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Energy
Demand Side Management
In
Industry
FIGURE 1 - WORLD ENERGY DEMAND SHARES FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION AND FOR FINAL CONSUMPTION .......................................... 6
FIGURE 2 – FUEL SHARE OF END-USED ENERGY ....................................................................................................................... 7
FIGURE 3 – SHARE OF TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION AT INDUSTRY ............................................................................................... 9
FIGURE 4 – SHARE OF TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION AT INDUSTRY, IN EU-15, AT 2000 AND EXPECTED TO 2030 ...................................10
FIGURE 5 – STEEL PRODUCTION SCHEME, IN (OECD/IEA, 2007 P. 98) ......................................................................................11
FIGURE 6 – CEMENT MANUFACTURE PROCESS IN (OECD/IEA, 2009 P. 4) ...................................................................................12
FIGURE 7 – THERMAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY FOR DIFFERENT KILN TYPES, USING DATA FROM (WBCSD, 2010) ..........................................13
FIGURE 8 – COMPARISON BETWEEN A CONVENTIONAL AND AN ENERGY-EFFICIENT PUMPING SYSTEM (KEULENAER, ET AL., 2004) ...............16
FIGURE 9 – ENERGY SAVINGS POTENTIAL IN CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES (OECD/IEA, 2007 P. 94). ..............................17
FIGURE 10 – ENERGY POTENTIAL SAVINGS FOR IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY (IEA, 2009 P. 54) ............................................................18
FIGURE 11 – ENERGY POTENTIAL SAVINGS FOR PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY (IEA, 2009 P. 143) .........................................................19
FIGURE 12 – AN ENERGY AUDIT OVERVIEW (HASANBEIGI, ET AL., 2010 P. 4).................................................................................21
FIGURE 13 – KALUNDBORG INDUSTRIAL PARK (IN HTTP://WWW.SYMBIOSIS.DK).............................................................................25
From Table 1 we can conclude that the two sources show similar shares: oil and gas have
slightly decreased while renewables (includes hydro, biomass and waste, for example) have
increased 3%, from 2007 to 2008. Projections from IEA to 2035 point out a small reduction of oil
share, for both scenarios. Solid fuel share will increase if actual policies are maintained, but may
reduce if new policies are adopted, being replaced by renewables and nuclear.
Figure 1 - World Energy Demand shares for electricity generation and for final consumption
In Figure 1, we can observe primary energy commodities shares, both for producing
electricity and for final consumption (energy delivered), considering information from (EIA, 2010).
From the total primary energy considered, 39,2% was for electricity generation and about
two thirds (27.5%/39.2%) is lost in electricity related losses (in the conversion processes, as well as
in transmission). Main contribution for electricity production if from solid fuels (44%), while oil
contribution is only 5%. Renewables, which includes hydro, account for 18% of the total, equal to
gas contribution. Nuclear, that is integrally used to produce electricity, accounts for 14% of the
If we consider total final consumption, we need to include heat as an energy carrier, taking
into account that some primary energy is used to produce heat for different usages. Biomass and
waste have now an important role, greater than coal, as an energy carrier. From the OECD/IEA
2035 projections, in both scenarios, oil share is expected to decrease 4-5% and may be replaced by
electricity which is expected to increase 6%. Taking into account the increasing role of renewable
sources in the electricity generation, this increase in electricity demand should be filled by
renewable energy as well as by increasing electricity industry efficiency considering electricity
related losses as significant. Table 2 shows the results compiled from (OECD/IEA, 2010), for 2008
and for the two scenarios defined before.
Table 2 – share by energy carrier on final consumption (total for 2008 was 8423 Mtoe)
Biomass & Other
Source of information / year Oil Coal Gas Electricity Heat waste renewables
(OECD/IEA, 2010)/2008 42% 10% 16% 17% 3% 13% 0%
(OECD/IEA, 2010)/2035 (1) 38% 9% 15% 23% 3% 11% 1%
(OECD/IEA, 2010)/2035 (2) 37% 9% 16% 23% 3% 13% 1%
If we consider OECD countries only, which represent 49.6% of the world primary energy
demand, industrial share decreases to 41% while transportation rise to 33.4% and commercial use
increased to 10.6%. As electricity related losses are similar (27.1%), industry share in total primary
energy is now 29.9% almost equal to the share of transportation, which increased from 19.8% to
24.4%.
