Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Design, implementation, and evaluation of a short rotation coppice system

for wastewater treatment and resource recovery in India
Mirko Hänel a, b, d, *, Emil Jespersen b, d, Aryan Upadhyay e, Andrés Acosta b, c, d, Nadeem Khalil e,
Hans Brix b, Carlos A. Arias b, d
a
Technology Transfer Centre (TTZ) Bremerhaven, Hausburgstrasse 17, 10249 Berlin, Germany
b
Department of Biology, Aquatic Biology, Aarhus University, Ole Worms Allé 1, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
c
Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Hangøvej 2, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark
d
WATEC Aarhus University Centre for Water Technology, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark
e
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202001, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Despite growing health concerns and increasing water scarcity, adequate wastewater treatment and reuse re­
Wastewater fertigated/irrigated Short-rotation mains limited in India. Low-cost, decentralised, and nature-based on-site sanitation systems could play a key role
coppice/plantation (SRC, SRP) in India in a circular water approach. This paper evaluates the performance of a Wastewater Fertigated Short Rotation
Low-cost nature-based wastewater treatment
Coppice (wfSRC) system based on willow, poplar, and bamboo species as a potential solution, offering low-cost,
systems
Phytofiltration
efficient water treatment, and high biomass production. Through a full-scale wfSRC pilot plant (250 m3⋅day− 1
Resource recovery municipal wastewater on 6864 m2) established at Aligarh Muslim University, Uttar Pradesh, India, treatment
Sustainable commercially viable biomass capacities, biomass production rates, and contamination tolerance of different willow, poplar, and bamboo
production species were investigated. The chemical compositions of incoming wastewater, percolation water, soil, and
biomass were monitored regularly. Despite the high load, all plant sections of the wfSRC system showed efficient
removal of wastewater-originated pollutants. BOD5 and COD removal efficiencies were up to 99% and 95%
respectively. Removal efficiencies for PO4-P reached 93% and for TN 91%. In general, total nitrogen and
phosphate loads appear to be the limiting design parameters under the conditions at Aligarh to meet all discharge
limits in India. Biomass production was projected to be >225 tDM⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 for bamboo, 65 tDM⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 for
willow, and 206 tDM⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 for poplar. The pilot, conducted from March 2022 to June 2023, showcased how
these densely planted agroforestry systems can effectively treat wastewater through natural processes such as
oxidation, microbial degradation, and plant uptake. The findings demonstrate wfSRC's potential to serve as a
nature-based, sustainable approach to wastewater treatment, particularly beneficial for suburban and rural areas
in India and similar regions worldwide. This paper also provides recommendations for future implementation of
wfSRC systems, emphasizing the need for careful planning regarding plant selection, system design, and oper­
ational strategies to maximize treatment efficiency and biomass production.

1. Introduction
In India, the state of wastewater treatment is far from satisfactory,
despite significant investment and efforts by the Indian government over
the years. <30% of households have connections to sewage treatment
plants, and only a fraction of the generated wastewater is adequately
treated (Breitenmoser et al., 2022). As a result, vast amounts of un­
treated wastewater are either discharged into open water bodies or used
indirectly or directly to irrigate crops (Minhas et al., 2022). Currently,
>8.9 million hectares in India are irrigated with untreated wastewater
(Thebo et al., 2017). The unregulated and uncontrolled use of waste­
water has led to significant environmental and health issues, as most
open water bodies and even groundwater sources are contaminated
(Bassi et al., 2022). Additionally, the prevailing end-of-pipe approach in
wastewater treatment often fails to consider potential nutrient har­
vesting water reclamation and reuse options. Present cost of wastewater
treatment has led to severe environmental and health problems
(Schellenberg et al., 2020; Singh, 2021).

