Traces of the Lost 10 Tribes of Israel in Chinese and Korean Sources

Discussion Paper

Dr. Howard HS Chung

November 06, 2021

hschung.hsc@gmail.com

Conclusions:

1. The traces of the lost 10 (9) tribes of Israel can be followed back for more 2500 years. We find them
in Confucius' Lunyu, with Korean peoples and other nations of the Chinese continent.

2. Part of them left China, carrying Hebrew folk names: Xiongnu = Zionites; Yuezhi = Judah; Zaowu
= Samarians; Turks = Derek.

3. The Turks carried with them a Torah Book which enabled them to found a Jewish state together
with the Babylonian Jews in 650 named Khazaria.

Table of Content:

Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 2
1. 9 Yi in Confucius’ Writings ................................................................................................................... 4
2. Israelite Culture and Religion among the 9 Yi ..................................................................................... 8
2.1 Levites in Shandong ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 The Asylum City ............................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Feast of Tabernacles .................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 The Levirate ................................................................................................................................. 15

3. Zhaowu 9 Tribes - 昭武九姓 ............................................................................................................. 17

3.1 The Balance of power in northern China around 200 BC ............................................................ 19
3.2 Israelite Culture and Religion in Zhaowu 9 Tribes States ............................................................ 21

1
4. Xiongnus ............................................................................................................................................ 23
4.1 Xiongnus are Descendants of the 9 Yi ......................................................................................... 23

4.2 The Turks: 9 Tribes Tujue (九姓突厥) ......................................................................................... 25

4.3 Israelite Culture and Religion among the Xiongnus and Turks ................................................... 26
4.3.1 Ritual Washing in Yuebanguo ............................................................................................... 26
4.3.2 Levirate among the Xiongnus ............................................................................................... 29
4.3.3 Torah of the Khazar Turks .................................................................................................... 31
5. Origin of the Words Xiongnu and Zhaowu ........................................................................................ 34
5.1 Xiongnu stands for Zion ............................................................................................................... 34
5.2 Yuezhi stands for Judah, Zhaowu stands for Samaria ................................................................. 36
Literature ............................................................................................................................................... 37

Further reading:

Dispersion of the Israelites in the Eurasian Continent

https://www.academia.edu/106356973/Dispersion_of_the_Israelites_in_the_Eurasian_Continent

Introduction:

For every Bible-believing Christian the question of where the Israelites of the Old Testament live
today is an essential one. The word “Israel” appears 2,506 times in the Bible. If you delete all
sentences that have anything to do with Israel from the Bible, then there isn't much left, especially
from the Old Testament. This paper aims follow traces of the scattered Israelites in the Far East. How
they got there is a much more difficult question that will not be addressed here.

The starting point of the search for the Israelites after the fall of the Northern Kingdom is 2. King 17:
6:

“In the ninth year of Hoshea the king of Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria,
and placed them in Halah and in Habor by the river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes.”

The removal of the Northern Israelites happened in the year 723 BC. It is undisputed that only a small
part of the inhabitants of Northern Israel were resettled to Assyria. It is also certain that most of the
resettled Israelites were still living at the Habor River in Assyria after 128 years since the prophet
Ezekiel found them there in 595 BC.

2
“Now it came to pass in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, in the fifth day of the month, as I was
among the captives by the river of Chebar, that the heavens were opened, and I saw visions of
God.“ (Ezekiel 1: 1).

The Cheber River mentioned here is the Habor River, now the Kharbur River in Syria.

Those who were led to Assyria are also called the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel because of the 12 tribes of
Israel 10 tribes (with the exception of the tribes Judah, Bejamin and Levi) were affected by the fall of
the Northern Kingdom, whereby the tribe of Joseph consisted of two tribes (Ephraim and Manasseh).

On the other hand, it is also perceived that the Simeon tribe was located in the extreme south of the
country, quasi in an enclave in the territory of the tribe of Judah so that at the time of the fall of
Northern Israel there were actually only nine tribes living there. Thus, in the apocryphal Book of
Baruch chapter 78 the displaced tribes are referred to as the nine and half tribes:

"This was the letter that Baruch the son of Neriah sent to the nine and a half tribes on the other side of
the Euphrates, in which it was written: I think, my brothers, of the love of him who made us and who
loved us from time immemorial and never hated us but he chastised us all the more. In truth, I know
that we all, the twelve tribes, are have become captives because we come from One Father."1

Also in the pseudo epigraphic script “Testament of the Patriarchs” the dispersion of Israel takes place
in 2 phases: First the nine tribes leave then the remaining three tribes follow them.

"1.
Listen, my children, too
what I saw in the dream!
2.
Twelve deer grazed.
Nine of them were separated
and scattered to the earth,
so are the other three.
3.
I saw the three deer become lambs.
They cried out to the Lord.
So he took her to a green, water-rich place;

1
Rießler, Paul, Old Jewish literature outside the Bible, 1928, p. 107 f ..
3
he brought them out of darkness to light.
4.
They cried out to the Lord
until he returned them to the nine deer.
They became like twelve sheep.
In a short time they grew
and became many flocks."2

If the Northern Israelites were now deported as prisoners to Assyria it cannot be ruled out that some of
them were taken as slaves to China by the Phoenicians, Greeks or Egyptians (the seafaring nations of
that time), or even sold as slaves in China. This happened to residents of Judah, as it is said in Joel 4:

“1 For, behold, in those days, and in that time, when I shall bring again the captivity of Judah and
Jerusalem, 2 I will also gather all nations, and will bring them down into the valley of Jehoshaphat,
and will plead with them there for my people and for my heritage Israel, whom they have scattered
among the nations, and parted my land. 3 And they have cast lots for my people; and have given a boy
for an harlot, and sold a girl for wine, that they might drink. 4 Yea, and what have ye to do with me, O
Tyre, and Zidon, and all the coasts of Palestine? will ye render me a recompence? and if ye
recompense me, swiftly and speedily will I return your recompence upon your own head; 5 Because
ye have taken my silver and my gold, and have carried into your temples my goodly pleasant things:
6 The children also of Judah and the children of Jerusalem have ye sold unto the Grecians, that ye
might remove them far from their border.”

The term “10 Tribes” does not appear in Chinese historical sources but the term “9 Tribes” does occur
quite frequently. What all those groups marked with as “9 Tribes / families / peoples have in common

is that they are not counted among the "core Chinese", the Zhonghua (中華) or Huaxia (華夏) people.

1. 9 Yi in Confucius’ Writings

In the historical documents from the Confucius era there is mention of a group of people referred to as
the 9 Yis (九夷). It could represent members of the 9 Lost Tribes of Israel. The passages suggest that
they were different from the "real" Chinese. Strangely enough it is here Confucius who mentions them
for the first time. It is said in Lunyu (論語), ix, 14:

2
Rießler, Paul, Old Jewish literature outside the Bible, 1928, Testament Josef, 19, p. 1443
4
"Master longed to go to the 9 Yi to live with them. Some said, "They are uncultivated. How can you
want something like that?" Master replied, "If there are wise people living there how can it be
uncultivated there?"3

Han Shu (漢書) refers to this text passage and goes on to describe what became of them 500 years
later. In the Han period they were called Eastern Yi (Dongyi 東夷).

"The command posts Xiantu (玄菟郡) and Lelang (樂浪郡) were established in the time of Emperor
Wudi. They are all Manyi (蠻夷) from Joseon (朝鮮), Huihau (濊貉) and Juli (句驪). During the Yin
period when the custom was declining, Jizi (箕子) went to the Joseons and cultivated them through
custom, agriculture and silk-raising. The people of Lelang Joseon have 8 commandments, according to
which someone who has killed should be killed immediately; whoever injures another had to pay
damages in rice; whoever steals becomes the work slave of the injured party if the thief is a man, and
if the thief is a woman she becomes a concubine in the injured person's house; the thief can, however,
get is freedom for 50,000 pieces of money. But even if he is freed from guilt and continues to live as a
free man he is dishonored so that he cannot marry because he will not find a partner. The women are
panting and have not succumbed to immorality.

