MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND

TECHNOLOGY (CEDAT)
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
CIV 4100: CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT I

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVE SOIL-

QUARRY DUST BLENDS STABILIZED WITH CEMENT KILN DUST ADMIXTURE
FOR USE IN THE SUBGRADE LAYERS
BY

LUBEGA RICHARD 17/U/483

AINEMBABAZI AMELIA 17/U/36

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of a Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

…………………………………….. ………………………………..
MR. KADDU DAVID ASSOC. PROF. UMARU BAGAMPADDE
MAIN SUPERVISOR CO-SUPERVISOR

SEPTEMBER 2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................................................... i
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF ACRONYMNS ................................................................................................................................... iv
1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Project Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Main objective ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific objectives ................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Justification ................................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Scope of the study ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.5.1 Geographic Scope ................................................................................................................. 3
1.5.2 Technical Scope ..................................................................................................................... 3
2 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Pavements..................................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 The Subgrade ................................................................................................................................ 4
2.4 Active Soils as Subgrade ................................................................................................................ 5
2.5 Stabilization................................................................................................................................... 8
2.5.1 Soil stabilization methods ................................................................................................... 10
2.6 Cement Kiln Dust......................................................................................................................... 11
2.6.1 Production of CKD ............................................................................................................... 11
2.7 Quarry by-products ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.7.1 Production of Stone dust .................................................................................................... 12
2.8 A review of previous studies ....................................................................................................... 13
3 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................... 16
3.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Materials to be used ................................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Active-soil samples .............................................................................................................. 16
3.2.2 Cement kiln dust (CKD) ....................................................................................................... 16
3.2.3 Quarry dust (SQD) ............................................................................................................... 16

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 3.3 Sampling of the materials ........................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Laboratory tests and methods .................................................................................................... 16
3.4.1 Particle size gradation ......................................................................................................... 16
3.4.2 Atterberg Limit Tests........................................................................................................... 17
3.4.3 Moisture-Density Relationships .......................................................................................... 17
3.4.4 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test. .................................................................................... 18
3.5 The experimental matrix ............................................................................................................. 18
3.6 The Setup of the tests ................................................................................................................. 19
4 CHAPTER FOUR: BUDGET ESTIMATE OF THE PROJECT STUDY ........................................................... 21
5 CHAPTER FIVE: TENTATIVE TIMELINE ................................................................................................. 22
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 23

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1:Typical subgrade strength values for various soils (Austroads, 2004)........................... 4

Table 2-2: Subgrade Strength Classes (MoWT, 2010) ................................................................... 5

Table 2-3: Common characteristics/properties of expansive soils (Mishra, 2015) ........................ 6

Table 2-4: Material requirements for improved subgrade layer (MoWT, 2010) ............................ 9

Table 2-5: Requirements for fill and improved subgrade layers (MoWHC, 2005) ........................ 9

Table 3-1: Laboratory Tests to be conducted ............................................................................... 17

Table 3-2: Dosages [Basic Mix Proportions]................................................................................ 18

Table 3-3: Physical tests: Gradation (Soils with SQD) ................................................................ 20

Table 3-4: Other tests: Index, Compaction and Strength Properties (Soils with CKD and SQD) 20

Table 4-1: Budget for the project .................................................................................................. 21

Table 5-1: The tentative timetable ................................................................................................ 22

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LIST OF ACRONYMNS

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

BCS Black Cotton Soils

CBR California Bearing Ratio

CKD Cement Kiln Dust

LKD Lime Kiln Dust

LL Liquid Limit

LS Linear Shrinkage

MDD Maximum Dry Density

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

OPC Ordinary Portland Cement

PC Portland Cement

PI Plasticity Index

PL Plastic Limit

SQD Stone Quarry Dust

RCS Red Clay Soils

UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength

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1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The construction of roads is one of the major focal areas to fast-track economic growth, as it
provides the dominant mode of freight and passenger transport. According to Kadiyali (2008), it
accounts for the biggest portion of passenger movement all over the world. Roads thus play a
crucial role in the development of a country and are a lifeline, providing a smooth flow of man and
materials. A road pavement is expected to remain structurally sound to provide a satisfactory ride
quality and comfort to the road users during its design life. The performance of pavements depends
upon the quality of the subgrade. A stable subgrade and properly draining pavement help produce
a long-lasting pavement structure. However, as Leonards (1962), states, to find a soil at a particular
site which is satisfactory for a particular use as it exists is ideal but most unusual. The diversity of
the soil characteristics across different areas provides a challenge in achieving desirable
engineering properties for pavement construction and performance.
Roads founded in such soils are known for bad condition and unpredictable behavior for which
the nature of the soil contributes to some extent. The failures of pavement, in form of heave,
depression, cracking and unevenness are caused by the seasonal moisture variation in the subgrade
soil (Zumrawi, 2013). These fine-grained clay-rich soils can absorb large quantities of water after
rainfall, becoming sticky and heavy. Conversely, they can also become very hard when dry,
resulting in shrinking and cracking of the ground. The clays within these materials are thus a
significant hazard to engineering construction due to their ability to shrink or swell with changes
in water content (Jones and Jefferson, 2012). The main problems in clays are thus due to its
undesirable properties such as low strength, high swelling capacity, low bearing capacity and high
levels of instability when unsupported (Jirathanathaworn et al., 2002). Therefore, there is need to
improve the engineering properties of such subgrade soils through a process known as soil
stabilization so as to be able to achieve strong foundations for pavement construction. There are
chemical and mechanical methods of in situ soil stabilization (Makusa, 2012). According to Al-
sakkaf (2009), the main categories of binders used for stabilizing soils are Portland cement, lime
and bitumen. The stabilization of fine-grained soils, and clays in particular, is often achieved
through the introduction of such chemical agents-mainly Portland cement and hydrated lime, and
more recently, polymers, sulfonated oils and resins—to the soil–water medium, which encourage
soil particle flocculation or aggregation and hence the development of a more coherent soil matrix
with enhanced geomechanical properties (Soltani et al., 2019; Soltani et al., 2020; Estabragh et
al., 2013). However, these binders have been found to be expensive, especially in third world
countries like Uganda (Jjuuko et al., 2011). There is, therefore, a need to come up with alternative
subgrade enhancing techniques by seeking the use of effective and environmentally sustainable
materials. Reuse of waste in a growing rate is essential in the developing countries to utilise
industrial waste in addition to both forming new sources of materials and eliminating their negative
effects on environment (Gurbuz, 2015).
There are a number of non-traditional chemical stabilizers now in the market which may offer
viable alternatives for stabilizing weak soils at reduced construction cost (Eyo, 2006). These