Table 4 – end-used energy for different activity sectors (OECD)
Electricity-related
Source of information / year Industrial Transportation Commercial Residential losses
% of Energy delivered 41.0% 33.4% 10.6% 15.0% ---
(EIA, 2010)/2007
% of Primary energy 29.9% 24.4% 7.7% 10.9% 27,1%
Considering non-OECD countries, that represent 50.4% of the primary energy demand,
industrial share is 44.5% of the total primary energy demanded by this group of countries, and
61.8% of the total energy delivered. Comparing with OECD, main reduction occurred in
transportation and commercial shares.
Table 5 – end-used energy for different activity sectors (non-OECD)
Electricity-related
Source of information / year Industrial Transportation Commercial Residential losses
% of Energy delivered 61.8% 21.2% 4.2% 12.8% ---
(EIA, 2010)/2007
% of Primary energy 44.5% 15.3% 3.0% 9.3% 27,9%
Chemicals, which includes a set of industrial areas, from “highly intensive raw materials,
such as basic petrochemicals, to high value added consumer commodities (pharmaceuticals and
cosmetics)” (European Comission, 2003) has a share of 22%, and represent roughly 10% of the
total worldwide final energy demand (IEA, 2009). Iron and steel, with 15% share, is the second
energy consuming area, followed by nonmetallic minerals, which includes cement, concrete, bricks
as well as glass and ceramics, with a share of 6%. The forth position is occupied by pulp and paper
industries with 4% followed by nonferrous metals with 3%, which includes aluminium, silicon,
titanium and other non-metallic minerals. The remaining 50% is “characterized by the large
divergence in terms of products and by low energy intensity, as most of these products involve high
value added with limited energy use” (European Comission, 2003).
According with (European Comission, 2003), industry has been greatly influenced by the
increasing globalization of the world economy which has had a considerable impact on the location
of production. In fact, the share of total industry energy consumption at EU-15, referred to 2000, is
quite different from World data, as it can be seen in (European Comission, 2003). The total share of
the 5 industry families that was 65% in 2000, and was (on the time the report was written) expected
to reduce to 59% in 2030.
Chemicals share in EU-15, for the year 2000 was 17%, lower than the 22% shown for world
data (year 2007), and it was expected to maintain its share by 2030, while Iron and Steel that
represented 19% in 2000, is expected to decrease to 13% by 2030, while 2007 data refers that Iron
and Steel share in world industry energy consumption was 15%. This share reduction is expected to
be replaced by an increase in non-ferrous metals industry and by the other less energy intensive
industries.
Most of the energy consumption is related with heating processes, using wet or dry kiln,
especially due to the high energy associated with the 1450 ºC in the kiln. Although dry kiln process
requires less heat than wet kiln, energy costs still constitute between 20 and 40 percent of the total
cost of cement production (IEA, 2009 p. 79). The best available technologies estimates show that
thermal energy consumption is in the range of 2.9 – 3.3 GJ/ton of clinker, but world weighted
average range is between 3.38 GJ/ton of clinker for dry kiln with preheater and pre-calciner and
6.39 GJ/ton in wet kiln processes, as show in Figure 7.
Figure 7 – thermal energy efficiency for different kiln types, using data from (WBCSD, 2010)
Although thermal efficiency shown in (OECD/IEA, 2007) are slightly different from those in
Figure 7, with a value of 2.9 GJ/ton of clinker, all values are far from the thermodynamic minimum
to drive the endothermic reactions, 1.8 GJ/ton of clinker.
3.3.4. PULP, PAPER AND PRINT
Energy use in the pulp and paper industry is divided by chemical pulping, mechanical
pulping, paper recycling and paper production. Approximately two-thirds of final energy
consumption is fuel that is used to produce heat, while the remaining third is electricity that can be
delivered from electrical network of produced on-site (OECD/IEA, 2007). As primary input for
pulp and paper manufacture is wood, these industries usually generate approximately half of its own
energy needs from biomass. The majority of the fuel used in pulp and paper-making is used to
produce heat and just over a quarter to generate electricity (IEA, 2009 p. 136).