* Corresponding author at: Technology Transfer Centre (TTZ) Bremerhaven, Hausburgstrasse 17, 10249 Berlin, Germany.
E-mail addresses: mhaenel@ttz-bremerhaven.de (M. Hänel), emil@bio.au.dk (E. Jespersen), andresacosta@bce.au.dk (A. Acosta), nkhalil.cv@amu.ac.in
(N. Khalil), hans.brix@bio.au.dk (H. Brix), carlos.arias@bio.au.dk (C.A. Arias).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2024.107218
Received 5 November 2023; Received in revised form 14 February 2024; Accepted 19 February 2024
Available online 22 February 2024
0925-8574/© 2024 Published by Elsevier B.V.
M. Hänel et al.
The investment and operating costs of existing conventional mech­
anised wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are high due to cost fac­
tors such as energy, chemicals used, infrastructure (machinery and
equipment), land, trained staff, and monitoring. This is compounded by
the uncertainty of continuous energy availability and skilled labour
(Kumar and Asolekar, 2016). In India, luck of enforced regulations
regarding wastewater reuse standards, guidance on treatment as well as
financing mechanisms, are major barriers to the implementation of
wastewater treatment systems especially in rural areas (Breitenmoser
et al., 2022). At the same time, irrigation water and affordable and
locally available sources of fertiliser are becoming increasingly scarce in
many regions of India. Wastewater sources contain significant amounts
of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and water that can be
used to obtain high-yield biomass production (Dimitriou and Rose­
nqvist, 2011; Kowalik and Randerson, 1993). Therefore, it is essential to
develop, demonstrate, and implement closed-loop wastewater treatment
and reuse solutions that have low construction and operating costs.
Several nature-based wastewater treatment solutions are operational in
India, such as waste stabilisation ponds, constructed wetlands, duck­
weed ponds, and Karnal technology systems (Kumar and Asolekar, 2016;
Pratap et al., 2023). However, none of these alternative systems have
been implemented on a large scale, probably due to missing income
opportunities for operators. Wastewater fertigated Short Rotation
Coppice systems (wfSRC) could be an economic and environmental
alternative, especially for suburban and rural areas in India, by
combining efficient water treatment and high production of valuable
biomass that valorises the nutrient and water content of wastewater
sources. Additionally, this approach can reduce water competition for
food crop production by directly using wastewater for biomass pro­
duction (Heinsoo, 2008).
wfSRC systems are densely planted agroforestry systems based on
fast-growing tree or grass species such as willow, poplar, eucalyptus or
bamboo which are harvested in short rotation cycles to intensify biomass
production (Kerr, 2011). Wastewater is evenly distributed and treated in
the root zone of these vegetation filters by natural oxidation, microbial
degradation, adsorption to soil particles and plant uptake. wfSRC sys­
tems are cost-effective, require minimal external energy, basic technical
infrastructure, and low investment and operating costs. They are also
used to replenish groundwater sources and reduce GHG emissions
(Minhas et al., 2022). Most of the data available for wfSRC systems are
from Europe and North America using local poplar, eucalyptus and
willow cultivars (Brix and Arias, 2011; Carlson, 1992; Frédette et al.,
2022; Guidi Nissim et al., 2015; Karczmarczyk and Mosiej, 2007;
Khurelbaatar et al., 2021; de Miguel et al., 2014a). Data availability
from low- and middle-income countries is limited, especially for suitable
local crop species (Hänel et al., 2022). In addition to poplar, eucalyptus
and willow, bamboo is increasingly being used as a vegetation filter due
to its high tolerance to pollutants and nutrients, dense root system and
very high biomass production (Piouceau et al., 2014).
As part of the EU-INDIA PAVITR project (2019–2024), a full-scale
wfSRC pilot plant was established at the Aligarh Muslim University
(Uttar Pradesh, India). The paper aims to address several critical
knowledge gaps and research questions in the context of wastewater
treatment and sustainable biomass production in India, particularly for
suburban and rural areas. Main points include: a) the effectiveness and
reliable year-round operation of wfSRC systems in local conditions, b)
suitability of different willow, poplar and bamboo species, c) opera­
tional and design parameters, d) economic viability and environmental
impact and e) data provision for policy and regulatory framework. This
paper reports on the trial period (29 March 2022–29 June 2023) and
focuses on the design, operation and initial results of the wfSRC system.
It also highlights criteria for plant selection, design and operation of the
system with a focus on local conditions. Initial data, descriptions, first
results and the calculated regional potential are presented in a previous
publication (Hänel et al., 2023).
2
Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218
2. Materials and methods
To evaluate the treatment and reuse efficiency and the biomass
production capacity, (i) the amount of the incoming wastewater, rain­
water and percolation water collected was calculated and the chemical
composition was analysed, (ii) the amount of the harvested bamboo,
willow and poplar biomass was calculated and the chemical composition
was investigated, and (iii) changes in soil properties during the trial
were evaluated. Finally, a general assessment of the suitability of wfSRC
systems for suburban and rural areas under the given conditions was
performed.
2.1. Site description
The testing location is in Aligarh, a city located in the north-western
part of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is situated between the Ganges and
Yamuna rivers, coordinates of 27◦ 55′15″ N 78◦ 03'39″ E, and an altitude
of 178 m above sea level. The trial is being carried out on a 0.75-ha plot
of land at the Research Station of Aligarh Muslim University. Before the
plantation, the land was used for agriculture, specifically for cultivating
rapeseed and wheat. The wfSRC system is specifically designed to treat
approximately 250 m3.day− 1 of screened raw municipal wastewater
generated at the AMU university facilities.
2.2. Meteorological conditions
Aligarh's climate is a humid subtropical influenced by monsoons,
classified as Cwa as per the Köppen-Geiger system (Köppen, 1936). An
on-site weather station (iMetos 3.3, Pessl Instruments) collects data on
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation at
hourly intervals. During the experimental period, precipitation was
below average, with a total of 1150 mm, averaging 2.6 mm⋅day− 1. The
monsoon period saw high precipitation events occurring at the end of
September 2022. Using the FAO Penman-Monteith method with mete­
orological data from the Field climate system, the reference evapo­
transpiration (ETo) values were calculated. The calculated ETo over the
experimental period was 3.4 mm⋅day− 1, totalling 1550 ± 45 mm, and
was higher than the total rainfall (1150 mm). The mean air temperature
recorded at the site was 26.0 ◦ C. In January, the mean daily minimum
temperature was 4.5 ◦ C, whereas in May, the mean daily maximum
temperature was 38 ◦ C, indicating a hot semi-arid climate. The average
relative humidity over the monitoring period at the pilot site was 68%.
2.3. Pilot design, setup, and instrumentation
Based on the available literature (Bergkvist and Ledin, 1998;
Cañellas et al., 2012; Toome et al., 2010), and the recommendations of
local plant experts and considering the soil type, climate and wastewater
characteristics, as well as the availability of saplings, plant selection and
planting density were determined. The pilot area, which covers 0.75 ha,
was divided into three separate sections of 2.288 m2 each (52 × 27 m),
with a 3 m corridor separating them. The sections were laser-levelled,
ploughed, and harrowed in May 2021, and each was surrounded by
30 cm ridges to prevent run-off. In the willow section, two one-year-old
willow species (Salix alba, and Salix purpurae) were transplanted in equal
numbers at a density of 10,000 plants⋅ha− 1 in August and December
2021. In the poplar section, 250 one-year-old poplars (Populus tremula)
saplings were planted in August 2021; and 2038 saplings in January
2022 at a density of 10,000 plants⋅ha− 1 with a spacing of 1.00 m and
1.00 m between rows. The bamboo section was also planted in August
2021 with equal numbers of three different bamboo species (Den­
drocalamus strictus, Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa bambos) at a density of
20,000 plants⋅ha− 1. An area of 25 m2 in the bamboo section was not
planted and serves as a soil filtration unit for comparison. In addition, a
reference area of 30m2 (“reference garden”), containing 15 plants of
each species, irrigated from a local well, with the same hydraulic loading
M. Hänel et al.
rate, to allow comparison of plant parameters such as growth rate,
accumulation of nutrients and pollutants in the infiltrating water,
biomass and soil. However, an extreme heat wave (up to 48 ◦ C) and an
irregular irrigation scheme during the first six months after planting,
resulted in mortality rates of 90% for poplar, 50% for willow, and 28%
for bamboo (99% for Dendrocalamus strictus died). Replanting took place
in August 2022 (Bambusa bambos and Salix alba) and for poplars in
January 2023 (Populus tremula). Wastewater application started on 29
March 2022 and will continue until at least January 2024.
The wfSRC system has been designed to receive and treat mechani­
cally pre-treated (screened) municipal wastewater from the AMU Uni­
versity facilities, with a capacity of 250 m3⋅day− 1 equivalent to 2500 PE.
The wastewater is delivered sequentially to each section using a sub­
mersible sewage pump with a 5–7 kW power rating, installed at a 200m3
homogenisation tank. A surface wastewater distribution system was
installed at the pilot site in March 2022. Each section of the system uses
standard irrigation components, such as PVC water pipes, elbows, and
valves. Distribution pipes with hand-drilled holes are installed within
the plot, with the holes spaced 50 cm apart and 1 cm in diameter,
allowing water to drain into the furrows. The furrows have a 1% slope to
ensure even water distribution. Each section is independent and can be
irrigated by manipulating the valves selectively. Fertigation is done
during the day to maximize evapotranspiration, as shown in Fig. 1.
To monitor wastewater fertigation, 8 dielectric volumetric soil
moisture, soil temperature, and salinity sensors are used. These sensors
are placed in 10 cm slots along the 120 cm depth probe (Sentek, TriS­
CAN®). By measuring at each level, the temperature and the two com­
ponents of the electrical permittivity obtaining Volumetric Water
Content (VWC, soil moisture) and Volumetric Ion Content (VIC related
to soil salinity), the type of irrigation water (rainwater or wastewater)
and the infiltration depth can be determined (see Supplementary Graph
SG2). The manufacturer's calibration equations were used as recom­
mended for loamy sand and sandy loam soils (Sentek Pty Ltd, 2003). The
sensors are distributed as follows: 2 in the bamboo section, 2 in the
willow section, 2 in the poplar section, 1 in the reference garden, and 1
in the soil filtration area. Percolation water quality is monitored using
24 passive water traps, installed in January 2022 at depths of 30, 90, and
200 cm, through which water is collected by a funnel as it trickles down
and stored in a 300 mL container, from which samples can be taken
using a syringe for analysis.
Fig. 1. Design of the pilot wfSRC system at the AMU facilities in Aligarh.
3
Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218
Each of the planted sections has sets of three traps installed at
specified depths (see Fig. 2). Additionally, eight vacuum-based water
samplers were installed at 100 cm depth in each section in August 2022
as an additional control and to allow sampling. These samplers consist of
a 2-l container connected to a ceramic cell where a differential vacuum
is induced to capture the adjacent water. To monitor temperature, wind
speed, radiation, rainfall, and vegetation development, the system in­
cludes an online camera (iMetos Crop View) and an online weather
station (iMetos 3.3 s). The soil sensors, camera, and weather station are
linked to a data logger equipped with a built-in UMTS/CDMA modem,
allowing direct communication with the FieldClimate web platform. The
system has a non-volatile internal memory capable of storing approxi­
mately 8 MB of recorded data. FieldClimate serves as the platform for
collecting, computing, analyzing, and visually displaying agro-
meteorological data derived from sensor measurements at the testing
site.
2.4. Sampling and analytical methods
2.4.1. Water sampling and analysis
The performance of the treatment process is evaluated by analyzing
the quality of the incoming wastewater and the deep percolation water
discharged from the wfSRC system. Samples from the homogenisation
tank and percolation water traps were manually collected and contin­
uously analysed for nine sampling campaigns. The analysis included pH,
electrical conductivity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological ox­
ygen demand (BOD5), total dissolved solids (TDS), total nitrogen (TN),
ammonium (NH4-N), nitrate (NO3-N), and orthophosphate (PO4-P),
following Standard methods (APHA, 2012). Additionally, to the regular
sampling, two extensive sampling campaigns were conducted in
January and June 2023. In addition, the presence of pathogen indicator
bacteria for faecal contamination (FC), total coliforms (TC), and E. coli
was determined using the most probable number (MPN) method (Car­
ranzo, 2012).
2.4.2. Plant development, Biomass and energy yield and elemental analysis
Every six months, in-situ measurements are taken of plant physio­
logical parameters, including height, stem diameter and the number of
shoots. This is done on 10 selected and marked plants in each section and
in the reference garden. For above-ground biomass assessment, three
M. Hänel et al. Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218