1
unconventional methods of soil stabilization include the use of industrial wastes and/or in
combination with conventional stabilizers such as lime or cement. Most of the industrial wastes
possess pozzolanic properties i.e. have cementitious abilities and pozzolanic reactions in the
presence of moisture. These wastes include; CKD, LKD, fly ash, marble dust, rice husk ash and
others. Cement kiln dust (CKD) is an industrial waste material from the manufacture of Portland
cement, having similar properties to that of OPC hence can replace portions of it in soil
stabilization. With the increased production of cement in Uganda as a result of increased number
of cement factories, CKD generation has also greatly increased. Thus, CKD can be obtained at a
relatively low cost, thus not only providing a less costly alternative for chemical soil stabilization
but also utilizing a byproduct of cement production. This reduces the cost of materials for subgrade
construction as well as conserves the environment. Quarry dust, an industrial by-product of
aggregate quarrying processes is also becoming increasingly applied in soil stabilization processes.
Soosan et.al. (2001) identified that stone dust exhibits high shear strength and is beneficial for its
use as a geotechnical material. Sridharan et.al. (2005) studied the effect of stone dust in highway
construction and found that CBR and angle of shearing resistance values are steadily increased
with increase in the percentage of stone dust.
Gupta and Sharma (2016) concluded that, stabilization of locally available problematic soil by
utilizing industrial and construction waste materials along with the natural poorly graded river
sand provides improved compaction and strength characteristics and substantially reduces the cost
of construction. For fine-grained soils, which in their natural form have a poor engineering
property, a single additive might not be sufficient in stabilizing such soil (Osinubi et al., 2011;
Osinubi et al., 2009; Amadi, 2014). Further, Amadi (2014) reported a significant enhancement in
the wet–dry durability of subgrade soils modified with SQD and CKD. Therefore, this project is
aimed at assessing the physical and strength characteristics of active soils (that is, black cotton
soils and red clay soils) blended with quarry dust and stabilized with CKD admixture for use in
the subgrade.

1.2 Problem Statement

Active soils acting as a subgrade pose serious problems to flexible pavements built over them as
they retain moisture longer and possess low strength. Due to their abundance in the road structure
in some parts of Uganda, cutting to spoil and replacing these soils with imported material always
proves costly (uneconomical) and time wasting for the engineer. This has necessitated the
stabilization of such clay subgrade soils. However, the conventional methods of stabilization of
soils, that is, lime and cement have proven to be expensive. More so, according to Keerthi et al.
(2013), day by day demand of cement by various construction sectors has resulted in intense
collection of CKD from cement plants and their disposal becomes an environmental threat. It could
be used to replace all or part of cement. Also, aggregate crusher units produce large quantities of
stone quarry dust, a waste product, produced during crushing of gravel and rock. Quarry dust is
known to improve some properties of expansive soils. Therefore, there is a need to utilize these
waste materials to reduce cost implications and promote resource recovery for sustainable
engineering. This study seeks to evaluate the physical and strength characteristics of active soils
(that is, black cotton soils and red clay soils) blended with quarry dust and CKD admixture.

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1.3 Project Objectives
1.3.1 Main objective
To evaluate the physical and strength characteristics of the neat active soils (black cotton soils and
red clay soils) stabilized with quarry dust and CKD admixture for subgrade construction.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
 To determine the physical properties of the neat samples and blends of each soil with quarry
dust.
 To determine the index properties of the neat samples and blends of each soil with quarry
dust and CKD admixture in different mix proportions.
 To assess the strength properties of the neat samples and blends of each soil with quarry
dust and CKD admixture in different mix proportions for suitability for subgrade
construction.

1.4 Justification
The experience and severity of damages caused by active soils have led to comprehensive research
on how to improve the engineering properties of such soils as black cotton soils and red clay soils.
Different techniques have been used to improve the strength properties of the expansive subgrade
soil and these include; the weak subgrade soils are either removed and replaced with a suitable
quality material or treated using additives such as lime or cement, etc. However, this substitution
technique can be both costly and time consuming. Although, it is considered a good solution, it is
therefore not reliable. More so, use of lime and Portland cement has proved to be expensive due
to its high costs. There is, therefore, a need to come up with effective and environmentally
sustainable materials for modification of active subgrade soil. In this research, a combination of
quarry dust and CKD admixture has been used for modification of these weak/active soils that is,
Black Cotton soil and Red Clay soils. In addition, utilization of such solid wastes in modification
of soil characteristics may not only provide a less costly alternative for subgrade improvement, but
also a potential avenue for sustainable management of wastes generated hence conserving the
environment.

1.5 Scope of the study

1.5.1 Geographic Scope
The soil samples will be obtained from a borrow pit in central Uganda (Wakiso district for red clay
soils) and North Eastern Uganda (Nakapiripiriti district for black cotton soils). Stone dust will be
obtained from the Muyenga quarry and CKD from Hima Cement factory located in Hima town,
Kasese district in Western Uganda.
1.5.2 Technical Scope
The geotechnical properties of the active soils will be investigated and these include; gradation,
Atterberg limits, the CBR test and moisture-density relationships from compaction tests. The
properties of the active soils blended with the SQD alone and combination of SQD and CKD
admixture will be also investigated by conducting both index property and strength tests.

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2 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview
A subgrade layer acts as the foundation for a flexible pavement and therefore should possess the
engineering properties to withstand the imposed traffic load as well as durability. Active soils are
susceptible to volume changes due to changes in moisture content. Stabilization is, therefore,
required for the weak clay subgrade soils to achieve the required engineering properties. CKD is
a byproduct obtained from cement manufacture and can be used as a chemical stabilizer in
preference to the conventional PC or as a partial replacement thereof. SQD is a waste from stone
crushing units and is readily available at affordable prices. It is non-plastic and therefore lowers
the plasticity index of clayey soils and improves the gradation of the such soils. The physical and
chemical properties of these materials which make them suitable stabilizers for clayey subgrade
soils are discussed in this chapter.

2.2 Pavements
A pavement is a structure made up of carefully selected and well-proportioned materials in
different layers designed to transfer loads applied to the surface so that the underlying subgrade is
not overstressed. It refers to a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed
material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade (Matthew, 2009).
The types of pavements include; flexible pavements, rigid pavements and composite pavements;
with typical pavement layers being the subgrade, subbase, base course and the surface course
(Ravindra et al., 2019). Pavements are designed and constructed to provide durable all-weather
traveling surfaces for safe and speedy movement of people and goods with an acceptable level of
comfort to users. This research is focused on improving the properties of 2 clayey subgrade soils
for pavement construction; and assessing the effectiveness of the stabilizing mixture. The subgrade
layer of a pavement is discussed below.