In some cases, integrated paper mills generate more electricity than they need and are able to
sell their excess power back to the grid. As is the case in other industries, recycling significantly
reduces the energy intensity of production in the paper sector (EIA, 2010). Chemical pulp mills
require less external energy than mechanical pulp mills, but require approximately 2.2 tonnes of
wood to produce a tone of bleached Kraft paper, as half of the wood is incinerated in the recovery
boiler. Mechanical pulping uses large amounts of electricity than chemical pulp mills, which are
self-sufficient in energy terms. A typical chemical mill has a steam consumption of 10.4 GJ/air dry
tonne pulp and an excess of electricity in the order of 2GJ/ air dry tonne pulp.
Paper production uses electricity in all process steps (preparing the stock from pulp, forming
a sheet, dewatering drying and, sometimes, coating the paper), although heat (steam) is needed for
the drying process. For a non-integrated paper mill, stock preparation and paper machines typically
have energy intensities near 200 and 350 kWh/ton, respectively (OECD/IEA, 2007).
3.3.5. NON-FERROUS METALS
Within the production of nonferrous metals, are included aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc,
with the most important being the aluminum production. Energy accounts for about 30 percent of
the total cost of primary aluminum manufacturing and is the second most expensive input after
alumina ore (EIA, 2010). Primary aluminum is produced in three steps, with different energy
intensities associated. Bauxite (ore) mining is a low energy intensity process, while the final step,
the smelting of aluminum is a highly energy-intensive electrochemical process. Refining alumina,
which is the intermediate step, is a medium energy intensity physicochemical process (IEA, 2009).
According with (Boyle, et al., 2003 p. 106), in 1880’s smelting 1 tonne of aluminum metal
required 50 MWh of electricity, while by the end of the twentieth century this value was about one
Energy Demand-side Management in Industry Page 13
third. In fact, by 2007, aluminum smelters were responsible by 3.5% of the total electricity
consumption (IEA, 2009 p. 163). For each ton of aluminum produced, smelting accounts for 120 GJ
of the 155 GJ of the total energy used to produce it, which corresponds to more than 75%, while re-
melting aluminum (when recycling), only uses 10 GJ/ton.
Smelting of aluminium is the most energy-intensive process requiring, on average, 15.5
MWh/ton of aluminium, which represents an intensive use of electricity. Worldwide, electricity
used is obtained from hydro and from coal stations, with high regional variations. In Asia,
electricity is generated from natural gas while in Oceania coal is the main used fuel (IEA, 2009).
If a conventional pumping system is used, the global efficiency is only 31%, although
individual components have no less than 60% of efficiency. When selecting more efficient
components (no less than 88% efficient), and when using a Variable Speed Drive to adjust power
from the electrical motor, the global efficiency is 72%, which corresponds to a decrease of 57% of
input power, as we can see in Figure 8.
4.1.4. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
Compressed air is a frequently used energy source in industry, driven by an electrical motor.
The compressed air is distributed, through a network of pipes, all over the production site to the end
use devices (car industry robots, high pressure spraying pistols, etc). System performance depends
on the performance of each element, yet overall system design and operation have an even greater
influence on performance. Together with the use of high efficiency motors and variable speed
drives referred before, the following technical measures could improve the overall performance of a
compressed air system (Keulenaer, et al., 2004):
- optimal choice of the type of compressor for the specific end use applications;
- improvement of compressor technology (eg multi-stage compressors);
- more sophisticated control systems;
- recuperation of heat for use in other functions;
- improving air treatment (eg drying, filtering);
- a better overall system design, including the introduction of multi-pressure systems;
- improving the air flow in pipework to reduce the pressure losses caused by friction;
- reducing air leaks
4.1.5. PUMPING SYSTEMS
There is a very wide range of pumping applications, from industrial dishwashers to large
pumps in the cooling circuit of a power station. Improving the efficiency of pump systems is
More than half of the total fuel inputs to accounts for feedstocks (non-energy use), which
reduces opportunities for decreasing fuel use (OECD/IEA, 2007). New developments in catalysts,
membranes and other separation processes, process intensification and bio-based chemicals could
bring very substantial energy savings. For this, ambitious R&D is required, spanning from basic to
applied research followed by technology development (IEA, 2009).
