BHET 254

Repeating Units 192.18

Polyethylene 7749.28 40
Terephthalate 28889.08 150

Stream 1: Feed stream (Terephthalic Acid)

Base: 230 of TPA

Assumption: Fraction of water in TPA is 0.002.

(Eq. 1)

kmol kg
Mass flowrate of TPA = 230 × 166
hr kmol
kg
= 38,180
hr

68
Mass flowrate of H2O = Fraction of H2O × Mass flowrate of TPA
kg
= 0.002 × 38,180
hr
kg
= 76.36
hr
kmol
= 4.2422
hr

kg kg
Total mass flowrate of Stream 1 = 38,180 + 76.36
hr hr
kg
= 38,256.36
hr

kmol kmol
Total molar flowrate of Stream 1 = 230 + 4.2422
hr hr
kmol
= 234.2422
hr

Stream 2: Feed stream (Ethylene Glycol)

Base: 230 of TPA

Assumptions: Each fraction off components is shown in Table 23 above.

Reaction: Every 1 mole of PTA will react with 2 moles of EG to produce 1 mol of BHET and 2
moles of water. Every 230 of TPA will react with 460 of EG.

Mass flowrate of EG = Molar flowrate of EG × Molecular weight of EG

kmol kg
= 460 × 62
hr kmol
kg
= 28,520
hr

69
Mass flowrate of H2O = Fraction of H2O × Mass flowrate of EG
kg
= 0.0005 × 28,520
hr
kg
= 14.26
hr

Repeat calculation for mass flowrate of diethylene glycol and acetic acid too.

Stream 3: From Mixer

 Molar flowrate of   Molar flowrate of each   Molar flowrate of each 

  =   +  
 each component   component in Stream1   component in Stream 2 

kmol
Molar flowrate of PTA = 230
hr
kmol
Molar flowrate of EG = 460
hr
kmol kmol kmol
Molar flowrate of H2O = 4.2422 + 0.7922 = 5.0344
hr hr hr
kmol
Molar flowrate of DEG = 0.1347
hr
kmol
Molar flowrate of Acetic Acid = 0.0048
hr

 230 + 460 + 5.0344  kmol

Total molar flowrate =  
 + 0.1347 + 0.0048  hr
kmol
= 695.1739
hr

Mass Balance for Reactor 1

Assumption: Reactor conversion = 0.92

 Molar flowrate of TPA 

Molar flowrate of unreacted TPA =   × (1 - Reactor Conversion )
 in Stream 3 
kmol
= 230 × (1 − 0.92)
hr
kmol
= 18.4
hr

70
  Molar flowrate of EG 
Molar flowrate of unreacted EG =   × (1 - Reactor Conversion )
 in Stream 3 
kmol
= 460 × (1 − 0.92)
hr
kmol
= 36.8
hr

Reaction: Every 1 mole of PTA will react with 2 moles of EG to produce 1 mol of BHET and 2
moles of water. Every 230 of TPA will produce with 460 of BHET.

 Stoichiometric Ratio of 
Molar flowrateof BHET = (Molar flowrateof TPA)× Reactor Conversion×  
 BHET over TPA 
kmol
= 230 × 0.92
hr
kmol
= 211.6
hr

 Molar flowrate   Molar flowrate of   Reactor   Stoichiometric Ratio   Unreacted H2O 

  =   ×   ×   +  
 of H2O   TPA   conversion   of H2O over TPA   in Stream 3 
 kmol    kmol 
=  230  × 0.92 × 2 + 5.0344
 hr    hr 
kmol
= 428.2344
hr

In this reaction, DEG and acetic acid have not being consumed. The molar flowrate is constant.

Mass Balance for Reactor 2

Assumption: Reactor conversion = 0.98

 Molar flowrate of TPA 

Molar flowrate of unreacted TPA =   × (1 - Reactor Conversion)
 in Stream 7 
kmol
= 18.4 × (1 − 0.98)
hr
kmol
= 0.368
hr

71
  Molar flowrate of EG 
Molar flowrate of unreacted EG =   × (1 - Reactor Conversion )
 in Stream 6 + Stream 7 
kmol
= (36.064 + 0.736 ) × (1 − 0.98)
hr
kmol
= 0.736
hr

 Molar flowrate   Molar flowrate of   Reactor   Stoichiometric Ratio 

  =   ×   ×  
 of H2O   TPA   conversion   of H2O over TPA 
 kmol  
= 18.4  × 0.98 × 2
 hr  
kmol
= 36.0640
hr

 Molar flowrate   Molar flowrate of   Reactor   Stoichiome tric Ratio   Unreacted BHET from 
  =   ×   ×   +  
 of BHET   TPA   conversion   of BHET over TPA   Stream 7 
 kmol    kmol 
= 18.4  × 0.98 × 1 + 211.6
  hr    hr 
kmol
= 229.6320
hr

Mass Balance for Reactor 3

Assumption:

1. Reactor conversion = 0.975

2. Degree of polymerization, n=40

Rate of reaction:

n BHET ⇔ PET + (n − 1) EG

72
 Molar flowrate   Molar flowrate of   Reactor   Stoichiome tric Ratio 
  =   ×   ×  
 of EG   BHET   conversion   of EG over BHET 
 Molar flowrate of   Reactor   n-1 
=   ×   ×  
 BHET   conversion   n 
kmol 40 − 1
= 229.6320 × 0.975 ×
hr 40
kmol
= 218.2939
hr

 Molar flowrate   Molar flowrate of   Reactor   Stoichiometric Ratio 

  =   ×   ×  
 of PET   BHET   conversion   of PET over BHET 
 Molar flowrate of   Reactor   1 
=   ×   ×  
 BHET   conversion   n 
kmol 1
= 229.6320 × 0.975 ×
hr 40
kmol
= 5.5973
hr

 Molar flowrate of   Molar flowrate of 

  =   × (1 - Reactor conversion )
 unreacted BHET   BHET 
kmol
= 229.6320 × (1 − 0.975 )
hr
kmol
= 5.7408
hr

Mass Balance for Reactor 4

Assumption:

1. Reactor conversion = 0.993

2. Degree of polymerization, n=150

Rate of reaction:

n BHET ⇔ PET + (n − 1) EG

73
 Molar flowrate   Molar flowrate of   Reactor   Stoichiome tric Ratio   Unreacted EG from 
  =   ×   ×   +  
 of reacted EG   BHET   conversion   of EG over BHET   Stream 16 
 Molar flowrate of   Reactor   n-1   Unreacted EG from 
=   ×   ×   +  
 BHET   conversion   n   Stream 16 
 kmol 150 − 1  kmol 
= 5.7408 × 0.993 ×  + 4.3659 hr 
 hr 150   
kmol
= 10.0285
hr

 Molar flowrate   Molar flowrate of   Reactor   Stoichiometric Ratio   Unreacted PET 

  =   ×   ×   +  
 of PET   BHET   conversion   of PET over BHET   from Stream 16 
 Molar flowrate of   Reactor   1   Unreacted PET 
=   ×   ×   +  
 BHET   conversion   n   from Stream 16 
 kmol 1   kmol 
= 5.7408 × 0.993 ×  + 5.5973
 hr 150   hr 
kmol
= 5.6353
hr

 Molar flowrate of   Molar flowrate of 

  =   × (1 - Reactor conversion )
 unreacted BHET   BHET 
kmol
= 5.7408 × (1 − 0.993)
hr
kmol
= 0.0402
hr

Table 6.3: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 1

Manual Calculation iCON Calculation

Component Inlet Error Inlet Error
(kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr) (%) (kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr) (%)
TPA 35804.469 2864.358 35804.650 2864.372
MEG 59437.153 34822.785 59435.084 34821.570
ACETIC
ACID 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300
DEG 68.699 68.699 68.699 68.699
WATER 63.954 7209.934 63.938 7208.045
BHET 50410.485 0.000 50410.485
PET 0.000 0.000
Total 95374.574 95376.560 0.002082 95372.671 95373.472 0.000840

74
 Table 6.4: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 2

Manual Calculation iCON Calculation

Component Inlet Error Inlet Error
(kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr) (%) (kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr) (%)
TPA 2864.214 57.284 2864.228 57.285
MEG 4756.883 2659.420 4756.719 2659.325
ACETIC
ACID 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
DEG 29.215 29.215 29.212 29.212
WATER 144.292 753.222 144.253 753.025
BHET 50410.485 54706.120 50410.485 54706.119
PET 0.000 0.000
Total 58205.099 58205.271 0.000295 58204.907 58204.975 0.000117

Table 6.5: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 3

Manual Calculation iCON Calculation

Component Outlet Error Inlet Error
Inlet (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (%) (kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr) (%)
TPA 57.28162 57.28162 57.282 57.282
MEG 13183.5439 13183.5439 487.699 13183.085
ACETIC
ACID 0.0005865 0.00059 0.001 0.001
DEG 14.8568 14.8568 14.806 14.806
WATER 23.25481 18.02 23.249 23.249
BHET 1367.65297 1367.653 54706.119 1367.653
PET 40644.1459 0.000 40643.130
Total 55,289.2276 55285.4507 0.006831 55289.155 55289.205 0.000090

75
 Table 6.6: Summary of Material Balance for Reactor 4

Manual Calculation iCON Calculation

Component Inlet Error Inlet Error
(kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr) (%) (kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr) (%)
TPA 57.28162 57.2816 54.887 54.887
MEG 57.28162 333.7566 4.406 333.757
ACETIC
ACID 0.00059 0.00059 0.000 0.000
DEG 0.02311 0.02311 0.023 0.023
WATER 0.00125 0.00125 0.001 0.001
BHET 9.57357 9.5736 1367.653 9.574
PET 41672.9288 40643.130 41671.858
Total 42073.5118 42073.5655 0.000128 42070.101 42070.101 0.000000

Table 6.7: Deviation between Manual Calculation and Simulation for Reactors

Percentage of Error (%)

Component
Inlet Outlet

Reactor 1 0.001996 0.003238

Reactor 2 0.000330 0.000508
Reactor 3 0.000131 0.006790
Reactor 4 0.008107 0.008235

Table 6.8: Summary of Material Balance for Distillation Column

Feed Distillate Bottom

Component
F (kg/hr) XF FD (kg/hr) XD FB (kg/hr) XB
TPA 0.147 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.147 0.000
MEG 32236.477 0.804 6.363 0.001 32230.114 0.997
ACETIC
ACID 0.300 0.000 0.284 0.000 0.015 0.000
DEG 53.893 0.001 0.000 0.000 53.893 0.002
WATER 7793.568 0.194 7765.168 0.999 28.401 0.001
BHET 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
PET 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

76
 Table 6.9: Summary of Material Balance for Knockout Drum

Feed Top Bottom

Component
F (kg/hr) XF Fv (kg/hr) Y FL (kg/hr) X
TPA 16.225 0.001 4.178 0.000 12.047 0.955
MEG 13512.420 0.996 13511.860 0.997 0.560 0.044
ACETIC
ACID 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
DEG 14.806 0.001 14.803 0.001 0.003 0.000
WATER 23.249 0.002 23.249 0.002 0.000 0.000
BHET 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
PET 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

77
 CHAPTER 7:INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

7.0 Introduction

The plant’s wide control strategy is designated to maximize the specified throughput of the plant
with the highest purity value that can be achieved. The plant control strategy is divided into
different sections that involve control of different unit operations. The control of a process is
often accomplished by measuring the variables (controlled variables), comparing this
measurement with the value at which it is desired to maintain the controlled variables (set point),
and adjusting some further variables (manipulated variables) which has a direct or indirect effect
on the controlled variables.

For the proposed polyethylene terephthalate production plant, the objectives for designing
control system are:

i. To enable safe plant operation and avoid explosion. Hence, the control of operating
parameters in unit operations at set point is vital.
ii. To control the production rate of polyethylene terephthalate at 360,000 metric ton per year.
iii. To optimize the usage of cooling and heating utilities.

In order to achieve the above objectives, the following considerations are made:

i. Safe Plant Operation

• To keep the process variables within known safe operation limits.
• To ensure the temperature and pressure at the desired level for reactor and columns.
• To detect signs of danger by providing alarms and automatic shutdown systems.
• To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating conditions.

ii. Production Rate and Quality

• To achieve the product output composition specification for outlet stream of reactor
according to the literature specification.
• To maintain the desired purity and specified quality standard for polyethylene terephthalate.
78
iii. Cost
• To operate at the lowest production cost and to commensurate with the other objectives.
• To optimize the usage of heating and cooling utilities, thus reduce the cost of utilities.

Several types of indicator controllers are used in the control system of the proposed plant:

1. Temperature indicator and controller (TIC)

2. Pressure indicator and controller (PIC)

3. Flow indicator and controller (FIC)

4. Level indicator and controller (LIC)

7.1 Basic Concept of Process Control

7.1.1 Feedback Controller

The feedback control system is widely used in the process industry. The system seeks to bring
the measured quantity to its required value or set point. The feedback control system uses direct
measurements of the controlled variables to adjust the values of the manipulated variables. The
corrective action occurs as soon as the controlled variable deviates from the set point, regardless
of the source and type of disturbance.

Manipulated Controlled
variable variable
Process System

Feedback
Controller

Figure 7.1: Feedback Control Loop

79
7.1.2 Feedforward Control

The basic concept of feedforward control is to measure important disturbance variables and
take corrective action before they upset the process. In contrast, the feedback controller does
not take corrective action until after the disturbance has upset the process. Feedforward is
effective in reducing the influence of disturbances.