Fig. 2. A schematic sectional view of the pilot wfSRC system.

randomly selected one square metre areas in each section were manually
harvested and analysed in January and June 2023. From these plant
samples, both leaves and mid-stem segments were collected to provide
dry biomass yield estimates. The samples were weighed both in the field
and in the laboratory to determine the fresh and dry mass of the biomass
yield. In addition, biomass samples were analysed to determine their
carbon-to‑nitrogen (C/N) ratio using an Elementar Vario Macro Cube
elemental analyser (Langenselbold, Germany). Proximate analysis was
also carried out using Thermogravimetry (TG) using a Mettler Toledo
Thermogravimetric Analyser (TGA3 - Germany) coupled to a Differen­
tial Scanning Calorimeter (DSC+). This analysis helped to determine
moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash content. The presence of
various metals - including Na, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cd, Ni, Cr and Cu - and nu­
trients such as P and K was also assessed using inductively coupled
plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Before measurement,
plant samples ranging from 0.1000 to 0.5000 g were subjected to a
process of drying, grinding and weighing. These samples were then
placed in Teflon vessels. A solution consisting of 4 mL of concentrated
HNO3 and 2.00 mL of H2O2 was added to the loaded vessels. The vessels
were then tightly sealed and the samples were digested in a microwave
(Anton Paar Multiwave 3000) at 180 ◦ C. After cooling, the samples were
transferred to 50 mL tubes, filled to the 50 mL mark with Milli-Q water
and analysed using the Thermo Scientific ICAP 7000 series. The calorific
values of the harvested biomass samples were determined following the
DIN EN 14774–2 guidelines for solid biofuels. The potential biomass
yield of each species was projected to a 1-ha scale based on the data
collected. The accuracy of these biomass yields was verified against
values from previous studies and locally available data.
(Saxton et al., 1986). Field capacity, organic matter content, and con­
centrations of N, P, and K were measured to confirm USDA's classifica­
tion. The carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio of the soil was determined using
an Elementar Vario Macro Cube elemental analyser (Langenselbold,
Germany). For the 15 cm depth, the organic matter content was 1.4%
before wastewater application. The saturated hydraulic conductivity
was measured using the falling head method and was found to be 1.36 E-
01 cm⋅s− 1. The infiltration capacity of the soil ranged from 52 to 78
mm⋅hr− 1 and was determined using a double-ring infiltrometer test. The
water table depth varied between 10 and 12 m. Soil samples were taken
in triplicate from all sections and the reference plot on both January
25th and June 29th, 2023, at depths of 0 ± 2 cm, 30 ± 2 cm, and 50 ± 2
cm near the irrigation outlets, for a total of 63 samples (21 per depth).
Chemical soil analysis was conducted to assess changes in composition
and nutrient content, including the presence of various metals such as
Ca, Fe, Zn, Cd, Mn, Al, Cr, Mg, Pb, and Cr, and nutrients such as P, N, and
K. This assessment was carried out using inductively coupled plasma
optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES).
2.4.4. Water balance and nutrient loading
A total of 98,928 m3 (212 ± 82 m3⋅day− 1) of municipal wastewater
was applied to 6864 m2 (31.5 ± 12 mm⋅day− 1) for 458 days, fed to the
poplar, willow, bamboo and soil filtration sections. Irrigation was
interrupted for 51 days due to technical modifications to the homoge­
nisation tank (32 days), power cuts, pump breakdowns, technical re­
visions and flooding during the monsoon period. The mean values of the
analysis of the effluent samples taken from the homogenisation tank
before application are shown in Table 1.