2.3 The Subgrade

Subgrade soil is an integral part of the pavement structure as it supports the pavement hence must
give adequate support and stability under adverse loading conditions. Subgrade soils consist of the
in-situ, prepared, and compacted soils below the pavement structure. The ranges of typical values
of subgrade strengths for various soils are shown in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1:Typical subgrade strength values for various soils (Austroads, 2004)

4
Most natural soils forming the roadbed for pavement construction require some form of
preparation or treatment as they are unsuitable. The subgrade is classified (MoWT, 2010)
according to its CBR strength as shown in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2: Subgrade Strength Classes (MoWT, 2010)

The top layer of a specified depth is usually compacted to achieve a desired density. The depth of
compaction and the compacted density required depend on the type of soil and magnitudes of
wheel loads and tire pressures. For highway construction, compaction to 100% modified AASHTO
density covering a thickness of 12 in. (300 mm) below the formation level is commonly done.
Compaction depth of up to 24 in. (600 mm) may be required for heavily trafficked pavements
(Chen and Liew, 2003). If the subgrade is poorly prepared (improper compaction, excessive
moisture, etc.) or has a very low strength (such as with highly plastic clays), the subgrade cannot
resist these high stresses and ruts will form which could lead to significant damage to the pavement
(Chen and Liew, 2003).

2.4 Active Soils as Subgrade

The quality of the subgrade will greatly influence the pavement design and the service life of the
pavement. Roads founded on weak soils are known for bad condition and unpredictable behavior
for which the nature of the soil contributes to some extent. The failures of pavement, in the form
of heave, depression, cracking and unevenness are caused by the seasonal moisture variation in
the subgrade soil (Zumrawi, 2013).
Active soils are normally referred to as expansive soils (Lucian, 2008). These are soils prone to
changes in volume with changes in moisture content (shrink-swell behaviour) that may be
seasonal, or induced by human activity (TMR, 2019). Expansive soils owe their characteristics to

5
the presence of swelling clay minerals. During the wet season, the clay minerals absorb water
molecules and expand; conversely, as they dry they shrink, leaving large voids in the soil. Swelling
clays can control the behavior of practically any type of soil if the percentage of clay is more than
about 5 percent by weight (Manosuthikij, 2008). The most common clay minerals include
kaolinite group minerals (kaolinite, dickite, halloysite and nactrite), chlorite group, illite group
(clay-micas), and smectite (pyrophyllite, talc, vermiculite, sauconite, saponite, nontronite and
montmorrillonite) and mixed-layer phases (Lucian, 2008). Soils with smectite clay minerals, such
as montmorillonite, exhibit the highest swelling properties (Manosuthikij, 2008). Generally, the
larger the amount of these minerals present in the soil, the greater the expansive potential.
However, these expansive effects may become ‘diluted’ by the presence of other non-swelling
minerals such as quartz and carbonate (Kemp et al., 2005). Some researchers (Skempton, 1953,
Seed et al., 1960 and Van Der Merwe, 1964) established useful empirical relationships between
expansion potential and physical properties of soils such as colloids contents (clay contents), soil
activity, plasticity index etc. Generally, a soil having clay content in excess of 30 per cent and a
plasticity index greater than 35 per cent is considered to denote a very high potential for shrinkage
or swelling (active soil). On the other hand, a soil with clay content and a plasticity index in excess
of about 10% to 20% may undergo at least slight swelling or shrinking in response to
environmental changes. Activity has been defined by Skempton (1950) as the dimensionless ratio
of plasticity index to colloids contents, both taken in percent. Soil with activity less than 0.75 is
inactive indicating low potential for volume change. If activity lies within 0.75 and 1.4, the soil is
moderately active signifying potential for volume change and If activity exceeds 1.4 then the soil
is termed as very active demonstrating very high potential for volume change (Skempton, 1953).

Table 2-3: Common characteristics/properties of expansive soils (Mishra, 2015)