Feedforward Disturbance, D
Controller

Control Plant
PFB
Valve

Figure 7.2: Feedforward Control Loop

7.1.3 Cascade Control

Cascade control is widely used in process industries, which consists of a master controller that
serves as the set point for a slave controller. Two feedback control loops are nested, with
secondary control loop (slave controller) located inside the primary control loop (master
controller). It is one way to improve the dynamic behaviour response to load changes by locating
secondary controller to recognize any upset conditions before primary controlled variable is
affected. Cascade controls are usually implemented as part of the temperature, pressure and flow
control strategy.

80
 Controller Controller Plant

S.P

Secondary Feedback
Primary Feedback

Figure 7.3: Cascade Control Loop

7.2 Degrees of Freedom

The degrees of freedom of a processing system are independent variables that must be specified
in order to define the process completely. Consequently, the desired control of a process will be
achieved when and only when all the degrees of freedom have been specified. However, for such
a system of equations to have a unique solution, the number of unknown variables must equal the
number of independent model equations. An equivalent way of stating this condition is to require
that the degrees of freedom be zero, that is,
NF = NV – NE = 0
Where, NF = degree of freedom, NV = total number of variables (unspecified inputs plus outputs)
and NE = number of independent equations.

7.3 Reactor Control Systems

The most important outputs from reactor (R-201) are outlet temperature and outlet composition.
Pressure is usually held constant. Since reaction in the reactor is highly exothermic reaction
(releases heat) and runaway operation may cause explosion, temperature control is very crucial.

Allowable outlet reactor temperature is in range of +/- 272 ºC. Higher temperature results in
deactivation of catalyst used in reactor, thus resulting in drop in efficiency of polymerization
reaction. This could lead to incomplete conversion of monomers (BHET) into Polyethylene
Terephthalate. In short, higher temperature will lead to lower yield. An effective, well-designed
control system is essential to assure stable operating condition. Besides, it’s also vital to control

81
the pressure in the reactor which is below vacuum at 60 mbar. The polymerization reaction
achieves its highest conversion at these optimum conditions.

The control system objectives are defined as:

• To maintain the reactor operation at optimum temperature and pressure.

• To sustain the product quality in order to ensure the maximum production rate can be
maintained at the annual production rate of 360,000 metric ton per year.
• Provide the safeguards against the process runaway and maintain the safe operation.
• To maintain optimum feed condition and composition to ensure high production rate.
• To maximize catalyst and prolong the life cycle.

Outlet temperature can be controlled by regulating flow of the external heating medium. Steam
will flow through the jacketed-side of the reactor, while reacting fluid mixes in the reactor.
Heating medium flows through the jacket, supplying heat required by the reaction and at the
same time, providing enough supply after taking into consideration the heat generated from the
reaction itself.

Table 7.1: Pre-Polymerization Reactor, R-201 Control System Details

Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Disturbances Set Point
Variable Variable Variable Controller

Feed flow R-301 inlet Inlet liquid flow Changes in feed Feedback Fset =
rate to R-301 flow rate rate flow rate; controller (FIC) 55, 289
kg/hr
changes in
outlet liquid
flow rate from
R-202

82
Operating R-301 outlet Heating medium Changes in Cascade Tset =
temperature temperature; inlet flow rate temperature of controller 272ºC
heating feed to reactor;
in R-301 - TIC
medium inlet Changes in (master loop)
flow rate steam supply
- FIC
temperature
(slave loop)

Operating R-301 outlet Outlet vapor flow Changes in feed Feedback Pset
pressure in pressure rate flow rate to controller (PIC) = 60 mbar
reactor;
R-301
Changes in
outlet vapor
flow rate

Liquid level Liquid level Outlet liquid flow Changes in feed Feedback Lset
in R-301 in R-301 rate flow rate controller (LIC) = 0.8m

Cascade Controller (TIC and FIC R-201)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Cascade Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the temperature in the reactor by manipulating the flow rate
of heating medium (steam).
3) Control Philosophy: Cascade control can improve the response to a set-point change by using
an intermediate measurement point .A cascade control system can function properly if the
secondary control loop (slave) response faster than the primary (master) loop. Cascade
control can improve the dynamic response of the heating system in reactor and also eliminate
disturbances that cause the fluctuation of reactor temperature. In this control system, slave
loop (flow rate of heating medium) response faster compared to master loop (temperature of
outlet stream). Any changes in temperature of reactor will affect flow rate of heating
medium, steam. Adjustment by controller is made by comparison of set point and process
variable provided by the temperature controller. Output of primary controller changes set
83
point of secondary controller. Cascade control decreases time delay of control caused by
process disturbance from outside.

Feedback Controller (PIC R-201)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the vacuum pressure in the reactor by manipulating the
flow rate of gaseous stream.
3) Control Philosophy: The pressure of reactor can be controlled by manipulating the flow
rate of the vapor outlet stream from the reactor to the vacuum pump. The set point
pressure is the maximum allowable working pressure in the column. If the pressure of the
reactor does not meet the required specifications, the flow rate to the vacuum pump shall
be altered.

Feedback Controller (LIC R-201)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the minimum liquid level in the reactor.

3) Control Philosophy: The minimum liquid level of the reactor is maintained by

manipulating the flow rate of the liquid outlet stream. The controller will control the
reactor from running dry due to low flow or flooding because of high flow.

Feedback Controller (FIC R-201)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the feed flow rate at the prescribed condition to optimize
the reaction at its optimum condition and reactor size.
3) Control Philosophy: The feed of reactor can be controlled by manipulating the flow rate
of the feed entering the reactor. The set point feed will be compared at all times at the
inlet and corrective actions will be taken. This will avoid low flow or high flow which in
results, would affect the level of fluid in the reactor.

84
 Figure 7.4: Reactor Control System

7.4 Distillation Column Control Systems

The control system in the distillation column is important in order to have a sharp separation
between the components in the feed. The control system must be able to cause the average sum
of the product streams to be exactly equal to the average feed stream. It must also be able to
maintain the desired concentration of the products at the bottom and the top streams. However,
certain safety operation must be considered in designing the control system of the distillation
column. The objective of c-401 is to achieve a high separation between ethylene glycol and
water.

85
 Table 7.2: Distillation Column, C-401 Control System Details

Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Disturbances Set Point
Variable Variable Variable Controller

Feed flow rate C-401 inlet Inlet liquid Changes in Feedback Fset = 40,082
kg/hr
to C-401 flow rate flow rate feed flow rate; controller (FIC)
changes in
outlet liquid
flow rate from
M-401

Column Pressure at top Flow rate of Change in Feedbackward Pset = 1 Bar

pressure tray cooling flow rate of control
medium the column (PIC )

Column Temperature Heating Change in Cascade control Tset = 196 ºC

temperature at bottom tray medium flow flow rate of
TIC (master
rate to steam feed to
loop)
reboiler reboiler; FIC (slave
change in feed loop)
temperature

Column Temperature Flow rate of Change in Cascade control Tset = 100 ºC

temperature at top tray reflux stream reflux flow
TIC (master
rate; change
loop)
in flow rate of
FIC (slave
steam to
loop)
reboiler

86
Liquid level in Liquid level Flow rate of Change in Cascade control Liquid level =
reflux drum in reflux drum product vapour flow LIC (master 0.380m
stream (S25) rate at the top loop)

FIC (slave loop)

Liquid level in Liquid level Flow rate of Change in Feedbackward Liquid level =
bottom tray in bottom tray product feed flow rate; control (LIC) 0.8m
stream (S24) change in
reflux flow
rate

Cascade Controller (TIC, FIC C-401)

1) Type of Advance Control Implemented: Cascade Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the temperature in the column by manipulating the
flow rate of the heating medium.
3) Control Philosophy: Due to the slow dynamic response of a column system, a cascade
control with primary loop of temperature controller and secondary loop of flow controller
is implemented. The cascade control is placed to improve the dynamic response of the
system and also to eliminate possible disturbances that may be caused by fluctuation of
flow rate of steam feed to reboiler. Since the dynamic response of the secondary loop is
faster than the primary loop, the flow controller should be able to adjust the flow of steam
to reboiler based on the set point given by the temperature controller.

Cascade Controller (TIC, FIC C-401)

1) Type of Advance Control Implemented: Cascade Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the temperature in the top of the column by
manipulating the flow rate of the reflux.
3) Control Philosophy: Due to the slow dynamic response of a column system, a cascade
control with primary loop of temperature controller and secondary loop of flow controller

87
 is implemented. The cascade control is placed to improve the dynamic response of the
system and also to eliminate possible disturbances that may be caused by fluctuation of
flow rate of reflux to the column. Since the dynamic response of the secondary loop is
faster than the primary loop, the flow controller should be able to adjust the flow of
reflux based on the set point given by the temperature controller.

Cascade Controller (LIC, FIC C-401)

1) Type of Advance Control Implemented: Cascade Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the level of fluid in the reflux drum.
3) Control Philosophy: Due to the slow dynamic response of a column system, a cascade
control with primary loop of level controller and secondary loop of flow controller is
implemented. The cascade control is placed to improve the dynamic response of the
system and also to eliminate possible disturbances that may be caused by fluctuation of
vapor flow rate to the reflux drum. Since the dynamic response of the secondary loop is
faster than the primary loop, the flow controller should be able to adjust the level of fluid
in the reflux drum based on the set point given by the temperature controller. The reason
choosing a cascade controller is to enable the feed controller to compare the needs of
releasing the product with respect to the reflux feed entering the drum. If only a level
controller were to be used, it will not be able to do such, instead only the valve opening
will be adjusted based on the level of fluid in the reflux drum.

Feedback Controller (PIC C-401)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the pressure in the column by manipulating the flow rate of
cooling medium.
3) Control Philosophy: The pressure of column can be controlled by manipulating the flow
rate of cooling medium to condenser. The set point pressure is the maximum allowable
working pressure in the column. If the pressure of column exceeds the set point pressure,

88
 more cooling medium will be supply to condenser to increase the condensation rate, thus
reduce the pressure in the column.

Feedback Controller (LIC C-401)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the minimum liquid level in the column.
3) Control Philosophy: The minimum liquid level of the distillation column is maintained by
manipulating the flow rate of the bottom stream. The controller will control the column from
running dry due to low flow or flooding because of high flow.

Feedback Controller (FIC C-401)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the feed flow rate at the prescribed condition to optimize the
reaction at its optimum condition and reactor size.
3) Control Philosophy: The feed of reactor can be controlled by manipulating the flow rate of
the feed entering the reactor. The set point feed will be compared at all times at the inlet and
corrective actions will be taken. This will avoid low flow or high flow which in results,
would affect the level of fluid in the reactor.

89
 PIC 001
010 010
PT PC
001 001

PSV

FGS
Flare

LIC 001

C-101 010
LC
010
LT
001 001

010 010 M
FC FT
002 002
FIC 002

FIC 001

010 010
FC FT
001 001

TIC 001
010 010
TT TC
001 001
M

LIC 002
010 010
LT LC
002 002
010 010
FC FT
003 003
FIC 003

Steam In
¾”

Steam Out

Figure 7.5: Distillation Control System

7.5 Heat Exchanger Control System

The purpose of performing a control system for heat exchanger is to maintain the desired
temperature of its outlet stream either by providing heating or cooling utility. The outlet stream
of the heat exchanger will be compared with the set point. If the temperature is not at the desired
level, the controller will take action by manipulating the flow rate of utility. In the plant, there
are 6 heat exchangers, 3 coolers and 4 heaters. All the heat exchangers use same control system.
Where as, all coolers and heaters use the same control systems. The objective is to control the
outlet temperature at the desired set point. The type of controller being used is cascade
controller.

90
 Table 7.3: Heat Exchange E-4 Control System Details

Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Disturbance Set Point
Variable Variable Variable Controller

Temperature Temperature Flow rate of Changes in Feedbackward Tset

of outlet of outlet inlet stream into inlet stream control = 218 oC
stream stream heat exchanger temperature

Feedback Controller (TIC E-4)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the temperature in the heat exchanger outlet process stream
by manipulating the flow rate of the inlet process stream.
3) Control Philosophy: The temperature controller should be able to adjust the flow of the inlet
stream to the heat exchanger based on the set point given by the temperature controller. The
valve opening would be determined based on the temperature of the outlet stream from the
heat exchanger.

Table 7.4: Heater E-501 Control System Details

Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Disturbance Set Point
Variable Variable Variable Controller

Temperature Temperature Flow rate of Changes in Cascade control Tset

of outlet of outlet inlet heating/ inlet heating = 248 oC
stream stream cooling medium medium TIC (master
temperature; loop)
changes in FIC (slave
outlet stream loop)
temperature

91
Cascade Controller (TIC, FIC E-501)

1) Type of Advance Control Implemented: Cascade Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the temperature in the heater outlet process stream by
manipulating the flow rate of the heating medium (steam).

3) Control Philosophy: Due to the slow dynamic response of a heater, a cascade control with
primary loop of temperature controller and secondary loop of flow controller is
implemented. The cascade control is placed to improve the dynamic response of the
system and also to eliminate possible disturbances that may be caused by fluctuation of
flow rate of heating medium. Since the dynamic response of the secondary loop is faster
than the primary loop, the flow controller should be able to adjust the flow of steam to the
heater based on the set point given by the temperature controller.