2.4.3. Soil sampling and analysis

Table 1
Before the start of the experiment, a soil profile was created, and soil Characterization of applied wastewater and nutrient loading (Hänel et al.,
samples were taken in triplicate at depths of 0 cm, 15 cm, 50 cm, and 2023).
100 cm. Random samples were also taken from the site at each depth.
Parameters Average values Load in kg⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1
N
The soil at the test site appeared to be uniformly distributed without any
− 1
visible soil horizons. Soil cores and samples were air-dried, crushed, and COD 194 ± 39 mg⋅L 22,283 9
BOD5 97.1 ± 17 mgO2⋅L− 1 11,153 6
sieved through a 2 mm mesh. According to the USDA classification, the TDS 673 ± 108 mg⋅L− 1 – 6
soil was identified as a very fine sandy loam consisting of 54.24% sand, TKN 39 ± 10 mg⋅L− 1 – 6
29.86% silt, and 15.9% clay, with the very fine sand fraction accounting Nitrate 26.9 ± 8.1 mg⋅L− 1 – 8
for 48.8% of the total sand content. This soil texture has a water satu­ TN 63.6 ± 13.4 mg⋅L− 1 7305 3
PO4-P 7.7 ± 1.9 mg⋅L− 1 884 5
ration of 44%, a field capacity of 22%, and a wilting point of 12%
pH 7.8 ± 0.2 – 9

4
M. Hänel et al.
The crop evapotranspiration (ETc) of the experimental site was
calculated as the product of the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and
the crop coefficient (kc) according to the FAO crop coefficient approach
(Pereira et al., 2015).
Each day, percolation from the root zone was calculated for every
section using the FAO method (Allen et al., 1998). This calculation took
into account calculations of ETc, rainfall, and the measured quantity of
wastewater applied. To determine the loads of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and organic matter applied to each section, we multiplied the concen­
trations in the primary effluent by the total volume of effluent applied
during the experiment. Similarly, we estimated the contaminant loads
from the root zone of each section by multiplying the average concen­
trations in soil pore water by the total volume of deep percolation over
the trial period. The continuous logging of the Volumetric Ionic Content
of the FDR probe at 30, 60, 90 and 120 cm gives an orientation idea of
the evolution of the salinity. Records show the natural seasonal variation
of the salinity and soil depth variation due to salt transportation. The
variation range (average of 8 profiles at the four different depths) of pore
electric conductivity (ECw) from the warm season 2022 to the warm
season 2023 was under 0.5 dS⋅m− 1 (see Supplementary Graph SG1).
There was no EC increase above the systemic error and no differences
between plant species were detected during the trial. It is very unlikely
to have a negative effect of the EC on plant transpiration and develop­
ment (Hangs et al., 2011).
2.5. Statistical analysis
Variations in the chemical composition of water samples from the
homogenisation tank and percolation water, harvested biomass and soil
samples from different sections were evaluated. Real field data were
collected and analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 19). Means
and standard deviations were calculated to gain insight into the char­
acteristics of the data. All statistical tests were performed using R Studio
(R Core Team, 2021). In addition, one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to assess group differences where test assumptions
were met, including normal distribution and homogeneity of data.
Treatment effects of the different plant species were investigated using
analysis of variance and for post-hoc comparison, a pairwise t-test was
used. If test assumptions (homogeneity of variance and normal distri­
bution) were not met, a non-parametric Kurskal-Wallis and subsequent
Dunn-test with Bonferroni adjustment for post-hoc pairwise comparison
were used.
3. Results
3.1. Water balance and nutrient loading
The hydraulic loading rate (HLR) of 31.5 mm⋅day− 1, coupled with an
average on-site rainfall of 2.56 mm⋅day− 1, was below the recommended
maximum loading rate of 73 mm⋅day− 1 typically recommended for soils
with similar hydraulic conductivity as observed in the pilot plant area
(Crites et al., 2014). The reported ETc values for bamboo, willow and
poplar are dependent on factors such as climatic conditions, soil char­
acteristics, plant density and, in particular, water availability and fer­
tilisation. However, the average estimated rates for the region are 11
mm⋅day− 1for bamboo, 6 mm⋅day− 1 for willow, and 4 mm⋅day− 1 for
poplar, as shown in previous studies (Arfi et al., 2009; Frédette et al.,
2019; Guidi et al., 2007; Mohsin et al., 2021). The amount of wastewater
applied during the test trial, together with natural rainfall, did not
exceed the permeability of the soil and no episaturation was observed.
Percolation water relative to HRL was approximately 69.0% for
bamboo, 82.4% for willow, 88.3% for poplar and 95% for soil filtration.
The approximate applied loads of the measured concentration were
22,283 kg of COD per hectare per year, 11,153 kg of BOD5 per hectare
per year, 7615 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year, and 884 kg of
phosphorus per hectare per year. The hydraulic and nutrient loads
5
Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218
exceeded the water and nutrient requirements of the bamboo, willow,
and poplar plants (Balasus et al., 2012).
3.2. Removal efficiency
To assess the effectiveness of the wfSRC system in removing effluent
pollutants, a comparison was made between the chemical composition
of the effluent from the homogenisation tank and the percolation water
collected from all sections through water collectors, considering their
respective concentrations. Table 2 shows the average values and the
corresponding removal efficiencies in per cent for 458 days of the study
(total period) and for the last sampling campaign (June 2023).
3.2.1. Organic matter
Over time, there was an increasing trend in the removal efficiencies
of COD and BOD5 (see Table 2). The reduction of COD and BOD5 in all
parts of the system was concentrated mainly in the first 30 cm of the soil.
In June, the BOD5 removal efficiency in the poplar section reached
95.1% at a depth of 100 cm, with mean values of 9.6 ± 3.6 mg⋅L− 1. The
willow section showed a removal of 99% (1 ± 0.4 mg⋅L− 1), and the
bamboo section showed 97.5% (2.4 ± 1.3 mg⋅L− 1) after 458 days of
wastewater application. The COD removal rate was 95.1% (9.6 ± 3.6
mg⋅L− 1) for poplar, 94.2% (11.2 ± 4.4 mg⋅L− 1) for willow, and 91.8%
(16.7 ± 7.4 mg⋅L− 1) for bamboo. Many wfSRC systems have docu­
mented comparable BOD5/COD removal rates (Amiot et al., 2020;
Curneen and Gill, 2016; de Miguel et al., 2014b; Tzanakakis et al.,
2012). Lower but still effective removal efficiencies of 94.9% (4.9 ± 0.8
mg⋅L− 1) for BOD5 and 80.9% (5.8 ± 3.1 mg⋅L− 1) for COD were observed
in the soil filtration section without plants.
3.2.2. Nitrogen
The study found high removal rates for TN across all planted sec­
tions. The bamboo section showed an 84.3% (10 ± 9 mg⋅L− 1) removal
efficiency for cumulative NH4-N and NO3-N measurements (TN) at a
depth of 100 cm, while the poplar section showed 91.2% (5.6 ± 7.5
mg⋅L− 1) and the willow section showed 70.7% (18.6 ± 8.9 mg⋅L− 1)
removal efficiency. In the soil filtration section, combined NH4-N and
NO3-N measurements reached a high removal efficiency of 77% (14.6 ±
4.6 mg⋅L− 1). It should be noted that the NO3-N levels measured at 1 m
depth in the leachate may undergo further transformation via denitri­
fication processes before reaching the groundwater water table (10–12
m), but these processes were not investigated in the present study.
Similar to other studies with wfSRC systems, this study also documented
high TN removal rates, which in some cases exceeded 90%.
3.2.3. Phosphorus
After 458 days of wastewater application, PO4-P removal rates in the
poplar section were 71.9% (2.2 ± 1.3 mg⋅L− 1). In the willow section, the
average PO4-P removal rates were 87.1 ± 13.3% (1 ± 1.2 mg⋅L− 1). In
the bamboo section, the PO4-P removal efficiency reached 69.6% (2.3 ±
1.3 mg⋅L− 1). In the soil filtration section, PO4-P measurements showed
reduced removal efficiencies of 51.7% (3.7 ± 1.1 mg⋅L− 1). It appears
that wfSRC systems can remove PO4-P reliably if they are well designed
and managed in terms of the size of the wfSRC area relative to the
loading rate, tree species, soil properties, and resulting retention time
given the incoming PO4-P load at the relevant site.
In the poplar and willow section, the average pH of the percolation
water analysed decreased slightly from 7.8 ± 0.2 to 7.5 ± 0.2. In the
bamboo and soil filtration section, it decreased to 7.6 ± 0.2. Soil-based
ecosystems like wfSRC reduce the prevalence of pathogens such as co­
liforms (both FC and TC) through processes like oxidation, desiccation,
interaction with antagonistic soil microorganisms, and exposure to
sunlight (Iskandar, 1985). The levels of faecal coliforms (FC) measured
at 1 m depth were below the standard limits (230 MPN) in all sections
except the soil filtration section, indicating a high disinfection capacity
of the soil-plant systems.
M. Hänel et al. Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218