6
A significant number of transport routes are founded on clay-rich soils and rocks. Clay minerals
are almost ubiquitous in soil and rock and are among the most reactive silicates. The clays within
these materials can be a significant hazard to engineering construction due to their ability to shrink
or swell with changes in water content. Fine-grained clay-rich soils absorb large quantities of water
after rainfall, becoming sticky and heavy. Conversely, they also become very hard when dry,
resulting in shrinking and cracking of the ground (Jones and Jefferson, 2012). Absorption of water
is due to the fact that the basic structural units of most clay minerals are a silicon–oxygen
tetrahedron and an aluminium–hydroxyl octahedron. There are valency imbalances in both units,
resulting in net negative charges. More so, the surfaces of clay mineral particles carry residual
negative charges, mainly as a result of the isomorphous substitution of silicon or aluminium by
ions of lower valency but also due to disassociation of hydroxyl ions (Barton and Karathanasis,
2002). Layers of water molecules are held around a clay mineral particle by hydrogen bonding and
(because water molecules are dipolar) by attraction to the negatively charged surfaces (Craig,
2004). Active soils include red clay soils and the highly expansive black cotton soils due to the
presence of the clay minerals mentioned above. Some of the general engineering properties of
these soils are shown in Table 2-3. Residual red soils are tropically weathered soils with a high
concentration of sesquioxides of iron and alumina. Residual soils are derived from weathering of
parent rock at the original location. This is opposed to transported soils which are formed from the
rock weathering at one location and transported by wind, water, ice, or gravity to the present site
(Brink, 2015). They [red soils] exist in a wide range of chemical composition. Silica content in
these soils varies from low to medium and exists usually as kaolinite, whenever it is found in
substantial amounts. (Blight, 1997). Lateritic soil tends to be reddish due to oxidation of certain
metallic oxides principally iron (Anand, 2003). As explained by Mitchell and Sitar (1982), tropical
red soils are highly sensitive to changes in the natural moisture content of the material, with such
changes typically resulting in irreversible changes in the physical properties of the material.
Similarly, they are highly sensitive to structural breakdown and treatment. (Brink, 2015). Black
cotton soils, on the other hand, are dark grey to black in colour with a high content of clay (usually
more than 50%), in which montmorillonite is the predominant mineral with the resulting
manifestation of expansive tendencies (Gidigasu and Gawu, 2013). Black cotton soils exhibit high
swelling and shrinkage properties due to volumetric changes in the alternate wet and dry
conditions. They are generally characterised by a black or dark grey to brown color, a high content
of expansive clay mineral montmorillonite, high swelling and shrinking due to changes in moisture
condition, high plasticity index and exhibit heave and crack, shrink greatly on drying and develop
cracks on the surface.
Formation of Black cotton soils: They are residual soils which are a result of weathering of the
parent rock. They are formed mainly by the chemical weathering of igneous rocks which are made
up of calcium-rich feldspars and dark minerals. These constituents break down through chemical
weathering to form amorphous hydrous oxides and under suitable conditions clay minerals are
created. The absence of quartz results in the formation of fine grained, mostly clay size, plastic
soils which are highly impervious and easily becomes waterlogged (Gidigasu and Gawu, 2013).
The black or blackish grey colour in Black cotton gravel is due to the presence of titanium oxide
in small concentration. The structures on Black cotton gravel bases develop undulations at the road
surface due to loss of strength of the sub-grade through softening during monsoons. Physical
7
properties of Black cotton gravels vary from place to place with 40 % to 60% of the BCS having
a size less than 0.001 mm. As such, they have very low bearing capacity and high swelling and
shrinkage characteristics. Due to their peculiar characteristics, they form a very poor foundation
material for road construction. The construction of foundations for structures on BCS poses
challenges to civil engineers (Shweta, 2017). The presence of clay minerals in a soil aggregate has
a great influence on the engineering properties of the soil as a whole. When moisture is present,
the engineering behavior of a soil will change greatly as the percentage of clay mineral content
increases. For all practical purposes, when the clay content is about 50% or more, the sand and silt
particles float in a clay matrix, and the clay minerals primarily dictate the engineering properties
of the soil (Das, 2006). Due to their alternate swelling and shrinkage, these expansive soils result
in detrimental cracking of loaded engineering structures such as foundations for example, the
subgrade (Chen, 1988). In some instances, it may be economical to treat or stabilize poor subgrade
materials to improve performance. The choice of the method of stabilization depends on the soil
properties, improvement expected, and cost of construction (Chen and Liew, 2003).
There is increasing interest in making optimal use of available resources (including money,
materials, manpower, etc.). This [optimal use of available resources] can entail the development
of “new” materials and/or the use of (what is considered) “marginal or unacceptable” locally
available materials (Robnett, 1980). Naturally occurring sands, gravels, and locally available non-
specification crushed stone normally do not meet specifications due to improper gradation, high
plasticity fines, and/or poor durability. One of the techniques of upgrading these materials is the
use of chemical admixture. Chemical stabilization of local soils, waste materials and recycled
materials appears to provide an excellent and economical method for upgrading materials to a level
adequate for use in many pavement structures. The types of stabilizers normally found to be most
feasible are cement, lime, lime-fly ash and bitumen. For fine-grained in-situ or local soils, cement
and lime stabilization are commonly used (Robnett, 1980).

2.5 Stabilization
Soil stabilization is the process of improving the shear strength parameters of soil and thus
increasing its bearing capacity in road construction. It is required when the soil available for
construction is not suitable to carry structural load. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of
a soil and control its shrink-swell properties, thereby improving the load bearing capacity of a sub-
grade to support the pavement and its foundations. It is used to reduce permeability and
compressibility of the soil mass in earth structures and to increase its shear strength (Amhadi and
Assaf, 2019). The most appropriate method for stabilization is that which produces a soil material
with desired properties at the very minimum cost and the stabilized material should have better
qualities than those of natural soil. Depending on the CBRdesign of the subgrade, improved subgrade
layers shall be constructed as required, on which the gravel wearing course is placed. Soils used
in improved subgrade layers shall be non-expansive, non-dispersive and free from any deleterious
matter (MoWT, 2010). All laboratory test results shall meet the requirements in Table 2-4 shown
below. The General Specifications for Road and Bridge Works (2005) by Republic of Uganda,
Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications (MoWHC); [Series 3000: Earthworks and

8
Pavement Layers of Gravel or Crushed Stone- Section 3600: Earthworks] specifies that materials
for earthworks shall be non-expansive soils or dump rock meeting the requirements given in Table
2-5. Here, the material classes represent improved layers and are defined as follows;
− G15 natural gravel/soils with minimum CBR value of 15
− G7 natural gravel/soils with minimum CBR value of 7
− G3 natural gravel/soils with minimum CBR value of 3

Table 2-4: Material requirements for improved subgrade layer (MoWT, 2010)

Table 2-5: Requirements for fill and improved subgrade layers (MoWHC, 2005)

9
2.5.1 Soil stabilization methods
Stabilization can be achieved through various methods which are implemented with aims to
modify engineering characteristics of any particular soil so that the treated soil responds to any
particular set of engineering requirement. These are broadly categorized as chemical and
mechanical stabilization.
2.5.1.1 Mechanical Stabilization
Mechanical stabilization aims at densification of soil by compaction through the application of
mechanical energy, reducing the voids present (Little and Nair, 2009). This method is effective for
cohesionless soils where mechanical compaction causes interlocking of soil particles by
rearrangement. But this method is not effective under significant moisture fluctuations in field
conditions. Also, with increase in fine content, the efficacy of the method may decrease.

 Blending
This involves the mixing of materials that have different properties (particle size distribution and
plasticity) to form a material with improved strength characteristics. Improving strength or
plasticity is usually the primary reason for implementing mechanical stabilization. In most
instances, blending will involve adding coarse aggregates to the finest in situ material in order to
fill the voids and obtain a denser gradation. The addition of coarse-grained particles to fine grained
soil forms a skeleton-like structure and voids between them are filled by fine grained or clayey
particles.
2.5.1.2 Chemical Stabilization
Under this category, soil stabilization depends on the chemical reactions between the stabilizer
e.g. cementitious material (like cement and lime) and the soil minerals to achieve the desired effect.

 Admixture Stabilization
Since stabilization of soils by using only lime or cement is costly, use of wastes along with very
little lime or cement (partial substitution) is preferred for the economy. There are two types of
admixture stabilization in general i.e., Chemical admixture stabilization and industrial wastes
admixture stabilization.