The peasants eat with dishes (籩豆), and in the cities, imitating officials or traders, they eat from
porcelain bowls. In the initial phase of colonization the administrative officials were sent from
Liaotung. When they saw that the people lived with their doors open the administrators and traders
robbed the houses night after night so that the custom became more and more brutal. Today rules have
therefore increased rapidly, there are now more than 60 legal paragraphs. How precious is the morality
based on human wisdom!
The Dongyis are good-natured by nature and differ from the outer Yis of the three cardinal
points. Therefore, when Confucius lamented the moral decline, he wished to embark and live with the
9 Yis."4

3
子欲居九夷或曰. 「陋,如之何!」子曰: 「君子居之,何陋之有 Lunyu 論語, Analects, 9, 14 Richard Wilhelm
has translated the last sentence differently: “Where an educated person is staying, there can be no rudeness.”
Holzinger, Michael (ed.), Konfuzius: Gespräche, Berlin 2013, p. 69. There is no basis for this translation in the
Chinese original. Nor does it fit to Confucius that he should praise himself.
4
玄 菟 、 樂 浪 ， 武帝 時 置 ， 皆 朝鮮 、 濊貉、 句 驪 蠻夷.殷 道 衰 ， 箕子 去 之

朝鮮 ，教其 民 以 禮義 ， 田 蠶 織 作.樂 浪 朝鮮 民

犯禁八條:相殺以當時償殺;相傷以穀償;相盜者男沒入為其家奴,女子為婢,欲自贖者,人五十萬雖

5
Sanguo Yishi (三國遺事), a Korean history book from 12th Century refers to the passage in Lunyu
and considers the 9 Yis to be the ancestors of the Koreans and reveals the names the 9 tribes. They are:

"1. Xuantu (玄菟), 2. Lelang (樂浪), 3. Gaoli (高麗), 4. Manshi (滿飾), 5. Fuyu (鳧臾), 6. Sujia (素
家), 7. Dongtu (東屠), 8. Woren (倭人), 9. Tianbi (天鄙)."5

Gaoli (高麗, Korean Goryeo) is now used to denote a Korean state that existed between 918 and 1392,
and Worens (倭人) are considered the ancestors of today's Japanese.

The foreigners who suddenly appeared in China at the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period
(771 to 476 BC) including the 9 Yis are identified in the sources as not belonging to the dynastic Xia,
Shang and Zhou. In contrast the locals were called Hua-Xia (華夏, the glory of the Xia Dynasty) or as
Zhu Xia (諸夏, the descendants of the Xia) or simply as Zhou (周).

This contrast between the two ethnic groups becomes clear in the following passages in Lunyu when it
says:

"Even with princes, the Yi Di people are not equal to the number of descendants of the Xia (Zhu
Xia 諸夏) after their downfall."6

免.為民,俗猶羞之,嫁取無所讎,是以其民終不相盜,無門戶之閉,婦人貞信不淫辟.其田民飲食以籩

豆,都邑頗放效吏及內郡賈人,往往以杯器食.郡初取吏於遼東,吏見民無閉臧,及賈人往者,則夜為

盜,俗稍益薄.今於犯禁浸多,至六十餘條.可貴哉,仁賢之化也!然東夷天性柔順,異於三方之外,故孔

子悼道不行,設浮於海,欲居九夷,有以也夫!樂浪海中有倭人,分為百餘國,以歲時來獻見云。Han

Shu 漢書,地理 志 8. A. This passage from Han Shu confirms the correctness of the above translation

of Confucius' statement in Lunyu regarding 9 Yi.

5
論語 正義 云“九夷 者 一 玄 菟·二 樂 浪·三 高麗·四 滿餙·五鳬 臾·六 素 家·七 東 屠·八

倭人·九天 鄙. Sanguo Yishi (三國遺事, 삼국유사 ), 紀 異 第一,馬 韓.

夷狄 之 有 君 ， 不如 諸夏 之 亡 也. Lunyu 論語, Analects, I, 5.

6

6
“Zhou (周) looks back on two previous dynasties. How glamorous is its culture. I will follow Zhou."7

These passages reflect the political system and the real balance of power in the Spring and Autumn
Period. The natives, the Zhous, are the only divinely legitimized rulers who immigrated from
Babylonia 1500 years ago, called themselves as the Sons of Heaven (Tienzi 天子). But those who later
immigrated from the Middle East are richer and thus also more powerful than the Zhous. They
represent the Bas (覇), the hegemons of the multi-state community. The Zhou imperial family appoints
the princes of the individual states but they are always in danger of being killed by the powerful
Bas. The only thing the Zhous can oppose to the newcomers is the religious order which the
newcomers accepted because they had the same cultural and religious background. They have the
same gods, the same astrology, use similar characters. In short, the strangers are their ancestors, only
1,500 years more culturally advanced. The ancient Babylonians in China had made little progress
culturally or technologically since their immigration to China aound 2,200 BC8. The Babylonians in
the Middle East continued to develop, due to wars and competition with other local cultures,
especially with the Egyptians, Greeks, Hittites, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Medes, etc. The 9 Yis, or the 9
Israelite tribes were among the newcomers, though they played only a subordinate role at the
beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period, as they rarely appear in sources from this era.

The claim in the Kaifeng Synagogue steles that the Israelites arrived in China during the Zhou period
can be therefore confirmed9.

7
周 監 於 二代 ， 郁郁乎 文 哉！ 吾 從 周. Lunyu 論語 Analects, III, 14.
8
See Terrien De Lacouperie, Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilisation, London, 1894.
9
In 1942 a book written by William Charles White was published under the title "Chinese
Jews". William Charles White, born in 1873, was the first Anglican bishop to live in China for more
than 25 years, including in the city of Kaifeng. Kaifeng had been known in Europe as a place for Jews
to live since 1605, through communications from Jesuit Father Matteo Ricci, who reported a meeting
with a Chinese Jew. Three years later, Ricci sent a subordinate to Kaifeng for further
exploration. From there they brought a copy of the beginning and end of a "Holy Scripture", which in
fact turned out to be part of the 5 books of Moses. Matteo Ricci's communication caused a sensation in
Europe at the time, and theologians and philosophers, including Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, lively
discussed the possibility of the existence of an Israelite people in China and its theological and
philosophical consequences. Today this discussion has been completely forgotten. The most important
proof that it was actually Jews who had built and operated a synagogue there was the Torah scrolls.

British missionaries bought some Torah scrolls from there in 1851 and one of them was donated to the
7
2. Israelite Culture and Religion among the 9 Yi

2.1 Levites in Shandong

Chunqiu Zuozhuan (春秋左傳 Spring and Autumn Chronicles in the tradition of Zuo) tells of an
incident involving a people by the name of Laiyi (萊夷). These people had once founded a state in
Shandong in 567 BC. But they were conquered by Qi (齊) and the Laiyi people now lived as part of
Qi. In 500 BC a peace negotiation took place between the princes of Qi and Lu (魯).

"In the summer the prince (of Lu) had a meeting with the Marquis of Qi in Zhuqi, ie in Jiagu, when
Kong Qiu (孔丘) accompanied him as master of ceremonies. Li Mi (犂彌) said to the marquis: "Kong
Qiu is known with ceremonies, but has no courage. If you send some armed people from the Laiyi
people to intimidate the prince of Lu, you will get what you want.” The Marquis of Qi followed the
advice. But Kong Qiu withdrew with the prince, saying, "Let soldiers attack these invaders. Two
princes have met to make peace. The prisoners of Yi's descendants have come to create confusion with
their weapons. This is safe not in the sense of the prince of Qi. Prisoners have nothing to do with the
Xia dynasty, Yi (夷) can not confuse Hua (華), prisoners cannot sabotage peace, weapons cannot
suppress friendships, otherwise God will not hear us. Virtue would be turned into injustice, man loses
his decency; the Marquis of Qi cannot really want this."
When the Marquis heard this, he ordered the immediate removal (of the Laiyi)."10

British Museum in 1852. This copy is now digitized and can be viewed by anyone interested in the
Internet ( http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=add_ms_19250_f001r )
Today there are 7 completely preserved Torah scrolls from Kaifeng in various museums around the
world.
10
夏 ， 公 會 齊 侯 於 祝 其 ， 實 夾 谷。 孔 丘 相 ，犂彌 言 於 齊 侯 曰 ， 孔 丘 知 禮 禮 而 無

勇 ， 若 使 萊 人 以 兵 劫 魯 侯 ， 必 得 志焉。 齊 侯 從 之 ， 孔 丘 以 公 退 ， 曰 ， 士 兵

之，兩君合好，而裔夷之之俘，以兵兵亂之，非齊君所以命諸侯也，夏，謀

謀謀謀謀謀謀不

謀夷不亂華,俘不干盟,兵不偪好,於神為不祥,於德為愆義,於人為失禮,君必不然.齊侯聞之,遽辟之

. Chunqiu Zuozhuan 春秋左傳‚11, X, 2.