020 020
FC FT
001 001
FIC 001

TIC 001
020 020
TT TC
001 001

E-201

Figure 7.6: Heat Exchanger Control System

92
 020 020
FC FT
001 001
F IC 0 0 1

T IC 0 0 1
020 020
TT TC
001 001

E -2 0 1

Figure 7.7: Heater Control System

7.6 Pump Control Systems

The purpose of performing a control system for pump is to maintain the desired pressure of its
outlet stream by controlling the feed flow rate into the pump. The outlet stream of the pump will
be compared with the set point. If the pressure is not at the desired level, the controller will take
action by manipulating the flow rate of the inlet stream. All the pumps use same control system.
The objective is to control the outlet pressure at the desired set point. The type of controller
being used is feedback controller

93
 Table 7.5: Pump P-101 Control System Details

Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Disturbance Set Point
Variable Variable Variable Controller

Pressure of Pressure of Flow rate of Changes in Feedbackward Pset

outlet stream outlet stream inlet stream into inlet stream control = 2 atm
pump flow rate;
changes in
inlet stream
pressure

Feedback Controller (PIC P-101)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the pressure in the stream by manipulating the inlet flow rate.
3) Control Philosophy: The pressure of stream can be controlled by manipulating the flow rate
of the inlet stream. The set point pressure is the required pressure to achieve optimum
conditions for the reaction to take place. If the pressure of the stream exceeds the set point
pressure, inlet flow rate will be reduced by adjusting the valve opening and vice versa.

Figure 7.8: Pump Control System

94
7.6 Compressor Control Systems

The purpose of performing a control system for compressor is to maintain the desired pressure of
its outlet stream by controlling the feed flow rate into the compressor. The outlet stream of the
compressor will be compared with the set point. If the pressure is not at the desired level, the
controller will take action by manipulating the flow rate of the inlet stream. The entire
compressor uses same control system. The objective is to control the outlet pressure at the
desired set point. The type of controller being used is feedback controller.

Table 7.6: Compressor C P-401 Control System Details

Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Disturbance Set Point
Variable Variable Variable Controller

Pressure of Pressure of Flow rate of Changes in Feedbackward Pset

outlet stream outlet stream inlet stream into inlet stream control = 1 atm
compressor flow rate;
changes in
inlet stream
pressure

Feedback Controller (PIC CP-401)

1) Type of Control Implemented: Feedback Control

2) Control Objective: To maintain the pressure in the stream by manipulating the inlet flow rate.
3) Control Philosophy: The pressure of stream can be controlled by manipulating the flow rate
of the inlet stream. The set point pressure is the required pressure to achieve optimum
conditions for the reaction to take place. If the pressure of the stream exceeds the set point
pressure, inlet flow rate will be reduced by adjusting the valve opening and vice versa.

95
 Figure 7.9: Compressor Control System

7.7 Discussion

The need to have control strategy design for a plant is to achieve the highest product purity at an
optimum operating condition, by placing right control systems at each of the unit operations and
process streams. In order to achieve the main objective of the control strategy, basic control
strategy and advanced control strategy for the plant wide process control is integrated.

Conversely, due to the contradiction of controller algorithms that may occur, some of the control
systems designed theoretically may not be possible to be implemented in the actual industrial
practice. The inconsistency is in fact a result of having a too many constraints for the same
process in order to achieve the overall target of the plant control strategy. Contradiction between
the control strategies may also result from failure to observe the placement of final control
elements in the same process stream.

Further developments can actually be made by running a pilot control strategy for the plant as
designed. A set of data has to be obtained in order to relate between the input and output of a
control strategy. The relative gain array (RGA) is then used to test whether a particular control
strategy will work or otherwise. The whole procedure should be conducted to increase the
possibility for the control strategies designed are feasible within the industrial practice. Apart

96
from installing process controllers, it is also vital to installed process indicators along major
streams for monitoring purpose and equipment performance.

97
 CHAPTER 8 : SAFETY AND LOSS PREVENTION

8.1 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)

8.1.1 Description

HAZOP is a systematic technique for identifying all plant and equipment hazard and operability
problem. In this technique, each segment such as pipeline, piece of equipment , instrument and
etc, is carefully examined and all possible deviation from normal operating condition are
identify.
Hazard assessment is a vital tools in loss prevention throughout the life of the facility The
assessment should be conducted during the conceptual design phase, final design stage, and
prestart-up period as well as when the plant is in full operation. A through hazard and risk
assessment of a new facility is essential during the final stage. At this stage the piping and
instrumental diagrams, equipment details and maintenance procedures are finalized. During the
prestart-up period should be a final check rather than initial assessment. Since process and
operating procedure changes are often made during or shortly after plant start-up, hazard
assessment should not stop.

8.1.2 Prerequisite

Before starting the analysis of HAZOP it need to specify the accurate Process flow diagrams,
also Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID), layout diagrams, material safety data sheets,
provisional operating instructors, heat and material balances, equipment data sheets and start-up
and emergency shut-down procedures.

8.1.3 Advantage and success rates

In order to gain high success rates, we need to provide accuracy of drawings and data used as
basis of the study, Utilize experience and skills of the HAZOP team leader and technical skills
and insight of the team as the main focus to make HAZOP success. Besides that, the ability of
the team to use the HAZOP approach as an aid to indentify deviation, cause and consequences,

98
ability of team to maintain a sense of proportion also contribute to the advantages of the
HAZOP.

8.1.4 HAZOP Study Procedures

Figure 8.1: HAZOP Study

HAZOP study focused on specific point of the process or operation called “Study Node”, process
sections, or operating steps. Three nodes have been done for three process lines, which HAZOP
assessments are performed on two major equipment and one minor equipment:

• Node 1: Stream 23 to distillation column

• Node 2: Stream 25 to Wastewater Treatment

• Node 3: Stream 24 to Mixture

Even HAZOP analysis approach is well established, the way that it is employed may vary from
organization to organization. Table below are the lists guide word that commonly used in
HAZOP.

99
 GUIDEWORDS MEANING
NO or NOT No part of the intent is achieved and nothing else occurs(e.g no flow)
MORE Quantitative increase (e.g higher temperature)
LESS Quantitative Decrease (e.g lower pressure)
AS WELL AS Qualitative Increase (e.g an impurity)
PART OF Qualitative Decrease (e.g only one or two component in mixture)
REVERSE Opposite (e.g Backflow)
OTHER THAN No part of the intent is achieved and something completely different
occurs (e.g flow of the wrong material)

Table 8.1 : List of Basic HAZOP guideline

100
 8.1.5 HAZOP Analysis worksheet

Node 1: Stream 23 to distillation column

Process parameter: Flow
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE
NO No Flow
Control Valve in
The liquid level in
Install a by pass
feed line the bottom valve across the
distillation column will decrease due to final control
fails to open
continuos element at 23 to

The feed line to
feed column Ethylene Glycol allow liquid to flow
experiences outflow from stream in case of primary
blockage and 24 control valve
leakage
The bottom column failure.

The pipe line along will run dry due to
LIC adjust the set
the feed into no feed flow and point according to
distillation column
continuos out flow the level of liquid in
fractures.

Pressure In the the bottom and
column will slightly control the outflow
increase since the to avoid bottom
column will be from running dry
pressurizing by
TIC adjust the set
existing vapour. point base on

Temperature in the temperature of the
bottom will increase column and control
due to continuous the flow of the hot
steam supply. utilities (steam)

Quality an purity of
Install an
desired product independent low
changes flow alarm along
the feed line (S23)

FIC triggers
emergency alarm
when the flow in to
the distillation
column below the
set point.
LESS Less Flow
Control Valve in
The liquid level in
Install a by pass
feed line the bottom valve across the
distillation column will decrease due to final control
partially open
continuos Ethylene element at 23 to

The feed line to

101
 feed column Glycol outflow from allow liquid to flow
experiences stream 24 in case of primary
blockage and
The bottom column control valve
leakage
will run dry due to failure.

The pipe line along
the feed into no feed flow and
LIC adjust the set
distillation column continuos out flow point according to
fractures.
Pressure In the the level of liquid in
column will slightly the bottom and
increase since the control the outflow
column will be to avoid bottom
pressurizing by from running dry.
existing vapour.
TIC adjust the set

Temperature in the point baseon
bottom will increase temperature of the
due to continuous column and control
steam supply. the flow of the hot

Quality an purity of utilities (steam)
desired product
Install an
changes . independent low
flow alarm along
the feed line (S23)

FIC triggers
emergency alarm
when the flow in
to the distillation
column below the
set point.
MORE More Flow
Control Valve in
The liquid level in
LIC adjust the set
feed line the bottom point according to
distillation column
will increase due to the level of liquid in
fails to control the
continuos inflow the bottom and
flow at their
prescribe amount. from stream 23 control the outflow

By pass valve fails
The bottom column to avoid bottom
to close. experiences flooding from flooding.
due to continuos in
TIC adjust the set
flow point base on

Pressure In the temperature of the
column will slightly column and control
decrease since liquid the flow of the hot
build up in the utilities (steam)
column.
Install an

102

Temperature in the independent high
bottom decreases flow alarm along
due to liquid build the feed line (S23)
up
FIC triggers

Heat load increases emergency alarm
leading to extra when the flow in
supply of steam. to the distillation

Quality an purity of
column higher the
desired product
set point.
changes
REVERSE Reverse
Backflow along the
The liquid level in
(d) Install check
Flow feed line S23 due the bottom will valve along the feed
to backpressure decrease due to line (S23)
created in
FIC triggers
continuos
distillation column emergency alarm
Ethylene Glycol
when the flows in
outflow from stream
to the distillation
24
column differ from

The bottom column
the set point.
will run dry due to
no feed flow and
continuos out flow

Pressure In the
column will slightly
increase since the
column will be
pressurizing by
existing vapour.

Temperature in the
bottom will increase
due to continuous
steam supply.

Quality an purity of
desired product
changes

103
 Node 1 : Stream 23 to distillation column
Process parameter: Temperature
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE

LESS Less
Heater before
The temperature at
TIC adjust the set
temperature the distillation the bottom drops. point based on
column fails to
The heat load temperature of the
column and control
heat feed line due requirement
the flow of the hot
to insufficient increases leading to utilities (steam) to
supply of steam additional supply of reheat the bottom
the hot and compensate the
utilities(steam) temperature drop.

Quality and purity
Install
changes independent low

Less vapour temperature
produced due to alarm.
drop of
temperature.
MORE More
Heater before the
The feed partially
TIC (bottom) adjusts
temperature distillation vapourised due to the set point based
column fails to high temperature on temperature of
heat feed line to
Quality and purity the column and
optimum level changes controls the flow of
instead overheats
More vapour the hot utilities.
the feed. produce due to
TIC (top) identifies

Steam supply to increase of increase in
the heater exceed temperature and temperature and
the limit and leads to increase in adjust the reflux
causes over pressure flowrate.
heating
Cooling load
PIC identifies
requirement increase in pressure
increases in the and adjusts the set
condenser leading to point of cooling
addition supply of requirements.
cold utilities.
Install
independent high
temperature
alarm.

104
 Node 1 : Stream 23 to distillation column
Process parameter: Pressure
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE

LESS Less The feed line to
Reverse flow occurs
Install independent
pressure feed column due to back low pressure alarm.
experiences pressure from the
leakage The pipe distillation column.
line along the feed
Quality and purity of
into distillation the product
column fractures. changes.

Control valve
Feed into distillation
opens more than column experiences
the valve opening seepage
leading to drop in
pressure
MORE More
The feed line to
Less vapour
Install pressure
Pressure distillation column produced due to safety valve to vent
experiences high pressure in the out the vapour in
blockage the column in case
fix volume

Control valve overpressure.

Quality and purity of
PIC identify high
slightly closed
the product pressure and
than the reqired
changes. increases cooling
valve opening

Pipe ruptures due to requirement
leading to increase
Reflux flow into
high pressure
in pressure column is adjusted

Distillation column
to increase where
experience
pressure will drop.
overpressure.

Node2 : Distillate (S25) to Wastewater Treatment

Process parameter: Flow
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE
NO No Flow
No vapour
The liquid level in
Install a by pass valve
produced from the bottom across the final
the distillation will increase due control element at
column. no vapour form S25 to allow liquid to

Reflux drum from the top of the flow in case of failure.
experience distillation column
LIC adjust the set
blockage or
Pressure In the point according to the
leakage column will slightly level of liquid in the

105

Reboiler failed to drop since the bottom and control
function due to column will be fill the outflow to avoid
no flow came out by existing liquid. bottom from running
from distillation
Temperature in the dry
bottom will drop
TIC adjust the set
due to overflow of point base on
feed. temperature of the

Quality an purity of column
desired product • Bottom-Increase
changes supply of steam
• Top-Increase reflux
flow

Install an independent
no flow alarm along
the feed line (S25)

FIC triggers
emergency alarm
when the flow in to
the distillation column
below the set point.
LESS Less Flow
The feed line to
The vapour level in
Install a by pass valve
reflux condenser the top across the final
experiences will decrease due to control element at 25
blockage and
less vapour going to allow liquid to flow
leakage

The pipe line out from the in case of primary
along reflux column control valve failure.
condenser
Pressure In the
LIC adjust the set
fractures. column increase point according to the

Reflux condenser due to fewer level of liquid in the
or condenser amounts of vapours bottom and control
experience
that came out from the outflow to avoid
blockage.