 Industrial wastes for admixture stabilization

In this category of stabilization, the soil is stabilized by using industrial wastes or in combination
with conventional stabilizers such as lime or cement. Most of the industrial wastes pose pozzolanic
properties i.e. having cementitious tendencies and pozzolanic reactions in the presence of moisture.
These wastes include; CKD, LKD, fly ash, marble dust, rice husk ash and others. From different
researches, it has been evident that the geotechnical properties of low bearing expansive soil can
be enhanced by using the mixture of industrial wastes. (Gupta and Sharma, 2016) found that
addition of waste materials i.e. fly-ash and marble dust in the river-sand-stabilized black cotton
soil improved the various geotechnical properties of black cotton soil. In addition, the re-use of
industrial wastes as stabilizers is not only cost effective, but also leads to a safe and effective
management of waste materials.

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2.6 Cement Kiln Dust
Cement kiln dust is a fine powder-like byproduct of Portland cement production. Cement kiln dust
is created in the kiln during the production of cement clinker. The dust is a particulate mixture of
partially calcined and unreacted raw feed, clinker dust and ash, enriched with alkali sulfates,
halides and other volatiles, captured by the exhaust gases and collected in particulate matter control
devices such as cyclones, bag houses and electrostatic precipitators (Adaska et al., 2008). CKD
therefore is comprised of almost the same chemical composition as the raw feed from which it is
obtained.
2.6.1 Production of CKD
It is important to review the manufacture of PC since CKD is a byproduct of the Portland cement
manufacturing process. According to Recycled Materials and Byproducts in Highway Applications
(2013), cement is manufactured using a rotary kiln which turns the raw materials i.e., limestone,
clay, iron ore and silica into a sintered product referred to as clinker. Gypsum is added at the end
of the process to manage the rate of hydration. A rotary kiln is basically a long slowly rotating
cylinder tilted at an angle and the burner is usually at the lower end (National Academies of
Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, 2013). There are three main types of kilns;
 Long-wet kiln
 Long-dry kiln
 Pre-calciner kiln

The long-wet kiln is the oldest technology in rotary kilns whereas the long-dry and the pre-calciner
kilns are the newer and more effective ones. The newer long-dry and pre-calciner kilns carry out
pre-heating of the raw feed before it enters the kiln and so there is decarbonation of the raw meal
before it enters the kiln. For the long-dry kiln, 30%-40% of the decarbonation of the raw meal
occurs before entering the kiln whereas 85-95% of the material is decarbonated before it enters the
Pre-calciner kiln (Winter, 2012). The particulates for all types of the cement kilns are captured
from the exhaust gases using air pollution control devices such as cyclones, bag houses, and
electrostatic precipitators (Adaska et al., 2008). The particles captured in this process constitute
the CKD. However, the CKD collected can be dealt with in two ways namely (Rahman et al.,
2011);
i. A portion of the dust can be separated and returned to the kiln from the dust collection
system closest to the kiln.
ii. The total quantity of dust collected can be recycled or discarded.
The CKD is recycled back into the kiln by most cement manufacturing plants so as to save raw
material used as well as to optimize on the landfill space. However, CKD can only be recycled
back into the kiln if it meets the required alkali and chloride [Cl-] levels stipulated in the cement
specifications. CKD mixed with clay and water increases the soil PH up to about 13.1 as a result
of active hydroxyl [OH-] ions, which are generated due to existence of alkalis and calcium
carbonate [CaCO3] within the CKD composition (Mosa et al., 2017). This increase in the PH value
is responsible for suitable conditions to dissolute clay particle surfaces leading to release of silica

11
and alumina into the mixture (Mosa et al., 2017). Additionally, CKD has fine particles which fill
the voids present in the soil structure and all this increases the strength of the treated soil as well
as reducing its swell potential. The treated soil therefore attains improved engineering properties
suitable for pavement construction.

2.7 Quarry by-products

Aggregate quarry processes such as blasting, crushing, and screening of coarse graded aggregates
result in a mainline product, as well as by-product mineral fine materials commonly known as
quarry waste or stone dust. Stone dust, quarry waste, and quarry fines are the common terms used
to define the aggregate by-products representing fine aggregates separated from the mainline
products. Generally, the term dust refers to undersized material from a crushing plant, which
accumulates over time and is subjected to no further processing. Materials produced from bag
house installation are a good example of dust. Different agencies have adopted different definitions
of fines based on size. The general sizes of dust material as defined by different agencies do not
exceed 0.25 in (6.25 mm). Bag house dusts are smaller than No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) and can
generally be mixed with plant fines. Manning (2004) defined stone dust as materials less than
0.157 in. (4 mm) in size and intended for use as fine aggregate. The same report also defined dust
as less than 0.079 in (2 mm). The variation is attributed to the fact that dust can generally be
defined depending on the application. Therefore, quarry fines may cover a range of aggregates
with maximum sieve sizes ranging from 0.079 to 0.25 in (2 to 6.25 mm).
According to an International Center for Aggregates Research (ICAR) report (Hudson et al.,
1997), stockpiling and disposal of aggregate by-products produced as a result of stone crushing
and aggregate production operations are among the major problems facing the stone and aggregate
industry. Current Superpave specifications require lower limits for the use of fines in asphalt
mixtures. In addition, the growing demand for reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) has limited the
use of aggregate by-products to control fine-graded aggregate due to the excess fines resulting
from the RAP stockpiles (Kumar and Hudson, 1992). Even though some benefits of fine
aggregates were demonstrated in the literature for asphalt, geotechnical, and concrete paving
applications, the use of Stone dust as a by-product is not widespread because of the lack for
comprehensive specifications and guidelines. As a result, quarry fines continue to accumulate in
quarries, thus becoming a major challenge for aggregate producers.
2.7.1 Production of Stone dust
The production of aggregates starts with blasting of the parent rock and fragmentation. The
fragmented rock is then crushed and screened through multiple stages. Crushing of the quarried
rock is generally carried out in three stages; primary crushing, secondary crushing, and tertiary
crushing (Petavratzi and Wilson, 2007). The later stages in aggregate production are washing and
stockpiling. In general, stone dust is produced during aggregate crushing stages and washing
operations. For most practices, stone dust produced from the extraction of limestone or dolomite
can be up to 25%, while those produced from the extraction of sandstone/grit stone can be up to
35% (Petavratzi and Wilson, 2007). Owing to different sizes of aggregates produced from each
crusher and different crusher types, the quantity of fines produced may increase from the primary
crusher to the tertiary crusher.

12
Quarry fines often require some degree of processing before they can be used, which may increase
their cost and at the same time require suitable infrastructure and equipment to become readily
available. (Kumar and Hudson, 1992) examined the unconfined compressive strength, tensile
modulus of elasticity, and Poisson’s ratio of cement-treated quarry fines (CQF). Their study
concluded that stabilizing quarry fines with cement could produce the adequate compressive
strength, modulus of elasticity, and tensile strength required for the soil material.