8
One thing stands out here. The Laiyis are no ordinary soldiers but they probably came with special
armament that should frighten the people of Lu. If it had been about normal weapons the Marquis of
Qi could have posted common armed soldiers as a means of defense. The Laiyis in full gear probably
spread particular fear and horror. The advisor to the Prince of Lu, Kong Qiu, is not impressed. He
points to the (racial) differences between the Yi and Hua and the superiority of the "Hua race". For
him the attraction of the Laiyi is a religious sacrilege that is not befitting in this situation.

In this context one can associate the Laiyis with Levites, as priests, who would be ascribed special
magical powers so that their mere presence would have put the opponents under pressure. They must
have worn special clothing and equipment the mere visibility of which would have marked those who
wore them as Levites. That was also the case in ancient Israel. The Levitical priests wore special
clothing as this was commanded by God:

“1 And take thou unto thee Aaron thy brother, and his sons with him, from among the children of
Israel, that he may minister unto me in the priest' office, even Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and
Ithamar, Aaron' sons. 2 And thou shalt make holy garments for Aaron thy brother for glory and for
beauty. 3 And thou shalt speak unto all that are wise hearted, whom I have filled with the spirit of
wisdom, that they may make Aaron' garments to consecrate him, that he may minister unto me in the
priest' office. 4 And these are the garments which they shall make; a breastplate, and an ephod, and a
robe, and a broidered coat, a mitre, and a girdle: and they shall make holy garments for Aaron thy
brother, and his sons, that he may minister unto me in the priest' office. 5 And they shall take gold, and
blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen. 6 And they shall make the ephod of gold, of blue, and of
purple, of scarlet, and fine twined linen, with cunning work. 7 It shall have the two shoulderpieces
thereof joined at the two edges thereof; and so it shall be joined together. 8 And the curious girdle of
the ephod, which is upon it, shall be of the same, according to the work thereof; even of gold, of blue,
and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen. 9 And thou shalt take two onyx stones, and grave on
them the names of the children of Israel: 10 Six of their names on one stone, and the other six names
of the rest on the other stone, according to their birth."11

2.2 The Asylum City

11
Exodus 28, 1.
9
6 Levitical cities in Canaan were designated as the cities of asylum, or places of refuge to which
people who accidentally killed someone could flee. Exodus 21: 13 describes these places of refuge as
follows:
"And if a man lie not in wait, but God deliver him into his hand; then I will appoint thee a place
whither he shall flee."

In Numbers 35: 9, Jehovah specifies his command:

"9 And the LORD speak unto Moses, saying,
10 Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come over Jordan into the land of
Canaan;
11 Then ye shall appoint you cities to be cities of refuge for you; that the slayer may flee thither,
which killeth any person at unawares.
12 And they shall be unto you cities for refuge from the avenger; that the manslayer die not, until he
stand before the congregation in judgment.
13 And of these cities which ye shall give six cities shall ye have for refuge."

Amazingly, we find such places of refuge among the peoples who are claimed by today's Koreans as
their ancestors recorded in Chinese and Korean sources.

In the Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Zhi 三國志), Book Wei, Book 30, Dong Yi (東夷),
Han People (韓傳) it says:

"Because they believe in spirits very much, they each choose a man from each place to entrust him
with the supervision of the sacrifice to the God of Heaven (天神). In each of these countries there are
also special places called Sotu (蘇塗). There they set up a large tree, hang bells and drums on it, and
serve the demons. People from all directions have fled here and gather here and do not return. They
love to steal. The purpose of establishing the Sotu (蘇塗) is similar to the establishment of Buddhist
monasteries so that some of the residents are good, others rather bad."12

12
信鬼神,國邑各立一人主祭天神,名之天君.又諸國各有別邑.之名為蘇塗.

立大木,縣鈴鼓,事鬼神.諸亡逃至其中,皆不 還 之 ， 好 作賊。 其 立 蘇 塗 之 義 ， 有 似 浮屠 ，

而 所 行 善惡 有 異。Sanguo Zhi (三國 志), Book Wei, 30th book,東夷,韓 傳.

10
The Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms (Sānguó Zhì 三國) was written in the late 3rd century, well
after the Spring and Autumn Periods. The Han (韓) mentioned here are the descendants of the 3 Han
or the 9 Yi of the Spring and Autumn Periods. They have preserved their (Israelite) tradition from their
ancestors. Obviously reserving places of refuge is a tradition that was not maintained in China in other
regions so that this special feature was worth of reporting for the author. He also connects the places
of refuge with religious rituals. This is not unlike Jewish tradition. The rabbinical writings regarded all
cities of the Levites as cities of asylum where religious rituals took place.

The Later Han Book (後漢書) has an abbreviated version of this passage. There Sotu is only
mentioned as a religious ritual place without mentioning the aspect of the place of refuge. This book
covers the period between 25 and220 AD but was not written until the 5th century.

"In all countries they choose a man from each place to entrust him with the direction of the sacrifice to
the sky god (天神). They call him the sky prince (天君) and they also set up Sotus (蘇塗). There they
place up a big tree, hang bells and drums from it and serve the demons."13

In the Book of Jin (Jin Shu 晉書) which refers to a later period, namely between 265 and 420
AD, we can find:

"In every country they choose a place to lead the sacrifice to the god of heaven (天神). They call him
the prince of heaven (天君). And they choose a special place and call it Sotu (蘇塗). They hang bells
and drums on a large tree. The meaning of Sotu (蘇 塗) is the same as that of the word "temple" in the
west. There are good and bad people there."14

In these texts 3 Han (三韓) is clearly treated as an ethnic group that lives in many countries. 3 Han is
also described as part of the Dongyi (東夷) ethnic group .

13
諸國邑各以一人主祭天神,號為"天君" .又立苏涂,建大木以縣铃鼓,事鬼神. Hou Han Shu, Book 85, Dong
Yi 東夷, 3 Han 三韓.
14
國 邑 各 立 一 人 主祭 天神 ， 謂 爲 天君。 又 置 別 邑 ， 名曰 蘇 塗 ， 立 大 木 ， 懸

懸。。 其 蘇 塗 之 義 ， 有 似 西域 浮屠 也 ， 而 所 行 善惡有 異. Jin Shu 晉書, 97th book, 4 Yi,

3 Han 三 韓.

11
The great Korean historian Shin Chae-ho (born 1880) explains the connections between sotu (蘇塗),
ritual site and judicial office in the 3 Han era of Korean antiquity as follows:

“The forest was called “Sudu” and Sudu meant God's Altar (神檀). Every year in May and October,
people went to Sudu to make sacrifices with one person chosen as the high priest who sat in the
middle of the Sudu, and who was also called the sky god. Many people made offerings, the area
around Sudu was marked with a golden rope, denying access to normal people.