Amount of distillation. bottom overflow or
vapour produce
Temperature in the dry.
in the distillation distillation column
TIC adjust the set
column are less. increase due to point based on
continuous steam temperature of the
supply. column and control

Quality an purity of the flow of the hot
desired product utilities (steam)
changes.
Install an independent
low flow alarm along

106
 the feed line (S25)

FIC triggers emergency
alarm when the flow
in to the distillation
column below the set
point.
MORE More Flow
Control Valve
The vapour level in
LIC adjust the set point
fails to closed the top according to the level

By pass valve fails decrease due to of liquid in the bottom
to close. continuos outflow and control the
from stream 25 outflow of the vapour

Pressure In the to avoid top from
column increase empty.
since liquid build up
TIC adjust the set
in the column. point base on

Temperature in the temperature of the
top increase due to column to allow
liquid build up maximum opening

Quality an purity of valve opening by FIC
desired product
Install an independent
changes high flow alarm along

Cooling load in the the feed line (S25)
condenser since FIC triggers emergency
vapour from alarm when the flow
distillation column out from the
is slightly high distillation column

Distillation column increases.
experience
Install high flow alarm
overpressure to detect the flow

Less reflux into the from reflux condenser.
distillation column

REVERSE Reverse
Backflow along
The vapour volume
Install check valve
Flow the S25 line due in reflux condenser along the feed line
to backpressure and distillation will (S25)
created in
FIC triggers emergency
increase.
distillation alarm when the flows
column
Pressure In the
in to the distillation
column increase
column differ from the
since the column
set point.
will be pressurizing

107
 by existing vapour
and return vapour.

Temperature in the
bottom will
increase due to
continuous steam
supply.

Quality an purity of
desired product
changes

Node2 : Distillate (S25) to Wastewater Treatment

Process parameter: Temperature
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE

LESS Less
Condenser
The temperature at
TIC adjust the set

temperature malfunction the bottom drops. point based on

Overload cold
The heat load temperature of the
column and control
utilities to the requirement
the flow of the hot
condenser increases leading to utilities (steam) to
additional supply of reheat the bottom
the hot and compensate
utilities(steam) the temperature

Quality and purity drop.
changes
Install independent
low temperature

Less vapour
alarm.
produced due to
drop of
temperature.
MORE More
Condenser
Quality and purity
TIC (top) adjusts the
temperature malfunction changes set point based on

Overload hot
More vapour temperature of the
utilities to the produce due to column and
condenser increase of controls the flow of
temperature and the hot utilities.
leads to increase in
TIC (top) identifies
pressure increase in

Cooling load temperature and

108
 requirement adjust the reflux
increases in the flow rate.
condenser leading
PIC identifies
to addition supply of increase in pressure
cold utilities. and adjusts the set
point of cooling
requirements.

Install independent
high temperature
alarm.

Node2 : Distillate (S25) to Wastewater Treatment

Process parameter: Pressure
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE

LESS Less
The feed line to
Revers flow occurs
Install independent
pressure waste water due to back pressure low pressure alarm.
experiences from the distillation
leakage the pipe column.
line along the
Quality and purity of
feed into the product changes.
distillation
Feed into distillation
column column experiences
fractures. seepage

Control valve
opens more
than the valve
opening leading
to drop in
pressure
MORE More
The feed line to
Less vapour
Install pressure
Pressure distillation produced due to safety valve to vent
column high pressure in the out the vapour in
experiences the column in case
fix volume
blockage overpressure.

Control valve
Quality and purity of
PIC identify high
slightly closed the product changes. pressure and
than the required
Pipe ruptures due to increases cooling
high pressure requirement
valve opening

Distillation column
Reflux flow into
leading to
experience column is adjusted
increase in to increase where
pressure overpressure.
pressure will drop.

109
 Node3 : Distillate (S24) to mixture
Process Parameter: Flow
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE
NO No Flow
No liquid inflow
The liquid level in
Install a by pass
into the the bottom valve across the
distillation Increases since no final control
column. liquid outflow to element at (S24) to

Piping along the stream (S24) allow liquid to flow
bottom stream
Pressure In the in case of failure.
experiences column will slightly
TIC adjusts the set
blockage or drop since the point base on
leakage column will be filled temperature of the

Control Valve by existing liquid. column and
along the bottom
Temperature in the manipulates the
outflow of the bottom will drop due external heating
distillation
to overflow of feed. medium supply
column fails to
open
Quality an purity of accordingly.

The pipe line desired product
Install an
along the bottom changes independent no
outflow fractures
The heating load flow alarm along
before the control requirement and the feed line (S24).
valve steam inflow will
FIC triggers
increase due to drop emergency alarm
in bottoms when the outflow
temperature. from the distillation
column is below the
set point.
LESS Less Flow
Piping along the
Pressure In the
Install a by pass
bottom stream column decreases valve across the
experiences due to high amount final control
blockage or of liquid stored in the element at S24 to
leakage bottoms. allow liquid to flow

The pipe line
Temperature in the in case of primary
along the bottom distillation column control valve failure.
outflow fractures decreases due to
LIC adjust the set
before the control
continuous feed point according to
valve

Amount of liquid supply and reduced the level of liquid in
flowing in to the outflow. the bottom
distillation
Quality and purity of
TIC adjust the set
column is less desired product point based on
than the required

110
 inflow. changes. temperature of the

Control Valve in
The heating load column and control
bottoms line requirement and the flow of the hot
partially open
steam inflow will utilities (steam)


increase due to drop
Install an
in bottoms independent low
temperature. flow alarm along

Bottoms experiences the feed line (S24)
flooding due to
FIC triggers
continuous liquid emergency alarm
inflow from the feed when the flow in to
line. the distillation

The liquid level in the column below the
bottom set point.
Increases since less
liquid outflow to
stream (S24).

MORE More Flow
Control valve in
The vapour at the
LIC adjust the set
bottoms line fails top of the column point according to
to control the decreases due to the level of liquid in
flow at the
continuos liquid the bottom and
prescribed
amount. outflow from the control the outflow

By pass valve fails bottoms. of the liquid to
to close.
Temperature in the avoid bottom from
bottoms decreases running dry.
since more liquid is
TIC adjust the set
drained out. point based on

Top of the column temperature of the
experiences pressure column to allow less
drop due to supply of steam
insufficient which in return
vaporization of could overheat the
liquid. bottoms.

The bottoms run dry
Install an
due to continuous independent high
outflow of liquid at flow alarm along
large amount. the feed line (S24)

Quality and purity of
FIC triggers
desired product emergency alarm

111
 changes when the flow out
from the distillation
column increases
above set point.

REVERSE Reverse
Backflow along
Pressure In the
Install check valve

Flow the S24 line due column decreases along the feed line
to low pressure since the column will (S24)
created in be filled up by liquid

FIC triggers
emergency alarm
distillation flowing reversely.
when the outflow
column.
Temperature in the
from the distillation
bottom will
column differs from
decrease.
the set point.

Heating load

TIC adjust the set
requirements and
point based on
steam inflow will
temperature of the
increase.
column to allow

Liquid level in the
more supply of
bottoms will increase
steam.
due to backflow from
S24.

Quality and purity of
desired product
changes.

Node3 : Distillate (S24) to mixture

Process Parameter: Temperature
GUIDEWORD DEVIATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION
CONSEQUENCE

LESS Less
Reboiler fails to
The temperature at
TIC (bottom)

temperature function where the bottom drops. adjusts the set
steam is no longer
Vapor is no longer point based on the
temperature of the
produced. produced at its
column and control

External heating required amount the flow of the hot
utility not and flow rate. utilities (steam) to
maintained at its
Pressure in the reheat the bottom
set point column drops due and compensate
temperature. to liquid build up at the temperature
the bottoms. drop.

Install independent

Liquid level rises at
low temperature

112
 the bottoms causing alarm.
flooding.

Quality and purity
of desired product
changes
MORE More
Steam supply to
Cooling load
TIC (bottom)
temperature the distillation requirement adjusts the set
column exceeds increases in the point based on
the amount and condenser leading temperature of the
causes to additional supply column and
overheating. of cold utilities. controls the flow of

Reboiler fails to
Pressure in the the cold utilities.
function where distillation increases
TIC (top) identifies
steam is produced due to vapour build increase in
above its minimal up at the top of the temperature and
amount. column. adjusts the reflux

Quality and purity flow rate.
of desire product
PIC identifies
changes increase in pressure

Liquid level at and adjusts the set
bottoms will drop point of cooling
and result in dry up. requirements.

Install independent
high temperature
alarm.

Node3 : Distillate (S24) to mixture

Process Parameter: PRESSURE

Guideword Deviation POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE REQUIREMENT ACTION

CONSEQUENCE

LESS Less
The bottom line to
Quality and purity of
Install independent
pressure mixture experiences the product changes. low pressure alarm.
leakage
Backflow from

The pipe line along consequent stream
the bottom could occur due to
fractures. pressure difference.

Control valve opens

more than the
required valve
opening leading to

113
 drop in pressure.

MORE More
The bottom line
Quality and purity of
Install pressure
pressure from experiences the product changes. safety valve to in
blockage leading to
Pipe ruptures due to case of overpressure.
overpressure.
high pressure.

Control valve

Control valve
slightly closed than
damaged due to high
the required valve
pressure exerted on
opening leading to
it.
increase in
pressure.

114
8.2 Plant Layout

8.2.1 Introduction

Plant layout and construction design must be considered early in the design work to ensure
economical construction and efficient operation of the completed plant. This section of the report
provides the basic information and safety justifications on the plant layout designed for the
newly proposed PET plant. In general, the layout shows the basic arrangement of main
production site, supporting buildings and few important safety aspects. However, the plant layout
adopted may affect the safe operation of the completed plant and if needed, any possible
modification or extension must be accepted. Plant layout is often a compromise between a
numbers of factors such as:

The need to keep distances for transfer of materials between plant/storage units to a
minimum to reduce costs and risks

The geographical limitations of the site

Interaction with existing or planned facilities on site such as existing roadways, drainage
and utilities routings

Interaction with other plants on site

The need for plant operability and maintainability

The need to locate hazardous materials facilities as far as possible from site boundaries and
people living in the local neighborhood

The need to provide access for emergency services

The need to provide emergency escape routes for on-site personnel

However, the most important factors of plant layout as far as safety aspects are concerned are
those to:

Prevent, limit and/or mitigate escalation of adjacent events (domino)

Ensure safety within on-site occupied buildings

Control access of unauthorized personnel

115
8.2.2 Plant Layout Consideration Factors

Based on the previous factors stated, the factor to design plant layout for the PET has been
narrowed down to several factors as followed. Thus, to ensure that the final design for plant
layout is complied with all the factors that has been discussed earlier.

a. Cost - Minimization of construction cost is done by adopting shortest run of connecting

pipe between equipment. The cost is also reduced by having the least amount of
structural steel work. The most important thing is to have an arrangement for best
operation and maintenance.

b. Operation - Equipment such as valves, sample points and instruments are considered as
frequently attended equipments. They are located not far away from control room, with
convenient positions and heights, to ease the operator‟s job. Also, sufficient working and
headroom space are provided to allow easy access to equipments.

c. Maintenance - When laying out the plant, some considerations were made regarding
maintenance work. For examples:

Both reactors which use catalysts are located in open space for easiness of
removing or replacing the catalysts

Enough space is allocated for heat exchangers for withdrawing the bundles
purposes

All equipments are accessible to crane/lift truck

Compressors and pumps are located under cover since they require dismantling
for maintenance

d. Safety - Among the safety consideration that we have when laying out this plant are:

Operators have 3 escape routes if anything occurs in the main process unit

To minimize fire from spread, flammables handling process units are separated
from each other

116

Process vessels with substantial inventories of flammable liquids are located at
grade

Elevated areas will have at least one stairway

Storage farm which stores the flammable materials are located at safe distance
from the main process area

Equipment subject to explosion hazard is set away from occupied buildings and
areas.

8.2.3 Site Layout

Based on the earlier decision made, the plant location is situated in Gebeng Industrial Area. The
site layout can be divided into two parts:

Non-Process area - area where there is no production activity and has low risk and
hazards to workers.

Process Area - consists of all processing units and equipments, where PET is produced.

8.2.4 Non-Process Area

The non-process area usually occupies a smaller fraction of the overall plant site area. All the
facilities in the non-process area should be located in a logical manner that considers site terrain,
accessibility to roads, soil bearing capability and the climate including the wind direction and
other unusual weather condition. This is important to avoid any undesired incident due to
explosion or fire from the process zone that will be easily spread to the non-process area.

Taking this into account, the entire process area where the reaction and separation occurs is
surrounded with a buffer zone to ensure that surrounding buildings or sites are not affected in
case of an emergency. Among the buildings or units in the non-process area are:
a) Guard posts

Guard posts are located at the entrance of the site in order to ensure that only authorized
personnel gets access into the plant. There are three guard posts that are situated at the crucial
entrances in the plant:
117

Main entrance guard post (Gate 1) – there is only one main entrance to check in and out
the visitors, staffs and operators of the plant.

Process area guard post (Gate 2) – to control the flow in and out of personnel or vehicles
between the process area and the non-process area. The personnel may be operators and
engineers while the vehicles may be of contractors‟, fire truck and ambulance with whom
have gain access to enter the process area to ensure security.

Process entrance guard post (Gate 3) – to only check in and out trucks. This is to avoid
congestion and at the same time reduce the hazard of material spillage at the plant. With
this, the public are less exposed to the danger of chemicals exposure or accidents with the
trucks.

b) Administration building
The administration block is built near the parking area which acts as assembly area for staffs as
well to ensure the staffs can arrive faster at the assembly point during an emergency. Based on
the plant layout, the administration building is placed far from the process area in order to protect
the staffs and visitors from any potential hazards.

c) Canteen
The canteen is located across the administration building for easy access to the employees and
visitors, and far away from the process area to avoid contaminant in food and ensure safety of the
public. The location is so strategic that in order to avoid the food supplier from being exposed to
the process area allowing them to move in and out easily. There are other facilities that located in
the non-process area including prayer hall, clinic and parking lot. Prayer hall is located near
cafeteria for Muslims employees to perform their prayers during breaks.