3.3. Plant development, biomass yield and NPK recycling rate

80,9
94,9

92,1
%**

n.a

n.a
77
After 678 days from planting, we observed that the five Bambusa
vulgaris plants had an average stem diameter of 3.95 ± 0.9 cm at a height

37.1 ± 10.4

14.6 ± 4.6
14.6 ± 4.6
0.61 ± 1.1
of 1 m above the ground and an average height of 8.05 ± 1.1 m. On

4.9 ± 0.8

7.6 ± 0.2
Mean**
average, the potential fresh biomass yield of Bambusa vulgaris was 397.7
± 181.2 t⋅ha− 1, with a water content of 42.2 ± 2.2% for stems and 44.8
Soil Filtration section ± 3.9% for leaves.
Bambusa Bambos had a stem diameter of 2.1 ± 0.6 cm and a height of

75,9
94,1
77,2

49,5
%*

n.a

n.a
5.7 ± 0.8 m. The fresh biomass yield was 350.3 ± 51.4 t⋅ha− 1with a
water content of 57.5 ± 7% for stems and 57.9 ± 3.6% for leaves. These
14.5 ± 6.5
10.5 ± 5.8
5.8 ± 3.1

7.5 ± 0.2
values are higher than the reported biomass harvesting data for bamboo

3.9 ± 11
47 ± 30
Mean*

in India (Patel et al., 2020). Due to the rapid growth of the bamboo
plants, monthly weeding in the bamboo section was only carried out
during the first six months after planting.
95,1
98,5
91,2

91,8
%**

Salix alba had an average stem diameter (5 cm above ground) of 4.9

n.a

n.a

± 1.3 cm and a height of 2.35 ± 0.1 m. The collected biomass averaged

129.2 ± 57 t⋅ha− 1 fresh biomass, with a water content of 44.9 ± 3.5%
0.63 ± 0.5
9.6 ± 3.6
1.4 ± 0.7
5.6 ± 7.5
5.3 ± 7.7

7.5 ± 0.2

for stems and 55.1 ± 4.7% for leaves. Salix purpurea had an average stem
Mean**

diameter of 3.1 ± 0.5 cm, an average height of 2.2 ± 0.2 m and a

biomass production of 30.7 ± 11.3 t⋅ha− 1 fresh biomass.
Populus tremula developed an average stem diameter (1 m above
80,3
96,6
76,6

70,9
%*

n.a

n.a

ground) of 8.2 ± 1.3 cm and an average height of 6.9 ± 0.9 m. The

potential biomass harvest corresponds to 410 ± 72 t⋅ha− 1 fresh biomass
Poplar section

with a water content of 41.4 ± 1.7% (stem) and 58.4 ± 1.7% (leaves).
12.6 ± 11.7
14.9 ± 8.7
3.3 ± 2.8

7.8 ± 0.4

Poplar and willow sections were weeded monthly during the first year of
38 ± 29

2.2 ± 1
Mean*

establishment. The amount and characterization of harvested biomass are

summarized in Table 3.
The average calorific values of the harvested biomass ranged from
70,74

17,408 J⋅g− 1 (Salix alba) to 17,436 J⋅g− 1 (Populus tremula) and 17,684
94,2

92,6
%**

n.a

n.a
99

J⋅g− 1 (Bambusa vulgaris) (see Supplementary Table S1). Most of the re­
ported values are at or above the upper range of biomass yields from
11.2 ± 4.4