When strong enemies invaded the villages they organized themselves into units according to their
affiliation to the respective sudu in order to fend off the enemy. The sudu which had earned the
greatest merit in defense was placed at the top and earned the title "shinsudu" because "shin" meant
"the highest". Under them came the other sudus. In the historiography of the 3 Han the Chinese word
sotu (蘇途) is usedm which is the phonological transcription of the Korean word "sudu", this also
applies to the word shen sotu (臣蘇途), which stands for shinsudu. Zhen 震 from Zhen tan (震檀)
stands for "shin" and tan (檀) stands for the head of sudu. Tan Jun (檀君) stands for the sky god of
sudu. Because there was Tan Jun in sudu the Tan Jun of sudu is little Tan Jun, and a Tan Jun of
shinsudu is a Great Tan Jun (大檀君)."15

If Tan is associated with the Hebrew word Dan ‫דָ ן‬, Judge, the meaning of sodu is revealed: It is a holy
place which is at the same time a place of refuge in the sense of the Mosaic Law and a place were
judge dwells and who is also a priest at the same time.

2.3 Feast of Tabernacles

There is a book with the title "The Chronicles of Dangun ( 단군세기檀君世紀)", written by a court

official of the Goryeo Kingdom, Lee On (李嵒) in 1363.

In the 16th book of the Chronicles of Dangun we find the description of a festival held by the 9 Yis
which has a strong reminiscent to the Feast of Tabernacles (Leviticus 23:34).

"28th year: Many khans of the 9 Huan (九桓諸汗) gathered in Ning gutu (寧古塔) and sacrificed to

the 3 god (三神) and to the supreme emperors (上帝), namely the Huan yin (桓因), Huan xiong (桓

15
Shin, Chaeho ( 신채호 ), Chosun Shanggosa ( 조선 상고사 ), Bibong Chulpansa, 2006, Chapter 2, 2.1.
12
雄), Chiyou (蚩尤) and Dangun Wanggeom (檀君王儉, 단군왕검 ). Great festival was held with the

people during 5 days and nights. Torches were lit at night, the Book was quoted by heart and people
circled around the place, on one side the torches were lined up, on the other side they formed round

circles to dance and sang the song of love for Huan (愛桓歌). The song of love for Huan was one of

the songs that were offered to the primal god (古神). The primal ancestors gave the Huan flower (桓

花) no name, but simply called it "the flower". The text of the song of love for Huan reads:

"The mountain has the flower, the mountain has blossomed;

Last year we planted ten thousand trees, this year we planted ten thousand trees.

When spring comes Bulham flowers (不咸花 불함화 ) will flood everything in red. Then we

will worship the god of heaven (天神) and receive great peace."16

The translation of the line "春來不咸花萬紅" produces a headache for many historians. Korean

authors see in 不咸 the name of a mountain in which the hibiscus trees were planted and translate this

line:

"When spring comes to Bulham Mountain, the mountain will bloom in red."

But the word "mountain" does not appear at all, rather the word 不咸 precedes the word flower

(花). So it is the name of the flower, "Bulham Flower". But what is the Bulham flower that dips

everything in red?

Bulham (不咸) could be a phonetic transcription for "Brahman". Brahman was known in Chinese

sources as poluomen (婆羅門) or boluomen (波羅門). Brahman again can be associated with the tribe

name "Ephraim". In this context, this would make perfect sense.

16
戊戌 二十 八年:會 九 桓 諸 汗 于 寧古塔 祭 三 神 上帝 配 桓 因 桓 雄 蚩尤 及 檀 君王 儉 而 而 亨
之.五日 大宴 興 衆 明燈 守夜 唱 經 踏 庭.一邊列 炬 一邊 瓊 舞 濟 唱 愛 桓 歌 愛 桓 卽 古 神 歌 之 類
也.先人 指 桓 花 而不 名 直 曰 花.愛 桓 之 歌 有 云:山 有 花山 有 花 去年 種 萬 樹 今年 種萬 樹 春來 不
咸 花 萬 紅 有事 天神 樂 太平. Lee On (李嵒) Dangunsegi (檀君世記단군 세기 ) 16. Dangun, 尉那.
13
"When spring comes, the Ephraim flowers will flood everything in red. Then we will worship the god

of heaven (天神) and receive great peace."

Ephraim is representative of the Israelite people. Joseph had the birthright among Jacob's sons (cf. 1
Chronicles 5, 1) and Ephraim had the birthright among the sons of Joseph (cf. Genesis 48,

20). Bulham flower (不咸花), Ephraim flower, would be the Israel flower.

Accordingly, ancient Koreans set up many asylum places in their early days where refugees could find
peace. These places were planted with hibiscus trees (rose of Saron), and festivals were held there for
five days, reading from the Holy Book, the Torah, and hymns were sang. The Heavenly God and the
hibiscus (rose of Saron) were praised through the hymns. The Feast of Tabernacles was probably
celebrated here (Leviticus 23:34).

And how they praised the Heavenly God is testified by the following passage:

"Yua (於阿) Yua (於阿), great God of our ancestors, God full of grace;

All of us from the Bida Kingdom (倍達國) in the hundreds and thousands, will never forget you.

Yua Yua, good hearts have become a great bow, evil hearts have become a target;

We, the people in the hundreds and thousands, are united and together form the bowstring of the great
bow, good hearts are together and form a straight arrow.

Yua Yua, all of us in the hundreds and thousands are a great bow, aiming at many targets that are like
snow clumps from evil hearts, amid boiling water from good hearts.

Yua Yua, we are all in the hundreds and thousands, one arch, have a strong common heart, and are the
glory of the Bida kingdom.

Your mercy lasts for hundreds and thousands of years, o great God of our ancestors, o great God of
our ancestors."17

17
於 阿 於 阿 我 等 大 祖 神 大 恩德

倍 達 國 我 等皆 百 百 千千 勿忘

於 阿 於 阿 善心 大 弓 成 惡心 矢 的 成

我 等 百 百千 千人 皆大 弓絃 同 善心 直 矢 一心 同

14
Yua (於阿) could be a phonetic transcription for Jehovah ( ‫)יְ הוָ ָ֣ה‬, Bida (倍達) could stand for Bethel

(‫בֵּ ית־אֵּ ל‬, House of God). The line "all of us in the hundreds and thousands are a great bow, aiming at
many targets that are like snow clumps from evil hearts, amid boiling water from good hearts" reminds
of Zechariah 13, 9:

"For I have stretched Judah, filled the arch with Ephraim, and I want to raise up your sons, O Zion,
against your sons, O Greece, and I will make you like the sword of a hero!"

2.4 The Levirate

The levirate or brother-in-law marriage is an ancient Israelite custom in which the deceased's brother
marries his widow wife. It is prescribed in the Old Testament and was largely followed by the
Israelites until the fall of both states. Levirate is mentioned for the first time in Genesis 38: 6:

"And Judah gave his firstborn son Er a wife whose name was Tamar. But he, the firstborn of Judah,
was evil in the eyes of the LORD, so the LORD slew him. Judah said to Onan: Come to your brother's
wife and execute marriage-in-law with her, so that you can raise offspring for your brother! "

The law is described further in Leviticus 25: 5:

"If brothers live together and one of them dies, and he had no son, then the wife of the deceased should
not belong to a strange man from outside, but her brother-in-law should come to her and take her as
his wife and do her brother-in-law. And it should happen: The first son she bears is to carry on the
name of his deceased brother, so that his name is not erased from Israel. But if the man does not like to
take his sister-in-law, his sister-in-law is to go up to the gate The elders and say, "My brother-in-law
refuses to raise a name for his brother in Israel; he does not want me to be a brother-in-law. Then the
elders of the city should call him and talk to him. If he then sticks to it and says: It pleases me." I don't
want to take her so his sister-in-law should come up to him in front of the elders and pull his shoe off

於 阿 於 阿 我 等 百 百千 千人 皆大 弓 一 一 衆多 失 的 貫

破 沸湯 同 善心 中 一塊 雪 惡心

於 阿 於 阿 我 等 百 百千 千人 皆大 弓 堅 勁 同心 倍 達 國 光榮

百 百千 千年 大 恩德 我 等 大 祖 神 我 等 大 祖 神. Lee On (李嵒) Dangunsegi (檀君世記단군 세기 ),

second Dangun,扶婁.
15
his foot and spit in his face, and she should speak and say: "This should be done to every man who
does not want to build his brother's house!"

In this law the will of God becomes clear that he wanted to preserve the families or the names of
Israelites which also contributed to the preservation of the 12 tribes and their identification. Thus, it
was possible in the time of Esra to assign all returnees from Babylonia to the 12 tribes. Returnees who
did not have a family register so that an assignment to one of the tribes was not possible were not
acknowledged as Israelites18.