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8.2.5 Process Area

Process zone is deemed as hazardous area where all processing equipment is allocated. Due to
this, the safety precaution has to be applied at all time. The buildings or units situated in this
process zone are:

a) Process area guard post (Gate 2)

This facility is to ensure no unauthorized personnel will have access into the process area by
using a security pass, to record the personnel activity, such as check-in and check-out between
process area and non-process area. The purpose of this process area guard post is to ensure that
all the personnel will obey to the plant rule and regulations.

b) Control building
All the control valves for the whole process area will be controlled and monitored from this
central control building. The control building is designed with blast proof construction and has
emergency backup power and is air conditioned in order to save and secure the vital documents
of the process that it houses during emergency.

c) Laboratory
The quality of the purity of PET is tested after the product is recovered to determine whether it
meets the specifications or not. All the results will be sent to the control room and some
adjustments in controlling will be made, if needed. The distance between laboratory and control
room is not too far. Laboratory staffs will also perform analysis of the waste of the process
before being channeled to wastewater treatment and flare system; or being released to
atmosphere.

d) Waste treatment plants

The waste stream from the separation area will flow into the waste treatment plant to separate the
contaminant from the water. The treatment plant is located far from separation units to prevent
the waste release from contaminating the product and also away from the personnel in the
process area.

119
e) Reactor site
This area places the major processing unit which is the reactor where the ethyl benzene is
produced. Consideration from aspects including economy, operability and maintenance has been
made to ensure the area is safe. Adequate spacing between equipment is also considered to
minimize the spread of fire in case it happens. The reactor is located far from the storage to
minimize domino effect that is going to affect hazardous materials and vital products.

f) Power Supply
The power supply is operating to supply the electricity to the all plant and administration area. It
was located near the process area and in the middle of the plant it self.

g) Utilities site
This unit will supply cooling water, high pressure steam and nitrogen to the main process unit.
Its location is perfectly suitable to give the most economical run of pipe to and from the process
unit.

h) Hazardous Material
This unit containing, the hazardous material or chemical that should be handle by the authorized
personal only. It was located near to the fire station for the safety issues,

i) Warehouse and Maintenance shed

Warehouse stores all the process equipments‟ spare parts. Thus, it is placed near to the
maintenance shed where maintenance job and hot work are conducted. It is also located beside to
the control building where the engineers can easily monitor the contractors‟ work in the
maintenance shed and to ensure security for warehouse stores expensive equipments.

j) Future site/Assembly area

Ample area is allocated at the process area for future expansion in case the management decides
to increase production rate or other crucial considerations. They occupy enough space for further
expansion, whether for process reaction or producing the plant‟s own utility such as cooling
water and steam.

120
k) Raw Material and Chemical Storage
This warehouse is located near the process plant for transportation of the material is easy. Since
it was near to the process plant area, it is easy to evacuate the chemical or raw material to the are
process and reduce the hazard during the loading and unloading material.

l) Loading area
Loading area is where the trucks deliver the chemicals used in running of the plant and also load
the products that are going to be distributed locally. Thus, it is directly located to the storage.

m) Flare area
Flare is used to burn excess gas that is emitted from the process units as well as to burn some of
the waste gas from waste treatment area. The flare is located in the same area for wastewater
treatment plant and far from the process area and administration complex for this purpose.

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 Wind
direction

FUTURE

N
RAW MATERIAL & CHEMICAL
STORAGE

Figure 8.2 : Proposed Plat Layout

Figure 8.2 : Plant Layout

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 CHAPTER 9: WASTE TREATMENT

9.1 Introduction

9.1.1 Definition

Waste is anything that does not add value to a product. Wastewater is

liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry,
agriculture, which often contains some contaminants that result from the mixing of
wastewater from different sources (Pollution articles, 2010).

Wastewater treatment is the process of taking wastewater and making it

suitable for discharge back into the environment. The treatment of wastewater is not
only important for our own health but also to keep our environment clean and
healthy. Without the proper wastewater treatment many ecosystems would be
severely damaged once the treated water gets recharged back into the environment.

9.1.2 Wastewater Treatment Methods

Wastewater treatment methods are categorized into three sub-divisions;

physical, chemical and biological.

Table 9.1: Wastewater Treatment Methods

Methods Description

• Physical processes are used to treat the

wastewater.
• These processes depend on the physical
properties of the impurities like particle size,
specific gravity, viscosity, etc.
• In the process of sedimentation, physical
Physical phenomena relating to the settling of solids by
gravity are allowed to operate. Usually this
consists of simply holding a wastewater for a
short period of time in a tank under quiescent
conditions, allowing the heavier solids to
settle, and removing the "clarified" effluent.
• Examples: Screening, sedimentation,
filtration, aeration, equalization, flotation and

123
 skimming, etc.
• Chemicals are used to treat wastewater in
chemical water treatment. A strong oxidizing
chemical is used to kill the bacteria which lead
to decomposition of water.
Chemical • These processes depend on the chemical
properties of either the impurity or the added
reagents.
• Examples: Chlorination, ozonation,
neutralization, coagulation, adsorption, ion-
exchange, etc.
• Microorganisms such as bacteria are used to
biochemically decompose the wastewater and
stabilize the end product.
• Divided into two sub-divisions, aerobic and
anaerobic. In the aerobic process, bacteria
consumes the organic matter and helps
convert it to carbon dioxide in the presence of
Biological oxygen, while in the anaerobic process, sludge
is fermented at a particular temperature in the
absence of oxygen. Composting is yet another
aerobic process, wherein the sludge is mixed
with carbon sources such as sawdust to treat
wastewater.
• Examples: Activated sludge treatment
methods, oxidation ponds, aerobic digestion,
anaerobic digestion, lagoons, etc.

9.2 Laws and Regulations on Industrial Waste (Malaysia)

9.2.1 Introduction

Generally, all industries in Malaysia must comply with the law and regulations
stated in the Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA 1974). EQA is an enabling
piece of legislation for preventing, abating and controlling pollution, and
enhancing the environment, or for other related purposes. Since the introduction
of Environment Quality Act in 1974, some 23 related regulations have been
gazette (including the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)
(Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987) which have provided a

124
 profound regulatory framework in the shaping of the environmental protection
and conservation landscape of Malaysia (Onepetro, 2009).

9.2.1 Solid Waste

According to Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989, solid

wastes are categorized in 107 categories in the First Schedule wastes. It consists
of two parts:
i. Part I: Scheduled Wastes from Non-Specific Sources
ii. Part II: Scheduled Wastes from Specific Sources

In the schedule, proper reference likes tagging with a specific number is required
to make it easier for classification. It is important for plant management to
classify the waste accordingly before proceed with the treatment. Each treatment
differs for different kind of waste. Therefore, they must follow the guidelines
stated in the regulations on waste collection, packaging, labelling, and
transportation of the wastes for further treatment and disposal. Based on the
regulation, schedule waste shall be treated at prescribed premises or at on-site
treatment facilities only.

9.2.2 Liquid Waste

According to Regulation 8 under Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial

Effluents) Regulation 1979, no person shall discharge effluent which contains
substances in concentrations greater than those specified as parameter limits of

a) Standard A, as shown in the third column of the Third Schedule

b) Standard B, as shown in the fourth column of the Third Schedule

125
 Table 9.2: Parameter Limits of Effluents of Standard A and Standard B
Standard
Parameter Unit
A B
Temperature °C 40 40
pH Value - 6.0 – 9.0 5.5 – 9.0
BOD at 20°C mg/L 20 50
COD mg/L 50 100

9.2.3 Gaseous Waste

According to literature, plants that recover the ethylene glycol by using a spent ethylene
glycol spray scrubber condenser will emit slight amount of VOC. For a typical PET plant
that use TPA and EG as its raw materials, a typical average concentration of about 0.32
weight percent ethylene glycol recovered will produced emission rate of 0.2 grams VOC
per kilogram of product.

9.3 Waste Identification

From our design, two (2) streams have been identified as a waste streams; Stream 40
(from esterification process) and Stream 36 (from polycondensation process).

Composition Flowrate
Stream Component Phase
(%) (kg/hr)
Ethylene Glycol 0.082 6.36 Liquid
40 Acetic Acid 0.004 0.29 Liquid
Water 99.914 7765.29 Liquid
Terephthalic Acid 95.536 12.05 Aqueous
36
Ethylene Glycol 4.439 0.56 Aqueous

9.4 Waste Characterization

In order to design onsite wastewater treatment systems, we must consider the nature of
the wastewater because the effluent quality depends upon the influent characteristics.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) tests give a
good indication of the effect the effluent will have on the environment. Effluent
treatment systems are designed from knowledge of BOD and COD. If the composition

126
 of the waste stream is known, then the theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) can be
calculated from the appropriate stoichiometric equations (Smith, 2005).

Table 9.3: Calculated BOD and COD values

Composition ThOD = COD BOD

Stream Component
(%) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Ethylene Glycol 0.082 3673.6 1285.76
40
Acetic Acid 0.004 143.36 50.176
Total 3816.96 1335.94
Terephthalic Acid 95.536 12840038.4 4494013.44
36
Ethylene Glycol 4.439 198867.2 69603.52
Total 13038905.6 4563616.96

Eventually, the total BOD and COD as indicated in Table 4 above obviously
exceeded the limit stated in Standard B, Third Schedule of Environmental Quality
(Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulation 1979. The waste stream (Stream 40) must
be treated before being discharged to the environment.

As for Stream 36, waste that composed of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol
can be characterized
erized as scheduled waste and must be treated by Kualiti Alam Sdn. Bhd.
under scheduled waste code SW3010101 (spent organic acid with pH less than or equal
to 2) and SW3270101 (waste of ethylene glycol).

Some examples of possible solid waste obtained from this plant are residue, spent
catalyst and suspended solids. In esterification process, antimony trioxide is used as a
catalyst in the reaction. Spent antimony trioxide can also be characterized as scheduled
waste and can be treated under scheduled waste code SW2020101 (waste catalyst in
form of solid).

9.5 Influent Rate to the Plant

127
9.6 Unit Process and Equipments

The proposed design of wastewater treatment plant is as follows:

Raw
Wastewater
Receiving Screening Aeration Clarifier Treated
Chamber Tank Water

RAS
Sludge Disposal
Sludge Disposal

9.6.1 Receiving Chamber

Receiving chamber is the structure to receive the raw sewage collected from the
main plant. It is a rectangular shape tank constructed at the entrance of the
wastewater treatment plant. The main sewer pipe is directly connected with
this tank.

Receiving Chamber Design

128
 Receiving chamber will be designed with the size of

9.6.2 Grit Removal

Removal of grit from wastewater may be accomplished in grit chambers. Grit

chambers are designed to remove grit, consisting of sand, gravel, cinders or other
heavy solid materials. Since the stream possibly contains heavy solid materials that
is the residue
e of the catalyst (antimony trioxide), it is appropriate to use the grit
chamber in the operation.

Grit chambers are provided to (1) protect moving mechanical equipment;

(2) reduce formation of heavy deposits in pipelines, channels and conduits; and (3)
reduce the frequency of digester cleaning caused by excessive accumulations of
grit. There are three general types of grit chambers: horizontal
horizontal--flow, aerated or
vortex type. The aerated type consists of a spiral
spiral-flow
flow aeration tank where the
spiral velocityy is induced and controlled by the tank dimensions and quantity of air
supplied to the unit.

In aerated grit chambers, air is introduced along one side of a rectangular

tank to create a spiral flow pattern perpendicular to the flow through the tank. The
Th
heavier part grit particles that have higher settling velocities settle to the bottom of
the tank. Lighter, principally organic, particles remain in suspension and pass
through the tank. With proper adjustments of velocity, almost 100% removal will be
obtained,
tained, and the grit will be well washed. Basic design data are presented in table
below.

129
 Typical design information for aerated grit chambers
Source: Metcalf and Eddy
Detention time at peak flowrate 3 min
Dimensions:
Depth 2 -5 m
Length 7.5 – 20 m
Width 2.5 – 7 m
Air supply per unit of length 0.2 – 0.5 m3/m.min
Grit quantities 0.0015 m3/ 1000 m3

Design of Aerated Grit Chamber

Assumptions:
• Two chambers will be used because it will be necessary to drain the
chamber periodically for routine maintenance
• Average detention time at peak flowrate is 3 minutes
• Assume depth = 3m
• Width-to-depth ratio = 1.2:1
• Air supply per unit of length = 0.3 m3/m.min

m3
Peak lowrate=0.0648
sec

1 m3 60 sec
Grit chamber volume= ×0.0648 ×3 min×
2 sec 1 min
=5.8m3

Width of chamber=1.2$3%
=3.6m

volume
Length of chamber=
width×depth
5.8
=
3.6×3
=0.54m
5.8m3
Detention time at average low=
1 m3
×0.0216
2 sec
=537s

130
 m3
Air supply requirement=0.54m .0.3 /
min. m
m3
=0.162
min

9.6.3 Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process is an aerobic, biological treatment

system that use dissolved oxygen to promote the growth of biological floc that
substantially removes organic material. The essential units are an aeration tank,
clarifier, a sludge return line from the clarifier to the aeration tank and an excess
sludge waste line.

Carbonaceous constituents measured by BOD or COD analyses are

critical to the activated sludge process design. Higher concentration of BOD or
COD results in larger aeration basin volume, more oxygen transfer needs and
greater sludge production. There are many activated sludge processes that can be
used for BOD removal such as conventional plug flow, contact stabilization,
extended aeration, etc. Typical parameters used for the design and operation of
various activated sludge processes are presented in Table 7.For this plant,
extended aeration method had been chosen because it can achieved high quality of
effluent possible and it has relatively uncomplicated design and operation.