Figure 9 – Energy savings potential in chemical and petrochemical industries (OECD/IEA, 2007 p. 94).
China is the country with the higher energy saving potential, although its average efficiency
industry. The main factors for low global efficiency are the high share of small-scale blast furnaces,
the high share of inefficient coking plants and the low quality ore (OECD/IEA, 2007). Ukraine has
the highest potential for reducing energy intensity (8.7 GJ/ton of steel), although the energy saving
potential is one of the lowest, due to its reduced share on steel production. Worldwide, the higher
energy saving potential is related with blast furnaces improvements, followed by the use of blast
furnaces gases to generate power.
Energy savings and CO2 emissions reduction can be maximized (IEA, 2009) by using gas-
based Direct Reduced Iron, charcoal, plastic waste, CO2-free electricity and Hydrogen. Also with
better materials flow management, reductions can be achieved. Especially, replacing small-scale
facilities in China and India and replacing outdated open-hearth furnaces and ingot casting practices
in Ukraine and Russia, great reductions will be obtained.
4.2.3. NONMETALLIC MINERALS
Taking into account the already explained decreasing energy intensity from wet kiln to dry
kilns, one way of reducing energy demand is replacing non-efficient kilns by most-efficient ones.
As the investments required are very high, considering that it is necessary to modify plants layout,
this substitution process will occur slowly. According with (IEA, 2009), one of the main actions to
take is related with the replacement of most small-scale and vertical shaft kilns with large more
efficient ones, especially in China.
4.2.4. PULP AND PAPER
Outdated small-scale paper plants in developing countries, notably China and India, could
substantially reduce energy needs with larger plants. New technologies that can help reducing
energy use are especially relevant when replacing phased-out facilities by new ones.
From Figure 11 we can observe that US have the highest energy saving potential, but the
highest saving potentials on specific energy are for Russia, with 11.6 GJ/ton of paper of potential
reduction, and for Canada, with 7.0 GJ/ton of paper.
4.2.5. NON-FERROUS METALS
Considering the relatively low melting temperature of aluminum scrap, the amount of energy
that is needed to transform scrap to new aluminum is only 6-7% of the energy necessary to produce
it from ore. To recycle aluminum reverberatory and induction furnaces are used, consuming 3-9 GJ
of fuel per tonne of aluminum.
Reduction of energy demand involve the replacement of older smelter technologies with pre-
bake cells, the development of process control, improvements on insulation to reduce heat losses are
other possibilities in reducing energy intensity. It is expected to reduce electricity consumption to
14.5MWh/t of aluminum in the short-term, with further reductions thereafter (IEA, 2009). Other
saving opportunities are on the use of natural gas-fired regenerative furnaces instead of
conventional cold air technologies. (IEA, 2009).
5. ENERGY AUDITS
The increased prices of primary energies together with environmental restrictions are forcing
industries to identify cost saving opportunities. Main industries, which account for a large share on
CO2 emissions and in energy, are required to proceed to some restructuring on their energy-
intensive processes, in order to decrease primary energy demand or replacing fossil fuels by cleaner
energy sources, reducing their global CO2 emissions. Auditing is a systematic way of knowing the
actual point of operation of a particular process as well as of identifying costly-effective measures
to adopt in order to improve efficiency.
To identify energy saving and/or CO2 reduction potentials, an energy audit are usually
required (Hasanbeigi, et al., 2010). According with the objectives to be reached, energy audits can
be preliminary or a detailed (or diagnostic audit). In a preliminary audit, a simple analysis on energy
use and performance is made, by using readily-available data, in a relative short time. Results are
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Goals must be, at least, an increase of 6% for IE and CEE, along a six-year timeframe, for
mandatory cases. For the voluntary ones, goals are lower (4%), and the time span is increased to 8
years. In both cases, IC values should be collected and kept for historic. Also, measures where the
Return of Investment period is less or equal to 5 years (or 3 years for the voluntary facilities) should
be implemented within the first three years.