Strikingly we find references to the levirate in Chinese history books only in states that are generally
considered to be ancient Korean states.

The levirate appears in the description of the state of Fuyu (夫餘) in Hou Han Shu (後漢書), Book 85,
Dongyi (東夷) Fuyu (夫餘):

"Their manners are very strict and their punishments draconian, and if someone receives the death
penalty all members of the family become slaves, and if someone steals the penalty is 12 times the
damages caused; and if someone commits adultery both the man and the also the woman are being
killed. Women who become jealous are hated; they are killed and their corpses heaped on mountains
without burial. When a man dies his brother takes his sister-in-law as his wife."19

A similar description of the custom in Fuyu can also be found in Tongdian (通典), a historical work
written between 766 and 801 AD:

"Their penalties are draconian, and if someone kills is killed and all family members are enslaved, and
if someone steals the penalty is 12 times that, and if the wife commits adultery or becomes jealous,
everyone is killed. If one Man dies his brother takes his sister-in-law as his wife, a custom known from
Northern Di (北狄)."20

18
Ezra 2, 61.

19
其俗用刑严急 ， 被誅 者皆没其 家人為奴婢。盗一 責 十二。 男女 淫 ， 皆 殺 之 ， 尤 治恶妒
婦 ，既殺 ， 復 尸 於 山上。 兄 死 妻 嫂. Hou Hanshu (後 漢書), 85th Book, 東夷, 夫餘
20
用刑 嚴 急 ， 殺人者 死 ， 沒 其 家人為奴婢。 竊盜 一 責 十二。 男女 淫 ， 婦人 妒 ， 皆 殺

殺 之。 兄 死 妻 妻 嫂 ， 與 北狄 同 俗。Tongdian (通典), Book 185, Tongyi 東夷, Fuyu (夫餘).

16
The levirate also appears in connection with reports on the state of Goguryeo (37 BC to 668 AD).
In the History of Southern Dynasties (Nanshi,南史) written between 643 and 659 AD it is said about
Kaojuli (高句麗, 고구려):

“When a person dies he is buried but without a coffin, only with an outer coffin. Funerals are
celebrated on a large scale, so a lot of gold, silver and jewels are used as grave goods. After the
funeral, a burial mound is built of stones and pine, and pine trees are planted. When a man dies, the
brother of the deceased takes the widow as his wife."21

In the History of Liang (Liangshu 梁書, written around 629 AD) one finds the same text as in Nanshi
about Gaojuli 高句驪, in book 54, Tongyi peoples (東夷諸戎).

3. Zhaowu 9 Tribes - 昭武九姓

The official history of the Sui Dynasty Sui Shu (隋 書, written around 636 BC) lists a number of states

in the landscape between the Taklamakan Desert and the Caspian Sea which have one thing in

common: They have a connection with the name “Zhaowu 9 Xing (昭武九姓)“, 9 Tribes of

Zhaowu. The distance between the two most separated states, Kingdom of An (安 國, today Bukhara,

Uzbekistan) and Kingdom of Cao (漕 國, today Taxila, Pakistan) is more than1000 kilometers as the

crow flies. The Zhaowu 9 Xing states include (Figure 1):

Kingdom of Kang (康國, today Samarkand, Uzbekistan), Kingdom of Shi (史國, today Shahrisabz,

Uzbekistan), Kingdom of An (安國, today Buchara), Kingdom of Mi (米國, today Panjakent),

Kingdom of He (何國, today Aktash), Kingdom of Cao (漕國, today Taxila), Kingdom of Bo han (鈸

汗, today Ferghana , Uzbekistan), Kingdom of Wu Nearhe (烏那曷國, today Andchoi, Afghanistan),

21
其 死 葬 ， 有 槨 無 棺。 好 厚葬 ， 金銀 財 幣 盡 於 送死。 積 石為封 ， 列 植 松柏。 兄 死 妻
嫂. Nanshi,南史, Book 79, Tongyi (東夷), Gaojuli 高句麗.
17
Kingdom of Mu (穆 國, today Turkmenabat, Turkmenistan).

Figure 1 Zhaowu states according to Sui Shu

It is said of the Kingdom of Kang:

“The name of the king is Wen (溫) and is from the people of the Yuezhi (月氏人). They used to live

north of the Qilian Mountains (祁連山) in the city of Zhaowu (昭武城), but due to attacks by

Xiongnu, the city was destroyed and they crossed the Congling Mountains to the west and established
the current state. Their tribesmen have each established their own state, but the kings of many states
around Kang took Zhaowu as their surname so as not to forget their roots."22

The original home of the Yuezhis (月氏), the city of Zhaowu, was in what is now Lanzhou, Gansu

Province in China, 3,200 km away as the crow flies from Kang State.

22
其 王 本 姓 溫 ， 月氏 人 也。 舊居 祁連山 北 昭武 城 ， 因 被 匈奴 所 破 ， 西 逾 蔥嶺 ， 遂 有 其
國。。 支 庶 各 分 王 ， 故 康 國 左右 諸國 並 以 昭武為姓 ， 示 不忘 本 也. Sui Shu (隋書), Book 83, 康
國.
18
The Yuezhis are said to have traveled this route with a trek consisting of several million people. We
want to take a closer look at this exodus of biblical proportions because it is indeed very similar to the
Egyptian exodus of the Israelites. Without the exodus from Egypt, the Israelites would have remained
Egyptians. The exodus from China reveals that the Israelites who lived in China have grown into great
nations.

3.1 The Balance of power in northern China around 200 BC

Northern China in the 3rd century BC was marked by fights for supremacy between Xiongnus (凶奴),

Yuezhis (月氏) and the Han dynasty (漢朝). The Wusuns (烏孫) also played a role, though a

subordinate one.

In 206 BC China's first dynasty, the Qin Dynasty (秦) failed after only two successions to the throne.

After various revolts and civil wars Liubang (劉邦) who was a minor official in the Qin prevailed and

became the victor in 202 BC. He proclaimed himself as the first emperor of the Han Dynasty

(漢朝). This dynasty would also have come to a quick end after only 3 years if not a coincidence had

saved Liubang's life during a campaign against the Xiongnus.

What is known in Chinese historiography as the Battle of the Baideng Mountains (白登之戰, taken

place vicinity of today’s Datong, Shanxi) the Han Emperor had a 320,000-strong army which
encountered a 400,000-strong Xiongnu cavalry army under the command of their King Maodun

(冒頓). The Han Emperor fell into a trap set by Xiongnu and was separated from his main force and

surrounded by the enemy. Only a thick fog enabled him to free himself from the encirclement and
succeed to unite with his main army and to flee.

The following passage in Shiji (史記) indicates the balance of power between the Han Dynasty and

Xiongnu in this period:

"During this time many officers of the Han army defected to the Xiongnus so that Maodun

(冒頓) plundered the Dazi (代地) area again and again. Finally Gaozi decided to send his advisor

Liujing (劉敬) to the Xiongnus with the company of a princess who was offered as a concubine for

19
Maodun. And every year he paid tribute consisting of cotton, silk, alcohol, and rice, asking for a
fraternal alliance. Maodun then stopped the attacks for a short time."23

The Yuezhis do not seem to have been much weaker than the Xiongnus in this era. On the contrary,
Maodun was sent as a hostage to the Yuezhis by his father in order to secure an existing peace
agreement. The fact of holding the heir to the throne as a hostage reveals the strong position of the
party hosting the hostage (although Shiji cites as reason for this action by the Xiongnus that the
Xiongnu king had a new son from his favorite concubine so Maodun was designated to be killed by
the Yuezhis).

Between 176 and 162 BC Xiongnu and Yuezhi waged a relentless war, at the end of which the
Xiongnu king made a drinking cup out of the skull of the Yuezhi king as described in Shiji, book 123.