For extended aeration oxidation ditch, the process employs much

simpler system by generally eliminating primary treatment and anaerobic
digestion from the overall treatment system. The oxidation ditch consists of a ring
or oval-shaped channel equipped with mechanical aeration and mixing devices.
Screened wastewater enters the channels and is combined with the return
activated sludge. The tank configuration and aeration and mixing devices promote
unidirectional channel flow, so that the energy used for aeration is sufficient to
provide mixing in the system with a relatively long hydraulic retention time.

131
9.6.3.1Aeration Tank

Sizing of Aeration Tank

The aeration basin size can be calculated using the simplified

equation as follows:

Where
V = volume of aeration basin, m3
So = primary effluent BOD, g/m3 = 1335.94 g/m3
Qo = primary effluent flow rate, m3/day = 5598.72 m3/day
VL = design volume loading (refer Table 7) = 0.3 kg BOD/m3.day

If 5 different tanks of aeration basin needed, each basin will be designed

with approximately 5000m3.
Check for other parameters:

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9.6.4 Overall Plant Size

Assumptions:
1. The projected surface are for concrete wall clarifier and compartments
divider walls for aeration tanks are minor and can be neglected.
2. Only consider the major equipments individual compartment volumes
3. Plant inside diameter are according to theoretical equation

Total area per plant required:

Zone Projected Area, m2

Receiving Chamber 2
Grit Chamber 2
Aeration Tanks 2500
Clarifier 200
Total 2704

4 ×A
Plant inside diameter= 0
π

4 ×2704
=0
π
= 58.7 m
≅ 60 m diameter

Total projected area for wastewater treatment plant is 2710 m2 with 60 m

plant inside diameter.

133
 CHAPTER 10: PROCESS ECONOMICS AND COST ESTIMATION

10.1 Introduction

Project evaluation enables the technical and economic feasibility of a chemical process to
be assessed using preliminary process design and economic evaluation. At this stage, the only
purpose of the preliminary economics analysis of the project is to provide information on the
profit potential of the final plant, which is needed to justify the continued expense for its
development. Therefore, before building any plant, the design engineer needs to decide between
alternative designs to be implemented as well as the overall economics. In evaluating the project
economics, estimates of investment and equipment costs are required.

The results of an economic evaluation are reviewed together with other relevant aspects
such as competition and likely product life in arriving at project investment decisions. According
to Peters et. al (2003), an acceptable plant design must represent a plant that can produce a
product which can sell profit. Thus, sufficient capital must be reserved to construct all elements
of the facilities that are necessary for the designed plant.

The production of this plant is 330, 000 metric ton of polyethylene terephthalate per
annum and economic evaluation is done in order to ensure the viability of its economic
feasibility. Thus, an estimate of the investment required and the cost of production are needed
before the profitability of a project can be assessed.

From Chapter 2, Literature Review, it has been decided that the location of the chemical plant
would be Gebeng Industrial Estate due to:

a) Raw material availability

Raw materials are required in large quantities, mainly purified terephthalic acid,
which can be supplied by Amoco Chemicals, Gebeng. Monoethylene glycol can be
obtained from Optmial Glycol, Kerteh. Thus, by having the plant located nearby with
the supplier, it will reduce transportation costs.

134
 b) Reasonable land price

It is undeniable that the land price for Gebeng Industrial Estate is most affordable.
There is also wide availability of land for construction and expansion.

c) Market availability

The market for polyethylene terephthalate is much demanding in Malaysia. Plastic

bottle manufacturers and textile factories import their feedstock from overseas,
mainly mainland China. This will be the first of its kind to produce a polyethylene
terephthalate plant in this region. Various plastic manufacturers are located in Kerteh
and Gebeng. Therefore, the cost of product distribution and time required for shipping
can be reduced due to the location of buyers nearby.

d) Power and water supply

There is constant supply of power and water from neighbouring facilities, such as
Centralized Utilities Facility and Tanjung Gelang; to allow smooth flow of
production process.

e) Accessibility

It is situated at the East coast of Peninsular Malaysia, near the Kuantan Port;
convenient and economical for export and import.

f) Labour force

Gebeng Industrial Estate is a developing industrial area in Pahang. Thus, efficient

labour force is available with highly-skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labours.

All the calculation for this chapter is a pre-calculation to construct cash flow diagram and the
discounted cash flow. The economic evaluation of a plant is important in determining the
profitability of a plant in generating profit.

135
10.2 Capital Investment

In order to estimate the capital cost for chemical process plant, the factorial method of
cost estimation is used. The estimation is done based on the purchase cost of the major
equipment items required for the process. To make a more accurate estimation, the cost factors
that are compounded into the “Lang factor” are considered individually.

The capital needed to supply the required manufacturing and plant facilities is called
fixed capital investment (FCI) while that necessary for the operation of plant is termed the
working capital (WC). The sum of the fixed capital investment and working capital is known as
the total capital investment (TCI).

Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital

According to Douglas (1988), many companies include the start-up costs as part of the
capital investment. Other companies consider the fraction of the start-up costs that is allocated to
the equipment modifications as part of the capital investment, whereas the funds used for
additional workforce and materials needed to start up the plant are considered operating
expenses. The classification of start up costs generally depends on the tax situation of the
company. Thus, for our study, it would be preferred to consider the start up costs as part of the
TCI. Thus, the equation can be equated to:

Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital

10.2.1 Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)

Fixed capital investment (FCI) represents the capital or resources required to build the
chemical process. It can be defined as the summation of the direct cost and indirect cost.

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost

The direct costs can be defined as the summation of material and labour costs required to
build the complete plant facility, which can be divided into two, which is onsite (inside battery
limit-ISBL) and offsite (outside battery limit-OSBL).

136
 According to Douglas (1988), onsite costs are the costs of installing the equipment shown
of the process flow sheet in a specific geographical location, while offsite costs refers to the costs
directly related to the process but have been built in separate locations from the main processing
plant.

Indirect costs refer to the expenses or resources that are not directly involved in the
material and labor of actual installation. Indirect costs can be divided into several categories
which are:
a) Engineering supervision
- Engineering costs (administrative, process design and general engineering,
consultant fees, travel, scale models, processing, expediting, reproduction, cost
engineering)
- Engineering supervision and inspection

b) Contractors fee

c) Contingency

d) Construction Expenses
- Temporary facilities (construction, offices, roads, parking lots, railroads,
electrical, piping, communications, fencing, operation and maintenance of
temporary facilities)

10.2.2 Working Capital (WC)

Working capital is the additional investment needed, over and above the fixed capital, to start the
plant up and operate it to the point when income is earned. It includes the cost of:

a) Raw materials for one month supply

b) Finished products in stock and semi-finished products

c) Accounts receivable (30 days are given to the customers to pay for the goods)

d) Cash on hand to meet operating expenses

137
 e) Accounts payable and taxes payable.

The raw material inventory which is included in the working capital usually represents one
month supply of the raw materials valued at their market prices.

10.2.3 Start-up Cost

Start-up costs are considered to be part of the total capital investment (TCI). Start-up costs
comprises of:

a) Process modifications to meet desired design specifications

b) Start-up labor (labor are needed in much higher amount during the commissioning stage)

c) Loss in revenue – this incurred if the process needs debugging, which will involve in loss
of production revenue

10.2.4 Estimation of Capital Investment

Most estimates of capital investment are based on the cost of the equipment required. The
most significant errors in capital investment estimation are generally due to omissions of
equipment, services, or auxiliary facilities rather than to gross errors in costing. The accuracy of
this type of estimate will depend on what stage the design has reached at the time the estimate is
made, and on the reliability of the data available on equipment costs. To make a more accurate
estimation, the cost factors that are compounded into the “Lang factor” are considered
individually. The direct cost items incurred in the construction of a plant are as such:

a) Equipment erection

b) Process buildings

c) Piping, including insulation and painting

d) Ancillary buildings

e) Electrical, power and lighting

138
 f) Utilities

g) Instruments

h) Site and site preparation

10.2.5 Purchased Equipment Cost

In determining the purchased equipment costs, it is important to take into account the sizing,
material of construction, and the choice of equipments needed for the process, as it will directly
affect the total investment and profitability. According to Douglas (1988), services facilities
(installed) are about 8.0 – 35% of the FCI. To calculate FCI, the pricing of the plant equipment
must be estimated first. In this project, there are 23 equipments consisting 4 reactors, 1
distillation column, 6 heat exchangers, 2 compressors, 7 pumps, 2 coolers, and 1 separator. The
equipment cost is taken from Table 10.1

Table 10.1: Total Cost of the Main Equipments in the project

Major Equipment Costs

Type Price (RM) Units Total price (RM)
Mixer 6,930.00 1 6,930.00
Pump 34,192.62 8 273,540.96
Separator 6,930.00 1 6,930.00
Cooler 470,148.57 3 1,410,445.71
Heat Exchanger 555,630.12 6 3,333,780.72
170,963.11 2 341,926.22
Reactor
363,296.62 2 726,593.24
Separator 94,029.71 2 188,059.42
Distillation Column 1,560,038.42 1 1,560,038.42

TOTAL EQUIPMENT COST (RM) 7, 848, 244.69

Total for purchased equipment cost is RM 7, 848, 244.69.

**the prices of the equipment cost are subjected to change as this is only an estimated value. It is determined based
on the data obtained from iCON simulation. Several assumptions have been made in order to estimate the total cost
of purchased equipments.

139
 10.2.6 – Total Capital Investment (TCI)

Table 10.2: Fixed Capital Investment Estimation

Estimation of Fixed Capital Costs

a) Physical Plant Cost (PPC)

Factor
f1 Equipment erection 0.4
f2 Piping 0.7
f3 Instrumentation 0.2
f4 Electrical 0.1
f5 Buildings, process 0.15
f6 Utilities 0.5
f7 Storages 0.15
f8 Site development 0.05
f9 Ancillary buildings 0.15
f10 Land 0.04
Total PPC (RM)
26, 997, 961.73
= PPC (1 + f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 + f5 + f6 + f7 + f8 + f9 + f10)
b)Indirect Plant Cost
f11 Design & engineering 0.3
f12 Contigency 0.1
f13 Contractor's fee 0.05
Fixed Capital Cost (RM)
39,147,044.51
= Total PPC (1+ f11 + f12 + f13)

Working Capital Cost (RM)

1, 957, 352.226
= 5% FCI

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (RM)

41, 104, 396.74
= Fixed Capital Cost + Working Capital Cost

10.3 Estimation of Total Production Cost

Another major analysis that must be done in order to evaluate the feasibility of the project is
through the estimation of the total production cost. Total production cost is the total cost of
operation in the plant, selling the products, recovering the capital investment and contributing to
corporate functions such as research and management development. Total production cost can be
divided into two categories which are manufacturing costs and general expenses. Manufacturing

140
 costs are often referred to as operating or production costs, which can be further divided into
somewhat dependent upon the interpretation of variable, fixed and overhead costs. According to
Peters et al (2003), the most important contribution to the accuracy of the estimation is to
include all costs associated with making and selling the products. Total production costs are
commonly calculated on one of three bases which are on daily basis, unit of product basis or
annual basis. For the purpose of the study, annual cost would be the best choice for the economic
analyses. The general expenses that the company will have to take into the account include:

a) Administrative costs

b) Distribution and marketing

c) Research and development

10.3.1 Variable Production Costs

10.3.1.1 Raw Materials

A major portion of the operating costs comes from the raw material. The cost of our raw
materials is represented in the table below:

Table 10.3: Raw Material Consumption per Annum

Price Flowrate Cost
Components
(RM/tone) (tone/yr) (RM/yr)
Terephthalic Acid 2, 770.00 35.81 793, 549, 600.00
Ethylene Glycol 2, 460.00 22.87 450, 081, 600.00

10.3.1.2 Utilities

Table 10.4: Utilities Consumption per Annum

Steam price (RM/tonne) 35.29 Steam amount (kW) 2542.915
Enthalpy of steam (kJ/kg) 2706
Cost of steam annually (RM/yr) 955,098.58
0.92 (0-227 m3) CW amount (kW) 1093.518
Cooling water price (RM/m3)
0.84 (above 227 m3)
Enthalpy of CW (kJ/kg) 104.83
CW density (kg/m3) 998

141
CW amount (m3/yr) 301,024.81
Price tariff 227
Cost of CW annually (RM/yr) 252,879.00
Electricity price (RM/kWh) 0.325 Electricity amount (kWh) 100
Cost of electricity annually (RM/yr) 260000
TOTAL VARIABLE COST (RM/yr) 1,245,099,177.58

10.4 Fixed Costs

Table 10.5: Total Production Cost (TPC) for the project

a)Labor cost (RM/yr) 625,200.00
b)Maintenance cost (RM/yr) 5% TCI 1,957,352.23
c)Plant overheads cost (RM/yr) 50% Labor Cost 312,600.00
d)Laboratory cost (RM/yr) 20% Labor Cost 125,040.00
e)Capital charges (RM/yr) 10% TCI 3,914,704.45
f)Insurance (RM/yr) 1% TCI 391,470.45
g)Local taxes (RM/yr) 1% TCI 391,470.45
h)Royalties (RM/yr) 1% TCI 391,470.45
TOTAL FIXED OPERATING COST (RM/yr) 8,109,308.01
Cost of Sales
Sales expenses (RM/yr) 391470.4451
General overheads (RM/yr) 391470.4451
TOTAL SALES COST (RM/yr) 782940.8903
ANNUAL OPERATING COST (RM/yr) 1,253,991,426.48

10.5 Economic Analysis

In determining the economic attractiveness of a project, it is important to make decision

based on three important economic parameters which are Investment Rate of Return (IRR), Rate of
Return (ROR) and Pay Back Period (PBP). These parameters are used as measures to determine the
profitability of a project. Several assumptions are made in the economic analysis of this Polyethylene
Terephthalate plant. The assumptions are as follows:

a) Plant lifetime is 20 years.

b) The operating cost, income and raw material cost is assumed to maintain throughout the
lifetime of the project.
c) The Minimum Rate of Return (MARR) is assumed to be 15%.