2.8 A review of previous studies

Poor subgrade soils (including expansive clays) may be improved through the addition of chemical
or cementitious additives. These chemical additives range from waste products to manufactured
materials and include lime, fly ash, Portland cement, cement kiln dust from pre-calciner and long
kiln processes, and proprietary chemical stabilizers (Parsons and Milburn, 2004). Several studies
have been done on the stabilization and/or modification of active soils for pavement construction
using such admixtures, either singly or in combination with others (both conventional and non-
traditional). These include among others, lime (Mishra, 2015; Du et al., 1999), cement and lime
(Al-Rawas et al., 2005; Saride et al., 2013; Khemissa and Mahamedi, 2014), Marble powder
(Gurbuz, 2015), LKD (Kakrasul, Parsons and Han, 2017), fly ash (Rajendra et al., 2013; Eqyaabal
and Ambica, 2015), Geopolymers (Miao et al., 2017) and (CSMs) Calcium-Based Stabilizer
Materials (Fazal-E- Jalal et al., 2020).
Some studies done using combined admixtures include; molasses and cement (Taye and Araya,
2015), molasses and lime (Prudhvi and Kameswar, 2017), palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and cement
(Ahmad et al., 2008), Lime and Fly Ash (Pankaj et al., 2012), Sawdust and Cement (Rakesh et al.,
2017) and cutback bitumen and Lime (Rizwan et al., 2020). Non-chemical additives have been
used too and include; river sand (Ola, 1981; Jjuuko et al., 2011), quarry dust (Sridharan et al.,
2005; Sridharan et al., 2006, Sai Ganesh Kumar, 2015), quarry dust and sand (Satyanarayana et
al., 2013), river sand, fly ash and marble dust (Gupta and Sharma, 2016), industrial wastes like
foundry sand, rice husk ash and bagasse ash (Jadhav and Kulkarni, 2014) and Crushed Concrete
Aggregate Waste (Kashoborozi et al., 2017), et cetera.
While some of these additives are successful only to a partial extent, the cost of some of the
stabilizers e.g., lime and cement is high making them uneconomical for use in the stabilization of
soils especially as high percentages of these additives are usually required to stabilize active soils
effectively (Osinubi, 2000). Therefore, the need to utilize waste materials is imperative so as to
reduce cost implications and promote resource recovery for sustainable engineering. This is
through identifying potential solid waste materials for use in unsuitable soils, to provide both a
less costly alternative for subgrade improvement and a potential avenue for sustainable
management of wastes generated hence conserving the environment. In their study on Black
Cotton Soil modification with the application of waste materials, Gupta and Sharma (2016) found
that the replacement of finer particles of BC soil with coarser particles of waste materials,
improved the compaction, gradation and strength characteristics of the soil. The results of a study
by Ola (1981) indicate that sand stabilization shows promise for improving the strength (CBR)
value of black cotton clays in pavement construction. A study by Jjuuko et al. (2011) shows that
clay samples with 40%, 60% and 80% concentrations of added sand satisfy the conditions for use

13
as pavement layers in road construction, although the one with 60% concentration is recommended
for use because of low shrinkage and high maximum dry density and specific gravity hence high
bearing capacity.
Quarry dust has been proved to be a promising substitute for sand to improve the engineering
properties of poor soils (Sridharan et al., 2005; Sridharan et al., 2006). It can be used as stabilizing
admixture for expansive soil because with increase in percentage of quarry dust, the Unconfined
Compressive Strength, USC of soil increases (Indiramma and Sudharani, 2016; Zhang et al.,
2019). Crusher dust particles, similar to sand particles, offer more shear strength at wider variation
of moisture contents by maintaining high dry densities and can with stand high strengths in terms
of CBR and angle of shearing resistance which can be used as fill and sub grade material in place
of Red soil and sand (Satyanarayana et al., 2013). Sai Ganesh Kumar (2015) concluded that with
the addition of 40% quarry dust to black cotton soil, the C.B.R value is increased by 87.5%.
Therefore, Stone Quarry Fines is highly beneficial as a geotechnical material as it exhibits high
shear strength (Soosan et al., 2005; Eze-Uzomaka and Agbo 2010; Amadi 2011).
CKD has also been used as a soil additive to improve the texture, increase strength and reduce
swell characteristics. Parsons and Milburn (2004) found that treatment with cement kiln dust was
found to be an effective option for improvement of clay soil properties. Results showed that
strength and stiffness were improved and plasticity and swell potential were substantially reduced.
A number of CKDs and clay-type soils were used by McCoy and Kriner (1971) to study the soil
stabilization. Soil-CKD mixes containing 3, 8, and 10% of CKD were tested for various
engineering properties and it was found that the use of CKD was potentially promising in
stabilizing soils. Zaman et al. (1992) and Sayah (1993) established useful correlations among the
engineering properties of the clays and CKD. Studies by Kumar & Singh (2017) and Baghdadi
(1990) also found that is CKD a potential stabiliser. It can be recommended based on their results
that CKD be considered a viable option for the stabilization of subgrade soils.