18.6 ± 8.9
18.1 ± 9.4
0.57 ± 0.4
7.5 ± 0.2

wfSRC systems reported in the literature of 3.7 to 24 tDM⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 for

Mean**

1 ± 0.4

willow, 5 to 37 tDM⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 for poplar and 10–105 tDM⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 for
bamboo (Darabant et al., 2014; Hänel et al., 2022b; Patel et al., 2020;
Truong, 2018). All tested species showed excellent growth performance
87,7
97,6
56,9

84,6
%*

in the second year, recovering from initial difficulties during the

n.a

n.a

establishment year. The improved biomass results are most likely related
Willow section

to the additional supply of nutrients, irrigation water, and favourable

27.4 ± 15.8
21.5 ± 13.4
2.3 ± 1.8

1.2 ± 1.1
7.6 ± 0.2

soil and climatic conditions in Aligarh with a very long annual growing
24 ± 18
Mean*

season.
Chemical composition of percolation water and removal efficiency in each section.

% **

91,8
97,5
84,3

92,9

3.4. Soil development and chemical composition

n.a

n.a

Variations in the chemical composition of the soil in the different

9.57 ± 9.2
0.55 ± 0.7
2.4 ± 1.3

7.6 ± 0.2
16 ± 7.4

sections after 458 days of effluent application are shown in Table 4.

Mean**

10 ± 9

Despite the high input of organic matter, the OM content of the soil did
* Total trial period; ** Last sampling campaign (June 2023).

not increase but decreased in all sections. The C content also showed no
increase over time in any of the sections. This almost complete decom­
83,6

75,8

70,6
%*

position of organic matter confirms the high mineralisation capacity,

n.a

n.a
97
Bamboo section

probably due to the soil characteristics of the experimental site, which

allow high soil aeration and organic matter oxidation. The N, P and K
15.4 ± 9.9
11.3 ± 5.6
2.9 ± 1.3

7.4 ± 0.2
32 ± 22

contents in all sections increased over the test trial period, especially the
2.3 ± 1
Mean*

available PO4-P content, which increased by up to 120% compared to

baseline conditions. In parallel, the measured heavy metal concentra­
tions of Pb and Cd increased in all sections, indicating a constant input
63.6 ± 13.4
194 ± 38.9
97.1 ± 17

load from wastewater. Significant differences between treatment and Cd

7.7 ± 1.9
7.8 ± 0.2
No Data
Mean*

in the soil were found “Significant differences between treatment and Cd

ww

in the soil were found (Kurskal Wallis test, χ2(8) = 38.029, p < 0.001) e.
g. between bamboo and no plant section (Dunn test, p < 0.001). How­
N-NO3 (mg⋅L− 1)

ever, Cr showed a negative trend. Detailed analysis and changes for all
PO4-P (mg⋅L− 1)
COD (mg⋅L− 1)
BOD (mg⋅L− 1)
TN (mg⋅L− 1)

sections are documented in Supplementary Table S2.

Significant statistical disparities among the sectors were identified
Table 2

and well-documented; however, their influence on the overarching

pH

conclusion is inconsequential.

6
M. Hänel et al. Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218

Table 3
Amount and characterization of harvested biomass.
1 1
Species Harvested biomass (fresh)* in Harvested biomass (dry)*in K in mg⋅g− P in mg⋅g− N in %(1) C in %(1) Ash cont.in Source
t⋅ha− 1 t⋅ha− 1 (1) (1)
%

40.3 ±
14.6 ± 7.7 1.4 ± 0.2 2.8 ± 0.4 1.6 12.1 ± 2.1 leaves
45.4 ±
Bamboo vulgaris 398 ± 181 225 ± 55 3.3 ± 0.9 0.7 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.1 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 stem
40.3 ±
16.7 ± 1.9 1.9 ± 0.3 3.1 ± 0.5 2.1 8.7 ± 3.8 leaves
Bambusa 44.9 ±
Bambos 350 ± 51 148 ± 12 4.1 ± 0.3 0.3 ± 0 1.2 ± 0.2 0.6 1.2 ± 0.1 stem
1.7 ± 44.4 ±
5.7 ± 0.9 1.2 ± 1 0.02 0.4 7.8 ± 1.3 leaves
0.44 ± 44.3 ±
Salix alba 129.2 ± 57 65 ± 29 3 ± 0.4 0.4 ± 0 0.1 0.4 2 ± 0.2 stem
42.2 ±
8.1 ± 1.8 1.9 ± 0.2 2.6 ± 0.3 0.2 9.5 ± 0.8 leaves
43.7 ±
Salix purpurea 31 ± 11 14 ± 5 3.6 ± 0.9 0.5 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.2 0.8 1.9 ± 1.6 stem
39.6 ±
12.1 ± 4.2 1.6 ± 0.4 2.1 ± 0.3 1.5 15.9 ± 2.2 leaves
45.1 ±
3.4 ± 1.1 0.7 ± 0.1 0.6 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.4 stem
Populus tremula 411 ± 72 206 ± 36 0.3
1
based on dry material.
*
678 days after planting.

Table 4
Changes in soil properties during the trial.
Baseline Poplar section Willow section Bamboo section Soil section

Properties Depth (cm) March 2022 June 2023 % June 2023 % June 2023 % June 2023 %

Organic content (%) 15 1,36 1,1 − 19,1 0,8 − 41,2 1,3 − 4,4 0,9 − 33,8
50 1,36 0,9 − 33,8 0,9 − 33,8 1,1 − 19,1 0,8 − 41,2
N (%) 15 0,04 0,06 50,0 0,05 25,0 0,06 50,0 0,04 0,0
50 0,03 0,03 0,0 0,05 66,7 0,05 66,7 0,04 33,3
C (%) 15 0,38 0,4 5,3 0,3 − 21,1 0,36 − 5,3 0,24 − 36,8
50 0,17 0,2 17,6 0,2 17,6 0,28 64,7 0,3 76,5
P 15 0,3 0,42 40,0 0,38 26,7 0,68 126,7 0,35 16,7
(mg⋅g− 1) 50 0,2 0,3 50,0 0,32 60,0 0,61 205,0 0,3 50,0
K+ (mg⋅g− 1) 15 4 4,4 10,0 4,8 20,0 6,3 57,5 5,1 27,5
50 3,8 4,7 23,7 6,3 65,8 6,8 78,9 4,9 28,9