The Yuezhis, presumably led by the widowed queen, left Lanzhou in Gansu and headed west. The
journey lasted 36 years; they finally arrived in what is now Pakistan and founded in 126 BC the state
of Kushan. On the way they foght countless peoples and countries and founded everywhere they
passed by states known as Zhaowu States. It is 3,000 km from Lanzhou to Peschwar as the crow flies
where the capital of the Kushans was founded. The actual travel track must have been at least twice of
that.

The departure of the Yuezhis worsened the situation for the Han Dynasty; they now faced the

Xiongnus by themselves. So the Han Emperor sent an envoy headed by Zhangqian (張騫) to the

Yuezhis who after 10 years of traveling in 129 BC arrived at the court of the Yuezhis. Asked by
Zhangqian to return to China the Yuezhi King replied that they had had enough of the fighting with
and against the Xiongnus. The Yuezhis had only traveled so far so that they never had to meet the
Xiongnus again. Now they believed they were safe being so far away from the Xiongnus. They also
considered Han to be a very distant land. They also would not have any desire for a revenge against
the Xiongnus24 .

So Zhangqian traveled all the way back to China without success the duration of the trip totaling 13
years. He had started the journey with more than 100 people; he only came back as a couple.

23
時 匈奴 以 漢 將 眾 往 降,故 冒頓 常 往來 侵 盜 代 地.於是 漢 患 之,高帝 乃使 劉 敬奉 宗室 女
公主為單于 閼 氏,歲 奉 匈奴 絮 繒 酒 米 食物 各有 數,約為昆弟以和親,冒頓乃少止. Sima Qian 司馬遷,
Shiji 史記, Book 110.
24
又 自 以遠 漢 ， 殊 無 報 胡 之 心. Sima Qian 司馬遷, Shiji 史記, Book 123.

20
3.2 Israelite Culture and Religion in Zhaowu 9 Tribes States

Book of Law (Torah) in Kang State

Wei Shu, Book 103 describes the State of Kangguo in the 6th century AD.

“ The descendants of the Kangju (康居) live in Kangguo (康國; today Samarkand). They move around

without a fixed destination, do not live long in one place. This state has existed without interruption

since the Han period. Their original family name was Wen (溫) and they are the Yuezhi people

(月氏人).25

In earlier times they lived in the city of Zhaowu (昭武城), north of the Qilian (祁連山) Mountains,

were beaten by the Xiongnus so that they migrated westward over the Congling Mountains (葱嶺,

Pamir) to finally found a state there. Many tribes have established their own kingdom. For this reason
many royal families in the countries to the left and right of Kangguo have adopted the name Zhaowu
as a family name to show that they have not forgotten their roots.26

The king is called Shifubi (世夫畢) and is considered generous and honorable so that he is highly

respected by many. His queen is the daughter of the Turkish king Dadukehan (達度可汗, Tardush

Qaghan, reign 576 to 603). The capital located on the Sabaoshui River (薩寶水) is called Aludi cheng

(阿迪城) and has many residents.27

3 ministers conduct government affairs together. The king wears a pigtail of hair, a crown with 7

jewels (七寶金花) and a robe made of silk with the most beautiful white embroidery. The queen wears

her hair in a knot and covers her face with a black cloth. Men shave their hair and wear black silk
robes.28

25
康 國 者,康居 之後 也.遷徙 無常,不 恒 故地,自 漢 以來,相承 不 絶.其 王 本 姓 溫,月氏 人 也. Wei
Shu 魏書, Book 103.
26
舊居 祁連山 北 昭武 城,因 被 匈奴 所 破,西 踰 葱嶺,遂 有 其 國.枝 庶 各 分 王,故 康 國 左右 諸國,並 以
昭武 爲 姓,示 不忘 本 也. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.
27
王 字 世 夫 畢,爲人 寬厚,甚 得 衆 心.其妻,突厥 達 度 可汗 女 也.都 於 薩 寶 水上 阿 祿 迪 城,多人
居. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.
28
大臣 三人 共 掌 國事.其 王 索 髮,冠 七寶 金花,衣 綾·羅·錦·繡·白 疊.其妻 有 髻,幪 以皂 巾.丈夫 翦
髮,錦袍. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.
21
This state is famous for its power and many countries in the Western Region submitted to it

voluntarily. The following states were their vassal states: Miguo (米國), Shiguo (史國), Caoguo

(曹國), Heguo (何國), Anguo (安國), Xiaoanguo (小安國), Naseboguo (那色波國), Wunaheguo

(烏那曷國), Muguo (穆國).29

They have a Hu script which they keep in a temple and which they bring out whenever a case arises
that requires judgment on penalties, and they judge by that book. In the worst case the entire clan is
killed if the death penalty is imposed; in the case of theft the legs are amputated.30

All people have deep eyes, high noses and lots of beards. They are well versed in trade, all Yi peoples

(諸夷) flock to this land for trade purposes.31

They have big drum (大鼓), snare drum 小鼓), violin (琵琶), 5-sided harp (五弦箜篌).32

The wedding and burial rituals are similar to those of the Turks. The state builds shrines dedicated to
the ancestors. Sacrifice festivals are held in July and surrounding countries come to help with

sacrificial ceremonies. They believe in Buddha and use the Hu script (胡書).33

The climate is mild, ideal for growing the 5 grains, vegetables are grown in all gardens and trees grow
everywhere. Horses, camels, donkeys, bulls, gold, sulfur, perfume, fragrance from Axuena

(阿薛那香), zither, deer leather, textiles, silk and wool are produced.

29
名爲 强國,西域 諸國 多 歸 之.國·史 國·曹 國·何 國·安 國·小 安 國·那 色 波 國·烏 那 曷 國·穆

國 皆 歸附 之. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.

30
有 胡 律,置於 祅 祠,將 決 罰,則 取 而 斷 之.重 者 族,次 罪 者 死,賊盜 截 其 足. Wei Shu 魏書,

Book 103.

31
人皆 深 目·高 鼻·多髯.善 商賈,諸 夷 交易,多 湊 其 國. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.

32
有 大小 鼓·琵琶·五弦 箜篌. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.
33
婚姻 喪 制 與 突厥 同.國立 祖廟,以 六月 祭 之,諸國 皆 助祭.奉佛,爲 胡 書. Wei Shu 魏書, Book

103.

22
There is plenty of wine, some rich houses have up to 10 Shi (十石), they remain drinkable even after

many years. In the Taiyan era (太延)34 they sent an envoy with a tribute for the first time, after which

the contact was interrupted."35

4. Xiongnus

4.1 Xiongnus are Descendants of the 9 Yi

As origin of the Xiongnus Chinese sources refer to the ancient Xia and Shang Dynasties and locate
their origin to north of China.

This is not very convincing, especially since it would negate any connection between the Xiongnus
and states of the Spring and Autumn Period. One gets the impression that, according to Chinese
historians, the Xiongnus suddenly fell from the sky, to the north or west of China where it is actually
very uncomfortable to live. How is such a large civilized people supposed to have thrived in the
deserts of Northern China?

Regarding the relationship between Yuezhis and Koreans, it says in Hou Han Shu, Book 85, Dongyi

(東夷傳):

"Han (韓) has 3 groups. First is Mahan, second Jinhan, and third Bianhan. Mahan is made up of 54

states, and the north is bordered by Lelang (樂浪). Bianhan is to the south of Jinhan and consists of 12

states, to the south the country borders with Wojie (倭接). Mahan, Jinhan and Bianhan make a total of

78 states. Boji (伯济) is one of them. Large countries have 10,000 families, small only a few thousand.

They are scattered in mountains and valleys, the total territory is a staggering 4,000 li. And both the

34
The Daye (大業) era of Sui Emperor Yangdi (隋煬帝), which dates between 569 ~ 618. It is
noticeable that the tribute relationship between Kangguo and China was not established until the Sui
dynasty was founded. Apparently the Kangs have not recognized the other governments as the rightful
rulers of China. Another striking feature is the proximity of the Kang royal family to the Turks. The
queen is a Turkish princess. This could prove that the Sui imperial family is of Turkish origin.