Some soil stabilization studies have been done here at Makerere University and can be accessed
from the Makerere CEDAT library and/or from the Makerere University's Institutional Repository
(Mak IR), a dissertations platform via the website; http://makir.mak.ac.ug/handle/10570/26. These
include studies investigating the performance of expansive soils using different traditional and
non-conventional material. In one study by Kibuka A. Ambrose (2019), the expansive soil sample
was blended with sand alone and a combination of sand and lime kiln dust (LKD), by varying
proportions of the stabilizers. Black cotton soil was blended with sand (30%) and LKD in
concentrations of 0%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% by dry weight of the soil. The CBR of black cotton
soil increased from 5% to 18% for the final optimum mix and from the above results, he concluded
that the modified black cotton soil was suitable for subgrade construction. Musinguzi A. Walter
and Makomiku Claudia (2019) carried out a study to determine the effect of cement and molasses
on the engineering properties of black cotton soils from Nakapiripiriti district. The (4% cement +
4% molasses) dosage/modification was the most satisfactory and recommended for use in
subgrade construction. This is so because it gave engineering properties of PI (19.2%) and CBR
(21.8%) which met the MOWT specifications. Okwii Teddy (2015) also made an investigation
into the engineering properties of black cotton soil stabilized with marble dust and river sand for
subgrade construction. The combination yielded improvements in the properties of these expansive
14
soils. Other studies have been done to assess the suitability of SQD and CKD as potential
stabilisers for various types of soils. For instance, Kabuye Yasin (2018) concluded that stone dust
of at least 40% can be utilized as an admixture to improve the strength of gravelly soil as the CBR
increased from 27% to 60% with the increase in the percentage of stone dust from 0 to 60% as the
CBR swell decreased from 0.66 to 0.23 indicating an increase in strength of the soils. Tayebwa
Ritah (2012) used Cement Kiln Dust in stabilisation of gravel soils for pavement construction. The
CBR of the soil increased from 48.2% to 118% with increase in the amounts of the CKD (5, 7, 9,
11 and 12). Balitunga D. William and Omodo J. Deo (2020) found 10% by dry weight of CKD
content to be the optimum percentage for stabilization of the clay soil samples with a reduction in
the PI from 45% to 29.6%. This was in their recent study entitled “Assessing the suitability of
cement kiln dust as a chemical stabilizer for clay subgrade soils”. All these studies are in
agreement with all the others mentioned above and recommend CKD and SQD as potential
stabilisers.
According to Amadi and Lubem, (2014), the improvement in CBR value can be attributed to the
significant improvement in gradation as well as angle of shearing resistance of the soil mixture.
For fine-grained soils, which in their natural form have a poor engineering property, a single
additive might not be sufficient in stabilizing such soil (Osinubi et al., 2011; Osinubi et al., 2009;
Amadi, 2014). The use of coarser materials (like SQD) alone for modification results in remarkable
reduction in the shrink–swell behaviour of the soil but, it is ineffective in improving the soaked
CBR value of soils (Amadi, 2011). The inclusion of chemical additives (like CKD) in contrast
alters the physicochemical properties of soils thereby ensuring a permanent stabilization (Baghdadi
and Rahman 1990; Baghdadi et al., 1995; Peethamparan and Olek, 2008). Amadi (2014) reported
a significant enhancement in the wet–dry durability of subgrade soils modified with SQD and
CKD. The advantage in using combined stabilization is that one of the stabilisers in the
combination compensates for the lack of effectiveness of the other in treating a particular aspect
or characteristics of a given soil (Amadi, 2011). A combination of these stabilisers would therefore
be more efficient in achieving the required result.
This project therefore, is aimed at assessing the physical and strength characteristics of active soils
(that is, black cotton soils and red clayey soils) blended with a combination of pozzolanic cement
kiln dust (CKD), a by-product of cement manufacturing process and the chemically non-active
Stone Quarry Dust (SQD), a non-primary product from in quarry processes. The performance of
both soils will be compared.

15
3 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Overview
This chapter gives an overview of the experimental set up and test methods to be employed in the
study. The tests are aimed at soil classification and determination of the index and strength
properties for the active soil samples studied and their blends.

3.2 Materials to be used

Materials used in this research will be collected from different locations of the country and these
include the following;
3.2.1 Active-soil samples
The active soil samples that will be used in this study are red clay soils and black cotton soils. The
red clay soils will be obtained from central Uganda in Wakiso district and black cotton soils from
north eastern Uganda in Nakapiripirit district. These soils are predominantly present in the
specified regions and exhibit different properties.
3.2.2 Cement kiln dust (CKD)
CKD samples will be obtained from Hima Cement factory located in Hima town, Kasese district
in Western Uganda.
3.2.3 Quarry dust (SQD)
Stone Quarry dust will be obtained from Muyenga quarry.

3.3 Sampling of the materials

The samples to be used for this study will be disturbed soil samples. Soil sampling will be done in
accordance with the Tanzania Field Testing Manual - 2003 (TANROADS, 2003).

3.4 Laboratory tests and methods

In this project, the Laboratory tests (with their respective test methods) will be performed in the
Highways laboratory at Makerere University Kampala. The tests on the sampled soils and their
blends will be carried out to determine the physical, index and strength properties. The tests to be
determined include; sieve analysis, liquid limit, plastic limit (and hence the plasticity index), linear
shrinkage, proctor tests and the CBR tests as shown in Table 3-1. These tests will be conducted in
accordance with BS 1377 in conjunction with the ministry of works Laboratory testing manual.
The stabilization of soil samples will be done using quarry dust with OPC and CKD admixture.
3.4.1 Particle size gradation
The sieve analysis test will be conducted to determine the percentage of different grain sizes
contained within a soil by sieving through a series of standard test sieves stacked together by the
wet sieving method in accordance with BS 1377: Part 2:1990. The cumulative percentage by mass
of the soil sample passing through each sieve will then calculated and plotted against the
corresponding sieve sizes on a semi - log graph.

16
 Table 3-1: Laboratory Tests to be conducted

Test Method Test Standard to follow Test parameter

Sieve Analysis/Particle size distribution BS 1377: Part 2: Clause 9: 1990 Soil Gradation and
(wet sieving and hydrometer) Grading Modulus
Liquid Limit BS 1377: Part 2: Clause 4: 1990 LL

Plastic Limit BS 1377: Part 2: Clause 5: 1990 PL and PI

Atterberg Limits
Linear Shrinkage BS 1377: Part 2: Clause 6: 1990 LS

Compaction (Proctor test; BS Heavy) BS 1377: Part 4: Clause 3: 1990 MDD, OMC

California Bearing Ratio (3-point CBR, BS 1377: Part 4: Clause 7: 1990 CBR
4 days soaking)

3.4.2 Atterberg Limit Tests.

The Atterberg limits are used to determine the plasticity of the soil and they include; Plasticity
Index, Shrinkage Limit, Plastic Limit and the Liquid Limit. They will be done on the neat soil
samples and their improved blends using the cone penetrometer method and BS 1377: Part 2: 1990.
The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil sample passes from the liquid state to the
plastic state. A sample of about 400g passing through a 425µm test sieve is subjected to increments
of water, homogenously mixed on a glass plate, penetrated by the cone in a metallic cup and dial
gauge recordings of penetrations recorded while taking off their moisture contents. The LL can
then be calculated as the average of the moisture contents of the penetrated samples. The samples
for plastic and shrinkage limit tests are taken at approximately 20mm penetration. For plastic
limits, the samples are rolled into threads of 3mm and their moisture contents taken with the PL
being their average while for shrinkage limit test, the samples are placed in a standard shrinkage
mould (140mm), airdried for 12hrs, oven dried for another 24hrs and SL taken as the percentage
of the ratio of decrease in length to the original length. The plastic indices may then be calculated
as the difference between LL and PL.
3.4.3 Moisture-Density Relationships
The dry density for a soil depends on the degree of compaction applied and its moisture content.
The purpose of this test is to obtain relationships between compacted dry density and soil moisture
content and this provides a guide for specifications on field compaction for a required degree of
compaction. The standard proctor test method, where representative soil samples, each passing
through the 20mm test sieve will be used. Samples are prepared by quartering, riffling and
weighing. Each sample on a metal tray is then thoroughly mixed with different amounts of water
(measured using a measuring cylinder in definite intervals) to give a suitable range of moisture
contents. The range of moisture contents should be such that at least 2 values lie either side of the