142
 Detailed tabulation of results can be obtained from Table 10.6. The cumulative undiscounted cash flow diagram is as per below:
Table 10.6: Non-discounted cash flow
i = 0%
Annual Federal
End Sales Operating Net Net Cash
Capital Income Depreciation, Cumulative
of Income, Cost, Profit, Income, ANCI =
Investment, Taxes, ABD Cash Flow,
Year AS AOC ANP AS - (AOC + AI
AI AIT ΣANCI
+ ABD + AIT)
0 - - - - - - - -
1 - - 11,534,291.35 - - - (11,534,291.35) (11,534,291.35)
2 - - 22,999,376.95 - - - (22,999,376.95) (34,533,668.30)
3 - - 22,999,376.95 - - - (22,999,376.95) (57,533,045.25)
4 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 2,876,652.26 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 19,223,862.46 (38,309,182.79)
5 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 (16,208,668.07)
6 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 5,891,846.66
7 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 27,992,361.38
8 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 50,092,876.11
9 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 72,193,390.83
10 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 94,293,905.56
11 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 116,394,420.28
12 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 138,494,935.01
13 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 160,595,449.73
14 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 182,695,964.46
15 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 204,796,479.18
16 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 226,896,993.90
17 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 248,997,508.63
18 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 271,098,023.35
19 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 293,198,538.08
20 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 315,299,052.80
21 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 337,399,567.53
22 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 359,500,082.25
23 1,330,360,000.00 1,302,543,666.63 - 27,816,333.37 2,781,633.34 2,934,185.31 22,100,514.72 381,600,596.98
143
The non-discounted cash flow diagram yields a graph as follows:

Table 10.7: Cash Flow Profile for i at 0%

144
 The cumulative undiscounted cash flow diagram is as per below:
Table 10.8: Discounted cash flow
i = 0% i = 10% i = 20% i = 30%
End Sales Net Cash Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
of Income, Cumulative Discount Discount Discount
Income, ANCI = Discounted Discounted Discounted
Year AS Cash Flow, Factor, Factor, Factor,
AS - (AOC + AI Cash Flow, Cash Flow, Cash Flow,
ΣANCI fd fd fd
+ ABD + AIT) ΣfdANCI ΣfdANCI ΣfdANCI
0 - - - - - - -
1 - (11,534,291.35) (11,534,291.35) 0.91 (10,485,719.41) 0.83 (9,611,909.46) 0.77 (8,872,531.81)
2 - (22,999,376.95) (34,533,668.30) 0.83 (29,493,468.96) 0.69 (25,583,699.01) 0.59 (22,481,630.60)
3 - (22,999,376.95) (57,533,045.25) 0.75 (46,773,241.27) 0.58 (38,893,523.63) 0.46 (32,950,168.13)
4 1,330,360,000.00 19,223,862.46 (38,309,182.79) 0.68 (33,643,084.55) 0.48 (29,622,756.63) 0.35 (26,219,359.52)
5 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 (16,208,668.07) 0.62 (19,920,403.70) 0.40 (20,741,055.43) 0.27 (20,267,048.34)
6 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 5,891,846.66 0.56 (7,445,239.30) 0.33 (13,339,637.77) 0.21 (15,688,347.44)
7 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 27,992,361.38 0.51 3,895,819.25 0.28 (7,171,789.71) 0.16 (12,166,269.83)
8 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 50,092,876.11 0.47 14,205,872.47 0.23 (2,031,916.33) 0.12 (9,456,979.35)
9 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 72,193,390.83 0.42 23,578,648.13 0.19 2,251,311.48 0.09 (7,372,909.75)
10 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 94,293,905.56 0.39 32,099,353.28 0.16 5,820,668.00 0.07 (5,769,779.30)
11 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 116,394,420.28 0.35 39,845,448.86 0.13 8,795,131.76 0.06 (4,536,602.02)
12 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 138,494,935.01 0.32 46,887,353.94 0.11 11,273,851.56 0.04 (3,588,004.12)
13 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 160,595,449.73 0.29 53,289,085.83 0.09 13,339,451.39 0.03 (2,858,313.42)
14 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 182,695,964.46 0.26 59,108,842.10 0.08 15,060,784.59 0.03 (2,297,012.88)
15 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 204,796,479.18 0.24 64,399,529.61 0.06 16,495,228.91 0.02 (1,865,243.24)
16 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 226,896,993.90 0.22 69,209,245.53 0.05 17,690,599.19 0.02 (1,533,112.75)
17 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 248,997,508.63 0.20 73,581,714.55 0.05 18,686,741.08 0.01 (1,277,627.75)
18 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 271,098,023.35 0.18 77,556,686.38 0.04 19,516,859.33 0.01 (1,081,100.83)
19 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 293,198,538.08 0.16 81,170,297.14 0.03 20,208,624.53 0.01 (929,926.28)
20 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 315,299,052.80 0.15 84,455,397.83 0.03 20,785,095.54 0.01 (813,638.16)
21 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 337,399,567.53 0.14 87,441,853.00 0.02 21,265,488.04 0.00 (724,185.76)
22 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 359,500,082.25 0.12 90,156,812.25 0.02 21,665,815.13 0.00 (655,376.23)
23 1,330,360,000.00 22,100,514.72 381,600,596.98 0.11 92,624,957.02 0.02 21,999,421.03 0.00 (602,445.81)
145
The discounted cash flow diagram yields a graph as follows:

Table 10.9: Cash Flow Profiles for various discount values

146
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

As a conclusion, setting up a 330 000 metric tonnes per year of polyethylene terephthalate
production plant in Malaysia is very feasible and decisive in order to meet high demand of
polyethylene terephthalate in this region. The Gebeng Industrial Estate in Pahang is identified as
the most ideal location for the new petrochemical plant. All the desired criteria for the
construction of the plant in Gebeng are met and the necessary facilities for plant expansion are
also available.

Literature review for this project verifies that the production of polyethylene
terephthalate is in demand and bears revenue with well planning and implementation.
Conceptual design of the plant incorporated with heat integration is successfully simulated in
iCON. The hot utility reduced is equivalent to 48%, while cold utility has a reduction of 46%
upon heat integration towards the plant design. Further on, the addition of the separation
synthesis system is highly effective with recovered EG purity of 99.7%.

Sizing and costing for equipments used are prepared in Equipment Specification Sheet
which provide the design and cost estimation for chosen major and minor equipments. Detailed
process and mechanical of all major equipment also has been performed individually using
fundamental chemical engineering principles.

A highly integrated process control system is also included to the proposed plant. Control
systems are essential to ensure the plant operates in safe manner and achieves the desire
production. The control system proposed are all feedback and cascade model which can correct
the error continuously to serve better control objectives.

In designing the proposed plant, various safety factors and procedures such as Hazard and
Operability Studies (HAZOP), plant start up and shut down procedures, maintenance and
inspection of each equipment as well as control system design were taken into consideration.
However, it is recommended that further studies in this area is needed consistently to ensure
operation safety of the plant.

In responding to the environmental responsibility, the plant has been designed to achieve
the target of waste minimization and cost minimization. As the effluent from the plant contains

147
mostly water contaminated with organic materials, it needs to be treated first before being
discharged to the environment or recycled. The effective wastewater treatment methods have
been designed to meet and comply with the law and regulations stated in the Environmental
Quality Act 1974.

From our economic and cost estimation analysis, it has been approved that our plant is
economically feasible with calculated rate of return of 22.4 percent. The expected payback
period is three (3) years after start-up by considering 20 years of plant life, which is equivalent to
six (6) years after project has commenced. The discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRR)
must at least meet or exceed MARR of 15 percent. Since the DCFRR of this project is 30 percent
which is more than MARR, the project is worth investing. Furthermore, the proposed plant is
capable of earning a total of RM 382 million after 20 years of plant life.

Better flow sheeting must be incorporated into the flow diagram which complies with
PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS). Other recommendations for this project include to
further optimize and reduce utility requirement through heat integration and also, to develop the
third economic potential (EP III) and appropriate waste management system.

Finally, it can be concluded that the construction of a 330,000 metric tonnes per year of
polyethylene terephthalate production plant in Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang is technically
feasible and economically attractive. Encouragement from the Malaysian government for
industrial investment with various incentives offered serve as another factor that contribute to the
feasibility of the plant.

148
 REFERENCES

Chanda M., R. S. (1994). Industrial Polymers, Specialty Polymers, and their Applications. USA:
CRC Press.

Ethylene Glycol (EG) Pricing and Information. (n.d.). Retrieved August 13, 2010, from
http://www.icis.com/V2/chemicals/9075765/ethylene-glycol-mono/pricing.html

ICIS Pricing Polyethylene Terephthalate (Asia Pacific). (2010, February 12). Retrieved August
13, 2010, from http://www.icispricing.com/il_shared/Samples/SubPage217.asp.

J.I., K. (1998). Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering. USA: Wiley and
Sons.

Meyers, R. A. (2005). Handbook of Petrochemicals Production Processes. USA: McGraw-Hill.

Niaz H., F. M. (2009, January). Process Plan of Continuous Melt-Phase Polyethylene

Terephthalate (PET) Production Plant. Retrieved August 9, 2010, from
http://www.scribd.com/doc/21182843/Final-Project-Report-Plastic-Bottle-Manufacture

Production of Polyethylene Terephthalate. (2010, February). Retrieved August 2010, from

http://www.scribd.com/doc/28631275/PET-Production-Technical-Report

Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA) Prices and Pricing Information. (n.d.). Retrieved August 13,
2010, from http://www.icis.com/V2/chemicals/9076460/terephthalic-acid/pricing.html

Reimann, R. (2005). Patent No. US 6,864,345 B2. United States of America.

Schork F. J., D. P. (1993). Control of Polymerization Reactors. New York, USA: Marcel
Dekker.

Stephen M. M., J. F. UOP SINCO Solid-State Polymerization Process for the Production of PET
Resin and Technical Fibers. Illinois, USA: UOP LLC.

149
Thomas S., Y. W. Advances in Polymer Processing. USA: Woodhead.

Ullman's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (5 ed., Vol. 28). (1997). New York, USA: Wiley
VCH.

Max S. Peters, K. D. T., Ronald E West, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering. Mc Graw Hill: 2003; Vol. 5.pg 30,31

Max S. Peters, K. D. T., Ronald E West, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering. Mc Graw Hill: 2003; Vol. 5.pg.29.

Peters, M. S., Timmerhaus, K. D., & West, R. E. (2003). Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill .

Sinnot, R. K. (2005). Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering Series - Chemical

Engineering Design. Oxford: Elsevier Publishing.

Ulrich, G. D. (1984). A Guide to Chemical Engineering Process Design and Economics. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.

Ask.com. (2011). Retrieved March 27, 2011, from Wiki:

http://www.ask.com/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment

Eddy, M. a. (2003). Wastewater Engineering. New York: Mc Graw Hill.

ESCAP. (2010). Environmental Policy. Retrieved March 19, 2011, from ESCAP:
http://www.unescap.org/drpad/publication/integra/volume3/malaysia/3my03d04.htm

Hammer, M. J. (2008). Water and Wastewater Technology. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

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Pollution Articles. (2009). Waswater Definition. Retrieved March 21, 2011, from Pollution
Articles: http://pollutionarticles.blogspot.com/2010/09/wastewater-definition.html

Regulatory Staff. (2008). Overview of basic wastewater treatment process. Retrieved March
2011, 20, from Regulatory Staff: http://www.regulatorystaff.sc.gov/orscontent.asp?pageid=654

Siemens. (2011). Tertiary Wastewater Treatment. Retrieved March 21, 2011, from Siemens:
http://www.water.siemens.com/EN/APPLICATIONS/WASTEWATER_TREATMENT/TERTI
ARY_TREATMENT/Pages/default.aspx

Smith, R. (2005). Chemical Process Design and Integration. England: John Wiley.

SPE International. (2009). Environmental Impact Assessment - Malaysia Perspectives. Retrieved

March 19, 2011, from OnePetro:
http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=00073983&soc=SPE

151
 APPENDIX A

Process Flow Diagram Before Heat Integration

152
Process Flow Diagram After Heat Integration

153
 APPENDIX B

PET Production Technologies

UOP SINCO Solid State Polymerization

The main objective of the SSP process is to increase the polymer’s molecular weight, density,
Objective
and viscosity, thus improving the physical and mechanical properties for selected applications.
1) Low operating temperature (restrain side reactions/ thermal degradation)
2) Requires inexpensive equipment, uncomplicated
Advantages
3) Environmentally sound procedures
4) Chips flow via gravity (low operating cost)
1) Low reaction rates
Disadvantages
2) Possible solid particle processability problems arising

Types of Catalyst Antimony Trioxide, Sb2O3

Small amount of water condensate formed in the nitrogen purification unit. The water condensate is
Waste Generation
clear and contains a small quantity of dissolved CO2.