35
氣候 溫,宜 五穀,勤修 園 蔬,樹木 滋 茂.出馬·駝·驢·犎 牛·黃金·硇 沙·香·阿 薛 那 香·瑟瑟·獐
皮·氍毹·錦·疊.多 蒲萄 酒,富家 或 致 十 石,連年 不敗.太 延 中,始 遣使 貢 方 物,後 遂 絶 焉. Wei Shu 魏書,
Book 103.
23
west and east are seafront so it is the ancient area of Jin State (辰國), Mahan is the largest among

them, they appoint the king for Jinhan and this king governs the state of Muzhi (目支國). Therefore

this Jin king rules all 3 Han so that in reality the Mahans have the upper hand in all these states."36

Here Muzhi and 3 Han are apparently used as a synonym for one and the same "race". Muzhis are 3
Hans and 3 Hans are Muzhis.

But what does Muzhi (目支國) mean?

Apparently it is an incorrect transmission of the word Yuezhi (月支) as the term Muzhi (目支) does

not appear other sources but Yuezhi (月支) appears instead.

So we read in San Guo Zhi, Weishu Book 30, Book of Han (韓傳):

"The Jin King (辰王) rules the Yuezhi State (月支國)."37

According to Shin Chaeho the capital of Mahan was called Yuezhi State (月支國) during the Han

period38 .

Accordingly, Yuezhi, 3 Han and Koreans were indistinguishable from each other.

There also seems to have been a connection between the Xiongnus and Koreans. Han Shu (漢書),

Book 73 describes the war of the Han Emperor in 109 BC against the state of Zhaoxian (朝鮮). It says:

36
韓 有 三種 ： 一 曰 馬 韓 、 二曰 辰 韓 、 三曰 弁 辰。 馬 韓 在 西 ， 有 五十 四 國 ， 其 北 與 樂
樂 ， ， 南 與 倭 接 ， 辰 韓 在 東 ， 十有二國 ， 其 北 與 濊 貊 接。 弁 辰 在 辰 韓 之 南 ， 亦 十有二
國 ， 其 南 亦 與 與 倭 接。 凡 七 十八 十八 國 ， 伯济是 其一 國 焉。 大 者 萬餘户， 小 者數千家 ， 各
在 山海 間 ， 地 合 方 四 千餘 里 ， 東西 以 海為限 ， 皆 古 之 辰 國 國 也。 馬 韓 最大 ， 共 共 立 其
種為辰 王 ， 都 目 支 國 ，尽王 三 韓之 地。 其 諸國 王先 皆 是 馬 韓 種 人 焉。Hou Han Shu 後 漢書,
Book 85,東夷 列傳.
37
辰 王治 月 支 國. San Guo Zhi (三國 志), Weishu, Book 30,韓 傳.

38
Shin, Chaeho ( 신채호 ), Chosun Shanggosa ( 조선 상고사 ), Book 3, 3.3.
24
"In the east (the Han emperor) attacked Zhaoxian and established the garrison cities of Qixiun (起玄)

and Lelang (樂浪) so that Xiongnu's left hand was cut off."39

Zhaoxian stands for an ancient Korean state. North Korea is still called Zhaoxian in Chinese today. It
is unclear in this context whether Zhaoxian was only an allied state of Xiongnu or really their left hand
as part of the Xiongnus.

The relationship between Zhaoxian and Xiongnu is illuminated in the "The Chronicles of

Dangun 단군세기 檀君世紀“ as follows:

“The king banished Yeolyang Yoksal Sagjeong (列陽褥薩索靖) to Yagshu (弱水) with life long

imprisonment. Later he pardoned him and appointed him governor of the province. So he became the
ancestor of the Xiongnus."40

According to this text the Zhaoxians, or the 9 Yis, were ancestors of the Xiongnus.

4.2 The Turks: 9 Tribes Tujue (九姓突厥)

Turks are also known as the 9-Tribe Tujue (九姓突厥) in Chinese sources. For example in Jiu Tang
Shu (舊唐書), Book 83,薛仁貴41 .

The Chinese sources leave no doubt about the origin of the Turks, in Chinese Tujue (突厥): They are

descendants of the Xiongnus. In Zhou Shu (周書), Book 50, Chapter Tujue (突厥), written in 636, it is

stated:

39
東 伐 朝鮮 起 玄 樂 浪 以 斷 匈奴 之 左臂. Han Shu (漢書), Book 73.

40
命 列 陽 褥 薩索靖 遷 于 弱水 終身 棘 置 後 赦 之 仍 封 其 地 是 爲 凶 奴 之 祖. Lee On (李嵒), The
Chronicles of Dangun (檀君世記단군 세기 ), third Dangun, the sixth year.
41

高宗思其(薛仁貴)功,開耀元年,復召見,謂曰'往九成宮遭水,無卿已爲魚矣.卿又北伐九姓,東擊高麗·漠北·遼
東咸遵 聲 敎 者,竝 卿 之 力 也.卿 雖有 過,豈可 相忘?有人 云卿 烏海 城 下 自 不 擊 賊,致使 失利,朕所 恨
者,唯 此事 耳.今 西邊 不 靜,瓜·沙 路 絶,卿 豈可 高 枕 鄕 邑,不 爲 朕 指揮 耶? '於是 起 授 瓜 州長史,尋 拜
右領軍 衛 將·檢校 代 州 都督.又 率兵 擊 突厥 元 珍 等於 雲 州,斬首 萬餘 級,獲 生 口 二 萬餘 人·駝馬
牛羊 三 萬餘 頭.賊 聞 仁貴 復 起 爲 將,素 憚 其 名.皆 奔 散,不敢 當 之.其 年 仁貴 病 卒 年 七十一. [ 『舊
唐 書』 卷 83 列傳 33 薛仁貴]
25
"Tujue (突厥) is a subgroup (別 種) of Xiongnu (匈奴) and had the family name Ashina (阿史那氏).

They formed their own clan (部落). After a defeat against a neighboring country the whole tribe

disappeared. Only one child survived after a soldier did not have the heart to kill him, he simply cut
off his hands and feet and threw him into a bush. Later a she-wolf appeared and fed him with flesh, he
grew bigger and intercoursed sexually with the she-wolf and impregnated the she-wolf. The king of
the neighboring country finally found out that the boy was still alive and sent a lion which killed the
boy. The lion saw the she-wolf and wanted to kill her, too. The she-wolf fled into the Mountains

lying north of Gaochang State (高昌國, now Kocho in Xinjiang). There was a large cave in which

there was a large open space with a lot of green. The area was several hundred li and the place was
protected in all four directions by mountains. This was where the she-wolf hid and finally gave birth to
10 cubs. These 10 boys grew up and acquired women from outside and made them pregnant. The
descendants of each received their own family name, including the name Ashina. The descendants
became numerous and reached several hundred houses. After a few generations they came out of the

cave and became subjects of the Rurus (茹茹). They lived in the south of the Gold Mountain (金山,

Altai) and became metal smiths of the Rurus (茹茹)."42

4.3 Israelite Culture and Religion among the Xiongnus and Turks

4.3.1 Ritual Washing in Yuebanguo

Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103 lists how in a Xiongnu state in the 5th century Israelite customs such as

ritual washing were cultivated.