17
Optimum Moisture Content. For each sample, heavy compactions are made in 3 layers, weights
measured and their moisture contents taken from which their dry densities can be determined. The
dry densities obtained for each of the soil samples are plotted as ordinates against the
corresponding moisture contents as the abscissa. A curve of best fit to the plotted points can then
be drawn and its maximum point identified upon which the corresponding values of dry density
and moisture content read off and recorded as the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and the Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC) respectively.
3.4.4 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test.
The CBR value is the resistance to a penetration of 2.5 mm of standard cylindrical plunger of 50
mm diameter, expressed as a percentage of the known resistance of the plunger to 2.5 mm in
penetration in crushed aggregate (taken as 13.2kN) or resistance to 5.0 mm penetration (taken as
20.0kN) (CML, 2000). The CBR test was developed in USA and is generally used for the design
of layer thickness. For this study, it was used as a prime indicator to the strength of the sampled
material. The CBR test will be carried out in accordance with BS 1377: Part 4:1990 on both the
neat sample and blended samples to determine their strength. This will be done using the three-
point method which enables an estimate of the subgrade CBR at different densities e.g., 90%, 93%,
95% compaction. In each case the material will be compacted in the CBR mould in 3 or 5 layers
(as specified) at OMC, soaked in water and then tested after four days soaking.

3.5 The experimental matrix

This illustrates the mix proportions (percentages by mass of the air-dried soil samples) of each
active soil sample with the various soil stabilizing additives. This is shown in Table 3-2
Table 3-2: Dosages [Basic Mix Proportions]

DOSAGES [MIX PROPORTIONS, %]

SOIL SAMPLE CKD SQD
0 0
2 10
BCS
4 20
6 30
0 0
2 10
RCS
4 20
6 30

18
3.6 The Setup of the tests
This shows the tests to be carried out and the mix proportions (percentages by mass of the air-dried
soil samples) of each active soil sample with the various soil stabilizing additives.
Previous studies of such soils treated singly with each of these additives have lent crucial guidance
in choosing trial blends for our project. In a study in which BCS was treated with 10%, 20%, 30%
and 40%, Sai Ganesh Kumar (2015) concluded that with the addition of 40% quarry dust to black
cotton soil, the C.B.R value is increased by 87.5%. Chansoria and Yadav (2016) used the same
dosages in their study. Indiramma and Sudharani (2016) collected and mixed the Quarry Dust
passing through 4.75mm sieve with the expansive soil from 0% to 25% at an increment of 5%. For
their study, Adeyanju and Okeke (2019) mixed CKD with clayey soil in varying proportions of
7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15%. For each combination, several geotechnical tests were carried out. The
result showed that the unsoaked CBR of the clay soil increased from 1.49 to 28.6%, and indicated
that the soil mixed with 10% CKD showed the best mechanical improvement after a curing period
of 7 days. Clay soil-CKD mixes containing 3, 8, and 10% of CKD were tested for various
engineering property by McCoy and Kriner (1971). Gupta et al. (2015) evaluated the behavior of
cadmium contaminated soil with addition of CKD in varying percentage (1%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%
and 10%) and the maximum stabilization obtained at 8% CKD mixed soil. Amadi and Lubem
(2014) evaluated mixtures containing a constant dosage of 10 % SQD and varying amounts (0, 4,
8, 12 and 16 %) of CKD on plasticity, unit weight and CBR. It was established that stabilization
of BC soil using cementitious CKD in combination with non-plastic SQD will produce a strong
subgrade for pavement construction.
Basing on these sample studies, mix proportions/blends have been chosen to study the combined
effect of 2 soil stabilizing agents, SQD and CKD on the active soils in this project. This information
is shown in Tables 3-3 and 3-4.

19
 Table 3-3: Physical tests: Gradation (Soils with SQD)

Sieve sizes [in mm]

PROPORTIONS 63 37.5 20 5 2 0.425 0.075 GM
Grading limits [% passing sieve]
100 80 – 100 60 –95 30 – 65 20 – 50 10 – 30 5 – 15
Stone Quarry Dust
100% SQD
Black Cotton Soils blended with Stone Quarry Dust
0% SQD, 100%BCS
10% SQD, 90%BCS
20% SQD, 80%BCS
30% SQD, 70%BCS
Red Clay Soils blended with Stone Quarry Dust
0% SQD, 100%RCS
10% SQD, 90%RCS
20% SQD, 80%RCS
30% SQD, 70%RCS

Table 3-4: Other tests: Index, Compaction and Strength Properties (Soils with CKD and SQD)

PROPORTIONS LL PL PI SL MDD OMC CBR CBR CBR CBR

(%) (%) (%) (%) (g/cm3) (%) @ @ @ SWELL
90% 93% 95% (%)
Black Cotton Soils blended with Stone Quarry Dust and Cement Kiln Dust
0% SQD, 0% CKD, 100%BCS
10% SQD, 2% CKD, 88%BCS
20% SQD, 4% CKD, 76%BCS
30% SQD, 6% CKD, 64%BCS
Red Clay Soils blended with Stone Quarry Dust and Cement Kiln Dust
0% SQD, 0% CKD, 100%RCS
10% SQD, 2% CKD, 88%RCS
20% SQD, 4% CKD, 76%RCS
30% SQD, 6% CKD, 64%RCS

20
4 CHAPTER FOUR: BUDGET ESTIMATE OF THE PROJECT
STUDY

Table 4-1: Budget for the project

ACTIVITY UNIT QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT

(UGX) (UGX)
Field visits Trips 3 120,000 360,000
Laboratory Tests Lumpsum 350,000 350,000
Stationery & Printing Lumpsum 100,000 100,000
Welfare Lumpsum 100,000 100,000
Subtotal 910,000
Miscellaneous (25% sub total) Lumpsum 227,500
TOTAL 1,137,500

21
 5 CHAPTER FIVE: TENTATIVE TIMELINE

Table 5-1: The tentative timetable

ACTIVITY MONTH
March April May June July August September October
Proposal Writing
Literature Review
Proposal Presentation
Site visits
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Report Writing
Final Presentation

22
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