4. Discussion generation and seasonal rainfall patterns. The applied municipal

Studies highlight the treatment potential of nature-based soil-plant
systems in India for wastewater treatment and enhanced biomass pro­
duction (Kumar and Asolekar, 2016). Published literature shows
promising results from the application of different soil-plant systems
using poplar, willow, eucalyptus and other plants for wastewater
treatment in wfSRC systems (Aasamaa et al., 2010; Brix and Arias, 2011;
Dimitriou and Rosenqvist, 2010; Guo et al., 2002; Holm and Heinsoo,
2013; Lachapelle-T et al., 2019; de Miguel et al., 2014b; Tzanakakis
et al., 2009). The results of the present study support this for the use of
poplar, willow and bamboo in wfSRC systems under local conditions in
the Aligarh region (Uttar Pradesh).
The applied treatment area of 2.75 m2⋅PE− 1 is low compared to the
values reported in the literature (15 m2⋅PE− 1) (Mosiej et al., 2005) and
results in a very high organic and nutrient load per m2, exceeding the
load applied in other studies (de Miguel et al., 2014a) by up to a factor of
up to 10. The reasons for this design were local factors such as low
availability and high competition for land use, and to test the loading
limits of the systems under the local conditions in Aligarh.
The HLR provided daily (31.5 mm) was lower than the recom­
mended maximum loading rate (Crites et al., 2014) but exceeded the
water requirements of all plant species resulting in greater amounts of
percolation water. This indicates, that the soil infiltration capacity is not
the limiting design parameter for wfSRC systems on the given soil type.
Nonetheless, it is important to consider variations in wastewater
wastewater had a relatively low organic load in terms of BOD5 (97.1
mg⋅L− 1) and COD (194 mg⋅L− 1) compared to reported values for do­
mestic wastewater (Kadlec and Wallace, 2008). The high organic matter
removal efficiencies observed (average of 94% for COD and 98% for
BOD5 in all sections with plants) indicate almost complete oxidation of
the incoming organic load. The higher removal efficiencies in the
vegetated sections compared to the soil section suggest a positive effect
of the extending root system. The documented removal efficiencies for
COD and BOD5 are slightly higher than those reported in other studies
with primary wastewater (Lachapelle-T. et al., 2019; Miguel et al.,
2014). In addition to suitable soil characteristics, the rotation of applied
wastewater between sections appears to provide sufficient resting time
to establish aerobic conditions for organic matter removal. The soil
filtration section, with COD and BOD5 removal efficiencies of 81% and
95% respectively, highlights the importance of plants not only for
nutrient removal but also for organic matter reduction and the potential
biomass recovery. Today, there are no published discharge standards in
India for treated wastewater discharged by soil infiltration. The high
level of removal achieved resulted in a COD concentration below the
current general surface discharge limit of 50 mg⋅L− 1 set by the National
Green Tribunal (NGT) for India (Shende and Pophali, 2022). Even by
considering the high organic loading, this seems not to be the limiting
design factor for wfSRC systems under the given local conditions in
Aligarh.
High TN removal efficiencies were observed even with the high TN