Conversion Rate 99.3 %

154
 1) Mixer (CSTR)
Operating Temperature: 50 oC
Operating Pressure: 1 bar
2) Esterifier (CSTR)
Operating Temperature: 258 oC
Operating Pressure: 0.88 bar
Unit Operations &
3) Low Polymerizer (CSTR)
Parameters
Operating Temperature: 270 oC
Operating Pressure: 1.5 mbar
4) High Polymerizer (DRR)
Operating Temperature: 280 oC
Operating Pressure: 1.5 mbar
155
5) Precrystallizer (Fluid-bed-type HX)
Operating Temperature: 190 oC
6) Crystallizer (Horizontal Mechanical HX)
Operating Temperature: 190-220 oC
7) Solid-State Polycondensation (SSP Reactor)
Operating Temperature: 205-220 oC
8) Product Cooling Section (Fluidized-bed
Cooler)
Operating Temperature: 60 oC
 UOP SINCO block diagram

156
 Zimmer DHI

DHI is the acronym for “ Direct High Intrinsic Viscousity”, it offering new polycondensation
Objective technology offering alternative standard polycondensation.

1. Great energy efficiency

2. Minimal reaction by-product
3. Excellent product quality
4. Low AA reformation
Advantages
5. Chip product quality
6. Downstream process stability
7. Low Raw material cost

Disadvantages 1. Cannot produce low viscosity product

Types of Catalyst Antimony Trioxide

Waste Generation Water

Conversion Rate 95.55%

157
Zimmer DHI Process Flow

158
 UHDE INVENTA-FISCHER Melt to Resin (MTR) and Melt to Preform (MTP)

The main objective of the MTR and MTP process is to significantly reduce the production costs
Objective for performs or bottle grade chips. The DISCAGE Finisher handles the polymer without solid
stating.

1) Fast and optimized polycondensation

2) Minimized hold up and reaction time
3) Compact design
4) Cocurrent flow of liquid and vapour
Advantages 5) Liquid flow via gravity (low operating cost)
6) Lowest oligomer formation and losses
7) Low DEG formation
8) Lowest AA generation rate

Disadvantages N/A

Types of Catalyst N/A

Waste Generation Water

Conversion Rate N/A

159
 1) Paste mixer (CSTR)
Operating Temperature:
Operating Pressure:

Unit Operations & 2) ESPREE Tower Reactor (CSTR) – Esterification, Prepolycondensation

Operating Temperature:
Parameters
Operating Pressure:
3) DISCAGE Reactor (Disk-type) – Polycondensation
Operating Temperature:
Operating Pressure:

AQUAFIL/ BUHLER S-HIP Combined Design

Objective Developed for the production of bottle-grade resin from a base polymer IV

1)Reduced CAPEX,OPEX and space requirements due to reduced number of vessels

Advantages 2) Reduced AA concentrations.

3) Lower production cost : decreased pressure drop required.

Disadvantages 3) Low reaction rates

Types of Catalyst Antimony Trioxide, Sb2O3

160
 Small amount of Nitrogen and water
Waste Generation
No contaminations found in the product.

Conversion Rate Approx = 99 % - 99.5%

1) Precrystallizer (Fluid-bed-type HX)

Operating Temperature: 190 oC 5) Product Cooling Section (Fluidized-bed
2) Crystallizer (Horizontal Mechanical HX)
Cooler)
o
Operating Temperature: 190-220 C
Operating Temperature: 60 oC
Unit Operations & 3) Low Polymerizer (CSTR)
Parameters Operating Temperature: 270 oC
Operating Pressure: 1.5 mbar • The operation was found similar to the
conventional processes.
4) Solid-State Polycondensation (SSP Reactor)
Operating Temperature: 205-220 oC

161
Aquafil/ Buhler Process Flow

162
 EASTMAN INTEGREX

• To produce a high quality PTA product at a significant cost advantage over alternative PTA
Objective processes
• To make the entire polymerization process in the melt phase by using a pipe reactor
• To integrate the PX-to-PTA and PTA-to-PET processes into a closely coupled and scalable
process

1) Eliminating hydrogenation in the PTA process - no more costly high-pressure pumps and
agitation, more than 98.3% conversion
2) Eliminating the solid-state process – reduces operating costs and the need for intermediate storage
3) Environmental friendly process
Advantages 4) Innovative esterification and final polymerization reactor design without moving parts
5) Direct coupling of PTA and PET manufacturing without in-process storage
6) Lowest capital investment and lowest operating costs
7) Lowest consumption of utilities and chemicals in existing PET technologies
8) Efficient use of plant space, requiring less fossil fuel for construction and operation

Disadvantages -

Types of Catalyst CO2+, Mn2+ and bromide (Integrex PTA)

163
Waste Generation • The technology itself reducing wastewater streams compared to traditional process.
• The resins produced from Integrex Process are 100% recyclable in the same stream as traditional
PET resins

Conversion Rate 98.3%

1. Separators (6)
Bubble column oxidizer, two post oxidizer

2. Heat Exchanger (10)

Water removal column, WRC reflux drum, Centrifuge,

catalyst recovery and filtrate treatment, vacuum flash filter,

Unit Operations &
Rotary vacuum filter.
Parameters

Reactor condition:

1. Pressure = 17.5 bar

2. Temperature = 204°C
3. Phase = Liquid – gas phase reaction

164
 APPENDIX C

CSDS for DIMETHYL TEREPHTHALATE (DMT)

Composition:
Material % Wat CAS-No Exposure limit
N/A
Dimethyl 100% 120-61-6
terephthalate

Hazard Identification
Exposure Route Effect
Swallowing Irritating to mouth, throat and stomach. May
cause stomach distress, nausea or vomiting
Skin Not expected to be primary skin
irritant.
Dust or powder may irritate the skin.
Mechanical rubbing may cause increase
skin irritation. Symptoms may include
redness, itching, drying skin.
Inhalation High vapor concentration may cause
burning
sensation in nose and throat and
stinging and watering in the
eyes. At concentrations which cause
irritation, dizziness,
faintness, drowsiness, nausea and
vomiting may also occur.
Eye Contact: Contact with eye may cause irritation.
Symptoms may include stinging,
tearing, redness swelling and blurred
vision. Contact with molten material
may cause thermal burns.
First Aid
Do not induce vomiting
If vomiting occurs naturally,
have victim lean forward to
reduce risk of aspiration. Have
victim rinse moth thoroughly
with water.
Wash off with soap and water.
Get medical attention if
irritation develops or persists
In case of contact with molten
product, cool rapidly with
water and seek medical
attention. DO NOT attempt to
remove molten product form
skin because skin will tear
easily.
Remove to fresh air. If
symptom persist, get medical
attention
Immediately flush eyes with
plenty of water for at least 15
minutes
In case of contact with molten
product, cool rapidly with
water and seek immediate
medical attention.

165
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Physical Form: liquid (molten)
Color: white
Odor: slight
Specific Gravity: 1.05
Vapor Pressure: 208 °C; 133 mbar
Vapor Density: 6.7
Melting Point: 141 °C
Boiling Point: 284 °C (sublimes)
Solubility in Water: negligible
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient: P: 178; log P: 2.25
Flash Point: 153 °C (micro Cleveland open cup)
Autoignition Temperature: 519 °C
Thermal Decomposition Temperature: (DTA) No exotherm to boiling

166
 CSDS for Ethylene Glycol
Composition:

Material % Wat CAS-No Exposure limit

Ethylene glycol 100 107-21-1 N/A

Hazard Identification

Exposure Route Effect First Aid

Potential Acute Health Effects:

Hazardous in case of ingestion. Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant, permeator),
of eye contact (irritant), of

inhalation. Severe over-exposure can result in death.

Potential Chronic Health Effects:

CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: A4 (Not classifiable for human or animal.) by ACGIH. MUTAGENIC

EFFECTS: Mutagenic

for mammalian somatic cells. Non-mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast. TERATOGENIC
EFFECTS: Not available.

DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY: Not available. The substance may be toxic to kidneys, liver,
central nervous system (CNS).

Repeated or prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage.
Repeated exposure to a highly toxic

material may produce general deterioration of health by an accumulation in one or many

human organs.

Swallowing May cause dizziness, faintness, Do NOT induce vomiting unless

drowsiness
decreased awareness or
responsiveness ,nausea, vomiting,
staggering gait, lack of coordination,
directed to do so by medical
personnel. Never give anything
by mouth to an unconscious
person. If large quantities of
this material are swallowed,

167
coma and death. call a physician immediately.
Loosen tight clothing such as a
collar, tie, belt or waistband.

Serious:

Medical Conditions
Aggravated by Exposure:
Persons with pre-existiing
kidney, respiratory, eye, or
neurological problems

might be more sensitive to

Ethylene Glycol.

Notes to Physician:

1. Support vital functions,

correct for dehydration and
shock,

and manage fluid balance.

2. The currently recommended

medical management of
Ethylene Glycol poisoning
includes

elimination of Ethylene Glycol

and metabolites. Elimination of
Ethylene Glycol may be
achieved by the following
methods:

a. Emptying the stomach by

gastric lavage. It is useful if
initiated within < 1 of ingestion.
b. Correct metabolic acidosis
with intravenous administration
of sodium bicarbonate,
adjusting the administration rate
accoridng to repeated and
frequent measurement of
acid/base status.

c. Administer ethanol (orally or

by IV (intravenously)) or

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Skin No harmful effects with normal skin.
Prolonged or widespread contact with
significantly damaged
skin may result in the absorption of
potentially harmful
amounts.
Inhalation High vapor concentration may cause
burning
sensation in nose and throat and
stinging and watering in the
eyes. At concentrations which cause
irritation, dizziness,
faintness, drowsiness, nausea and
vomiting may also occur.
169
fomepizole (4-methylpyrazole or
Antizol)) therapy by IV as an
antidote to inhibit the ormation
of toxic metabolites.
d. If patients are diagnosed and
treated early in the course with
the above methods,
hemodialysis may be avoided if
fomepizole or ethanol therapy is
effective and has
corrected the metabolic
acidosis, and no renal failure is
present. However, once severe
acidosis and renal failure
occured,
however, hemodialysis is
necessary. It is effective in
removing Ethylene Glycol and
toxic metabolites, and
correcting metabolic
acidosis.
Wash with soap and water.
Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Get medical
attention if irritation develops.
Cold water
may be used.
If inhaled, remove to fresh air.
If not breathing, give artificial
respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Get
medical
attention immediately.
Eye Contact: May cause irritation including stinging, Check for and remove any
tearing, contact lenses. In case of
contact, immediately flush eyes
and redness with plenty of water for at least
15

minutes. Cold water may be

used. Get medical attention if
irritation occurs.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Physical state and appearance: Liquid. (syrupy)

Odor: Odorless.
Taste: Mild sweet
Molecular Weight: 62.07 g/mole
Color: Clear Colorless.
pH (1% soln/water): Not available.
Boiling Point: 197.6°C (387.7°F)
Melting Point: -13°C (8.6°F)
Critical Temperature: Not available.
Specific Gravity: 1.1088 (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: .06 mmHg @ 20 C; .092 mmHg at 25 C
Vapor Density: 2.14 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available.
Odor Threshold: Not available.
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: The product is more soluble in water; log(oil/water) = -1.4
Ionicity (in Water): Not available.
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water, acetone.
Solubility:
Soluble in cold water, hot water, acetone. Slightly soluble in diethyl ether. Miscible with lower aliphatic
alcohols, glycerol, acetic acid, acetone and similar ketones, aldehydes, pyridine, similar coal tar bases.
Practically insoluble in benzene and its homologs, chlorinated hydrocarbons, petroleum ether.

SPILL/ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Small Spill:
Dilute with water and mop up, or absorb with an inert dry material and place in an appropriate waste
disposal container. Finish cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface and dispose of
according to local and regional authority
requirements.
Large Spill:
Stop leak if without risk. Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Use water
spray to reduce vapors. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed.
Eliminate all ignition sources. Call for assistance on disposal. Finish cleaning by spreading water on the

170
 contaminated surface and allow to evacuate through the sanitary system. Be careful that the product is
not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with local
authorities.

CSDS for

1,4benzenedica boxylic acid

Composition:

Material % Wat CAS-No Exposure limit

100 100-21-0

Terephthalic acid

Hazard Identification

Exposure Route Effect First Aid

Skin No harmful effects with normal skin.
Prolonged or widespread contact with
significantly damaged
Wash with soap and water. Get
medical attention if symptoms
occur.

skin may result in the absorption of

potentially harmful

amounts.

Inhalation High vapor concentration may cause If symptomatic, move to fresh

burning air. Get medical attention if
symptoms persist.
sensation in nose and throat and
stinging and watering in the

eyes. At concentrations which cause

irritation, dizziness,

faintness, drowsiness, nausea and

vomiting may also occur.

Eye Contact: May cause irritation including stinging, Any material that contacts the
tearing, eye should be washed out

171
 and redness immediately with water. If easy
to do, remove contact lenses.
Get medical attention if
symptoms occur.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Color: white
Odor: slight
Specific Gravity: 1.51 (15 °C)
Vapor Pressure: 120 °C; 0.66 mbar
Vapor Density: 5.7
Melting Point: > 300 °C sublimes
Solubility in Water: negligible
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient: P: 100; log P: 2
Flash Point: 271 °C (micro Cleveland open cup)
Autoignition Temperature: 496 °C (ASTM D2155)
Thermal Decomposition Temperature: > 400 °C (HPDTA)

SPILL/ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Sweep up and place in a clearly labeled container for chemical waste.

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