If goals are reached, an incentive scheme is applied. For those facilities in a voluntary base,
it corresponds to the reimbursement of 50% of the Energy Audit costs, with a maximum of € 750.
For all facilities under the program, incentives corresponds also to a reimbursement of 25% of the
investments made in equipment and management systems for the monitoring of the energy
consumption, with a maximum of 10 000€. If facilities only use natural gas and/or renewable
energy sources, limits of reimbursement are increased by 25% for renewables and 15% for natural
gas. Facilities under an Agreement of Rational Use of Energy are also exempt of ISP (Portuguese
tax for oil and energetic products), in a value dependent on the fuels used. For coal, coke or oil
coke, the value is 4.16 €/ton, for fuel oil containing less than 1% of sulfur is 15.30 €/ton and for oil
gas the amount is 7.81 €/ton.
When the goals are not reached, penalties are applied for deviations calculated in mandatory
reports. If corrective measures are adopted, allowing for recovering the deviations, are made in the
subsequent year, 75% of the penalties applied are reimbursed.
7. INNOVATIVE PRACTICES
As seen before, primary resources have energy potential that can be converted into useful
energy or into useful products, with certain efficiency. In each stage of the transformation processes
there are losses: on converting primary energy to electricity, on transporting energy commodities to
industries, on transforming primary into secondary energy commodities, and so on. Increasing
efficiency is reducing losses in every stage between the energy source location and the final
product. As a concept, the law of energy conservation still valid, and there are no energy losses,
only energy transformation into a non-used form of energy. Sometimes, these non-energy products
are in considered as waste and, if not used by another process outside the one where it has been
originated, will be placed anywhere, with negative environmental impacts.
Lowe (2010), in a common language, explain the idea behind the concept of eco-industrial
parks as a question: “Why pay money to produce a product you can’t sell, call it a waste, and pay
someone to dispose of it?” Some of the industrial processes are now dealing with this question and
are using their own wastes to decrease their energy intensity, by recycling it, by sharing energy
commodities or intermediate products. This concept can be extended to a large number of industries
as well as services acting as a community of manufacturing and service businesses located together
on a common property. Member businesses seek enhanced environmental, economic, and social
performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues.
By working together, the community of businesses seeks a collective benefit that is greater
than the sum of individual benefits each company would realize by only optimizing its individual
performance (Lowe, 2010). These communities can decrease their production costs through
Energy Demand-side Management in Industry Page 24
increased materials and energy efficiency, waste recycling, and the sharing of some common
services, as waste management, training, purchasing, emergency management teams, environmental
information systems, and other support services. Such industrial cost sharing could help park
members achieve greater economic efficiency through their collaboration, producing more
competitive products.
According with (Lowe, 2010), by early 2001, at least forty communities in the US have
initiated eco-industrial development projects, some called eco-industrial parks, others called
industrial ecosystems or by-product exchanges. Innovators have launched at least sixty eco-
industrial projects in Asia, Europe, South America, Australia, South Africa, and Namibia. Japan
alone has over 30 projects.
Asnaes Power Station, the plasterboard factory Gyproc A/S, the pharmaceutical plant Novo
Nordisk A/S, the enzyme producer Novozymes A/S, the oil refinery Statoil-Hydro A/S, the
recycling company RGS 90 A/S as well as the waste company Kara/Noveren I/S and Kalundborg
Municipality - exploit each other's residual or by-products on a commercial basis. One company's
by-product becomes an important resource to one or several of the other companies. The outcome is
reduced consumption of resources and a significant reduction in environmental strain. The
collaborating partners also benefit financially from the co-operation because the individual
agreement within the Symbiosis is based on commercial principles.
2
Information in http://www.symbiosis.dk
Energy Demand-side Management in Industry Page 25
The Industrial Symbiosis of Kalundborg has some challenges to overcome, according with
the website of the project, namely the inclusion of new and alternative energy sources in the
symbiosis energy cooperation. Are referred the use of biomass as fuel or biogas, solar energy or
geothermal energy. Also, it is an objective, to minimize the use of natural water resources by
utilising cleaned waste water as process water. The process and industries are also studying new and
innovative ways to utilise by-products and waste materials as raw materials.
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