7
M. Hänel et al.
loads applied. TN removal efficiencies of >91% in the poplar section,
84% in the bamboo-section and 70% in the willow section were reached.
Plant uptake is an important factor in TN removal in wfSRC systems
(Tzanakakis et al., 2009) and an extrapolated amount was calculated for
Populus tremula (1545 kg⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1), Salix alba (368 kg⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1) and
Bambusa vulgaris (2048 kg⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1) in this test trial. Actual values are
higher when root biomass and spontaneous vegetation are taken into
account. Documented TN removal by plants was significantly lower than
applied TN, reaching 27% for bamboo, 4.8% for willow and 20% for
poplar (see Supplementary Table S3). Therefore, other removal pro­
cesses like ammonia volatilisation, ion exchange, adsorption and espe­
cially denitrification are also involved. Efficient conditions for
denitrification require prolonged periods of high soil moisture and the
rotating irrigation during the trial does not support these conditions. The
calculated BOD5 to TKN ratio of the applied wastewater of 2.5:1 was
below the 3:1 ratio considered sufficient for denitrification processes in
soil (Crites et al., 2006) suggesting that lack of carbon was a limiting
factor for denitrification. The willow section exceeded permitted
discharge limits for NO3-N, probably due to inhibitory negative charges
preventing uptake into clay particles in the soil. Moreover, the low
organic matter content of the soil may be limiting the denitrification
process (Smith and Paul, 1990). However, previous studies have shown
that although NO3-N leaching occurs during the initial establishment
phase in wfSRC systems, it decreases over subsequent periods, eventu­
ally reaching near-zero levels (Dimitriou and Aronsson, 2003). This
assumption is supported by the fact that NO3-N removal efficiency
increased over time in all sections with plants. Nevertheless, the moni­
toring data indicate that the total TN load is a limiting design factor for
the operation of wfSRC systems under the given conditions.
During the trial, bamboo and willow plants showed PO4-P removal
efficiencies of 93%, while poplar plants showed 92% and soil filtration
was also effective. The results showed that soil adsorption played a
crucial role in PO4-P removal, as evidenced by an increase in PO4-P
levels in the soil of all sections. However, continuous wastewater irri­
gation over the system's lifespan (approximately 25 years) could lead to
the saturation of the phosphorus soil profile. The study also calculated
the plant uptake of PO4-P for different species, with Populus tremula
recording 163 kg⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1, Salix alba recording 31 kg⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1, and
Bambusa vulgaris recording 173 kg⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 (excluding root biomass
and spontaneous vegetation). It was observed that PO4-P removal by
plants was significantly lower than the input, with bamboo recording
20%, willow 3.5%, and poplar 18% (see Supplementary Table S3). Over
time, the values of PO4-P in the percolation water improved and met the
discharge limits for PO4-P in India (1 mg⋅L− 1). However, the accumu­
lation of PO4-P in the soil suggests that PO4-P loading on this soil type is
also a limiting design parameter for wfSRC systems.
The timing of harvest is an important factor that affects the removal
of nitrogen and phosphorus from the system. Our data suggests that
harvesting plants with full leaves increases these removals (see Sup­
porting material Table S3). However, it also changes the characteristics
of the harvested biomass, such as higher water and mineral content,
which may limit its commercial use as fuel for biomass boilers. Our
assessment showed that plant growth and biomass production were at or
above the upper range of published data. We observed no adverse effects
of effluent composition on plants. We estimate that bamboo can produce
over 225 tDM ⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1 of biomass, while poplar can produce 206 tDM
⋅ha− 1⋅yr− 1. These estimates need to be confirmed after complete har­
vesting, but they suggest a highly productive system due to the naturally
favourable conditions of a long growing season, suitable soil, and
climate. Moreover, rapid plant growth leads to an efficient sequestration
of substantial amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and produces a chemi­
cally diverse lignocellulosic biomass that has multiple potential appli­
cations in both material and energy.
Despite the very high load, all systems appeared to be efficient and
able to meet India's new discharge limits for pH, TSS, BOD5, COD, PO4-P
and faecal coliforms. However, to guarantee long-term TN and TP
8
Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218
removal and maximize biomass production, a larger land area per per­
son may be necessary. According to calculations based on the regional
potential ETc values of the plants used and minimized leaching, bamboo
systems require up to 9.3 m2⋅PE− 1, while willow and poplar wfSRC
systems require 17.1 m2⋅PE− 1 and 25.7 m2⋅PE− 1 respectively (Hänel
et al., 2023).
Visible biodiversity increased significantly in all areas compared to
the previous land use (rapeseed production). Several hundred bird nests
were built in the bamboo area alone and the presence of rodents,
attracting predators such as snakes. Detailed changes in biodiversity
associated with the establishment of wfSRC systems should also be
studied in future research. Compared to engineered wastewater treat­
ment systems, the data collected suggests that wfSRC systems have
comparable treatment efficiencies and scalability, but significantly
higher potential for resource recovery and cost-effectiveness. Significant
reductions in energy and chemical use, high carbon sequestration
through plant growth, and increased biodiversity are important benefits
of this approach. Most importantly, through the production and mar­
keting of valuable biomass streams, wfSRC systems have the ability not
only to cover investment and operating costs but also to generate profits,
thereby creating income opportunities for local operators. Based on local
cost factors in Aligarh, a potential annual benefit of more than USD 5000
per hectare has been calculated (Hänel et al., 2023). In summary, wfSRC
systems represent a nature-based, decentralised, and sustainable
approach to wastewater treatment that offers several advantages,
particularly in regions with limited infrastructure.
5. Conclusion and recommendations
The pilot-scale wfSRC system in Aligarh, India was monitored and
evaluated for its treatment efficiency and biomass production capacity
in a hot subtropical climate. The research data presented indicates that
these nature-based systems hold high potential for the treatment, reuse,
and recycling of primary municipal wastewater in India. Smaller com­
munities in suburban and rural areas can effectively treat and reuse their
wastewater using these systems, especially considering the favourable
climatic conditions in Uttar Pradesh that allow year-round operation.
The wfSRC systems offer flexible design, use of different plants, planting
densities, sizes, and loading rates that can adapt to the needs of the local
community and provide multiple benefits like enhanced groundwater
recharge, water and nutrient reuse, and high production of valuable
biomass and groundwater recharge. Some recommendations and con­
clusions from this research for future implementation of wfSRC systems
in India and other suitable locations worldwide:
• The applied treatment area of 2.75 m2⋅PE− 1 in wfSRC systems seems
to be suitable under these favourable local conditions. However, TN
loads appear to be a limiting factor in the design of wfSRC systems,
since TN levels exceeded existing discharge regulations in India.
Increasing the treatment area per PE can reduce the nutrient load per
square meter, thereby increasing treatment efficiency and nutrient
recovery.
• Research into locally appropriate plant species and breeding pro­
grammes to improve nitrogen and phosphorus uptake is recom­
mended. Additional management and monitoring programmes
should be considered for environmentally sensitive areas with
shallow aquifers.
• Year-round irrigation with wastewater at a constant daily hydraulic
load is possible but does not match plant needs in time and leads to
increased percolation, especially during the monsoon and plant
dormancy periods. It is advisable to match the load to actual plant
transpiration to reduce the risk of overloading and increase direct
water reuse.
• Soil suitability (soil type, infiltration and water-holding capacity),
climatic conditions (no freezing temperatures and adequate
M. Hänel et al.
sunlight), reliable and nearby wastewater sources, and local avail­
ability of planting material are important factors in site selection.
• Intensive plant care, including watering and weeding, is crucial
during the initial establishment phase. In addition to the usual pre­
cautions when working with wastewater, it's advisable to consider
the increasing biodiversity, which can include various species of
birds and (potentially poisonous) snakes. A comprehensive risk
management plan, monitoring protocol, and user manual should be
prepared for each installation to ensure the safe and effective oper­
ation of these systems.
• Plant species selection is important, based on their adaptation to the
local climate, growth under wastewater-influenced conditions, and
high economic value for regional and national markets. Planting
density should be determined based on the species selected and the
area available. A density of 10,000 plants per hectare is recom­
mended for bamboo, poplar, and willow. It is advisable to irrigate
with clean water during the establishment phase for one year to
promote root development and prevent groundwater pollution.
• Assessing the water composition (nutrients, hazardous substances) in
advance is important to prevent groundwater pollution and soil and
plant toxicity. Further research is needed on the long-term effects of
emerging and toxic compounds on soil, groundwater, human health,
and additional suitable species and their market applications.
It is important to note that the data presented in this paper is from
only one pilot site in India and does not confirm the general applicability
of wfSRC systems to other sites in India, as it does not cover all climatic,
geographical, and social conditions. Further research and validation are
required to confirm the estimates of treatment efficiency and biomass
production before application in other locations. Nevertheless, given the
similar climatic and socio-economic conditions in many developing re­
gions of the world, it is clear that wfSRC systems have significant po­
tential for global implementation.
Funding
This research is funded by the Department of Science and Technol­
ogy in India through the DST/IMRCD/India-EU Water Call2 - PAVITR
project and the European Union through its Horizon 2020 research and
innovation program, with grant agreement number 821410.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mirko Hänel: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
Visualization, Validation, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Data
curation, Conceptualization. Emil Jespersen: Investigation, Data
curation. Aryan Upadhyay: Investigation, Data curation. Andrés
Acosta: Data curation. Nadeem Khalil: Resources, Funding acquisition.
Hans Brix: Supervision, Methodology, Investigation. Carlos A. Arias:
Validation, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation,
Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in
the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of
data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the
results.
Data availability
The raw and processed data supporting the conclusion of this study
will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Further inquiries should be directed to the corresponding author M.H.,
mhaenel@ttz-bremerhaven.de
9
Ecological Engineering 201 (2024) 107218
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2024.107218.
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