About Yuebanguo (悅般國, today in Almaty, Kazakhstan) it says:

42
突厥 者,蓋 匈奴 之 別 種,姓 阿 史 那 氏.別 爲 部落.後 爲 鄰國 所 破,盡滅 其 族.有 一 兒,年 且 十歲,兵
人 見其 小,不忍 殺 之,乃 刖 其 足,棄 草澤 中.有 牝 狼 以 肉 飼 之,及 長,與 狼 合,遂 有孕 焉.彼王 聞 此 兒
尙 在,重 遣 殺 之.使者 見 狼 在 側,並欲殺 狼.狼 遂 逃 于 高昌 國 之 北山.山 有 洞穴,穴內 有 平壤 茂草,周
回 數百 里,四面 俱 山.狼 匿 其中,遂 生 十 男.十 男 長大,外 託 妻 孕,其後 各有 一 姓,阿 史 那 卽 一
也.子孫 蕃 育,漸 至 數百 家.經 數 世,相與 出 穴,臣 於 茹茹.居 金山 之 陽,爲 茹茹 鐵工.金山形似 兜鍪,其
俗 謂 兜鍪爲 「突厥」,遂 因 以爲 號 焉. Zhou Shu (周書), Book 50, 突厥.
26
“This state is located in the northwest of Wusun (烏孫) and is 10,930 li away from Dai (代). Their

ancestors were Xiongnus from the North Chanyu clan (匈奴北單于之部落). When they fled west to

Kangju (康居) through the Jinweishan (金微山) mountains after their defeat against Han general

Douxian (竇憲)43 the weak who could not march any further were abandoned north of Guizi (龜玆).44

The extent of this land is several thousand li and the population is more than 200,000. The people of

Liangzhou still call the king of this land Chanyu king(單于王). Their customs and language are

similar to those of the Gaoche (高車) but they are cleaner than the Hu (胡). According to their custom

they cut their hair in a row like the eyebrows and smear a gel made from milk (醍醐) into the hair so

that the hair shines. They wash three times a day before eating.45

43
This battle took place in 91. In Hou Han Shu 後 漢書,和帝 紀, under 永 元三年 條”in the 2nd month, Grand
General Douxian (竇 憲) sent the chief officer to the left (左 校尉) Gengkui (耿 夔) of the Great Wall fortress
(居延塞) out against the North Chanyu (北單于), surrounded it at Mount Jinweishan (金微山) and took his
mother Yanzhi (閼氏) prisoner."
44
悅 般 國,在 烏孫 西北,去 代 一 萬 九百 三十里.其 先,匈奴 北 單于 之 部落 也.爲 漢 車騎 將軍 竇 憲 所
逐,北 單于 度 金 微 山,西 走 康居,其 羸弱 不能 去 者,住 龜玆 北. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.
45
地方 數 千里,衆 可 二十 餘 萬.涼州 人 猶 謂 之 單于 王.其 風俗 言語 與 高 車 同,而 其 人 淸

潔 於 胡.俗 剪髮 齊眉,以 醍醐 塗之,昱昱 然 光澤,日 三 澡 漱,然後飲食. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.

Washing hands (and feet) was one of the commandments God commanded the Israelites. This was
especially true for priests.
Exodus 30: 17-21:
17 And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, 18 You shall also make a bronze basin, with a bronze stand
for washing, and put it between the tabernacle and the altar, and put water in it, 19 for Aaron and his
sons wash their hands and feet in it. 20 When they go to the tabernacle they shall wash themselves in
water, and they shall not die, so shall it be when they come to the altar to serve and to burn an offering
made by fire for the LORD. 21 Let them wash their hands and feet so that they do not die. That should
be an eternal order for him and his generation with their descendants.
1 King 7, 38:
38 And he made ten kettles of bronze, that forty buckets went into one kettle, each four cubits wide,
and one kettle on every stand. 39 And he put five stands on the right side of the house, and the other
five on the left side; but he put the sea on the right in front of the house to the south.

27
There is a volcanic mountain in the south of the country and stones near it melted and flowed several
tens of li and became hard. Humans collect these stones and use them as medicine called Shiliuhuang

(石流黃).46 Once their king wanted to forge an alliance with Ruru (蠕蠕) and he went with a few

thousand to the land of the Ruru to meet with the Datan (大檀). After crossing the border they rode a

few hundred li into the country and saw that the residents did not wash their clothes, did not care for
their hair or washed their hands, and the women cleaned the dishes with their tongues. The king said to
his subordinates: "They have deceived me and want to kidnap me to this land of dogs!" He turned his
horse and rode back quickly. Datan sent his cavalry to capture him but did not reach him. After that
they became enemies and waged several wars against each other47.

In the 9th year of the Zhenjun (眞君) era (448) they sent an embassy with gifts. They also sent a

magician (幻人) who, after beheading someone and having several liters of blood leak out, put a

medicine in the mouth of the decapitated person, whereupon the decapitated man, after he chewed the
medicine, immediately stopped bleeding and fully recovered within only a month, leaving not even a

scar. [The Emperor] Shizu (世祖), not trusting the reports, tried it on a convict himself and found it

was all true. When he heard that the herbs used for medicine grew all over the famous mountains of
China he ordered that his people should learn this art and generously rewarded the magician. There
was also a man in this country who possessed great magical powers. When the Rurus came into the
country to carry out their raids this wizard made sure that a great rain and wind came up so that out of
10 Rurus 2 to 3 were frozen to death or washed away by the water. That year they again sent an
embassy and paid tribute and agreed with the army [of Northern Wei] to attack Ruru simultaneously

46
其 國 南 界 有 火山,山 傍 石 皆 燋 鎔,流 地 數十 里 乃 凝 堅,人 取 爲 藥,卽 石 流 黃 也. Wei

Shu 魏書, Book 103.

47
與 蠕蠕 結 好,其 王 嘗 將 數千 人 入 蠕蠕 國,欲 與 大 檀 相見.入 其 界 百餘 里,見其 部 人 不
浣衣,不 絆 髮,不 洗手,婦人 舌舐器物,王 謂其 從 臣曰: 「汝曹 誑 我,入 此 狗 國 中. 」乃 馳

還.大 檀 遣騎 追 之,不及.自是 相 仇 讎,數 相 征討. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.

This incident is generally dated to 414. Apparently the king of Yueban felt related to the Ruru, so that
he wanted to enter into a covenant (結 好), ie build a family bond with them .
The Rurus are the people of the Rouran (柔然), whom the Northern Wei called as Ruru (蠕蠕, worms,
worms) as a sign of contempt . For Northern Wei (and also for Yueban), Ruru is the best example of a
Yi people who have completely lost their roots.

28
from east and west. Shizu (世祖) liked the idea and ordered all armies to be put on alert, the king of

Huainan (淮南王) was given the command to attack Ruru. The emperor ordered their dances and

music to be included in the court's music department. After this time they sent embassies and tributes
without ceasing."48

One can deduce from this text that the Yuebans heeded the Old Testament law of ritual washing. They
were outraged that their fellow Israelites, the Rourans, no longer obeyed this commandment. They
probably also had prophets who prayed to God in times of great need who also answered them. They
had medical knowledge and also did music and dance. All this despite the fact that they were left to
die by their own kindred while fleeing in the desert.

They are not mentioned in the Chinese history books after 448 when they lastly appeared at the court
of the Northern Wei. Tai Yushan puts forward the thesis that the Yuebans could not withstand the
attacks of the Rourans and emigrated between 450 and 460 to the west and appeared as Avars in
Europe49 . We know what happened to the Avars thereafter: They became Austrians and Bavarians of
Germany. There is a region in Austria which is still called Awarenmark – region of Avars.

4.3.2 Levirate among the Xiongnus

The levirate was a matter of course for the Xiongnus.

The defense speech of a Xiongnu official against the criticism of the Han Chinese against the levirate
practiced by the Xiongnus recorded in Shiji is famous. His argument is almost Old Testament in
character:

眞 君 九年,遣使 朝 獻.幷 送 幻 人,稱 能 割 人 喉 脉 令 斷,擊 人頭 令 骨 陷,皆 血 出 或 數 升 或 盈 斗,以

48

草藥 內 其 口中,令 嚼 咽 之,須臾 血 止,養 瘡 一月 復 常,又 無痕 瘢.世祖 疑 其 虛,乃 取 死罪 囚 試 之,皆

驗.云 中國 諸 名山 皆有 此 草,乃 使人 受其術 而 厚 遇 之.又 言 其 國有 大 術 者,蠕蠕 來 抄 掠,術 人 能 作
霖雨·狂風·大雪 及 行 潦,蠕蠕 凍死 漂 亡者 十二 三.是 歲,再 遣使 朝貢,求 與 官軍東西 齊 契 討 蠕蠕.世
祖嘉 其 意,命中 外 諸軍 戒嚴,以 淮南王 他 爲 前鋒,襲 蠕蠕.仍 詔 有司,以其 鼓舞 之 節,施 於 樂府.自 後
每 使 貢獻. Wei Shu 魏書, Book 103.
49
Cf. Yu Taishan, 余太山, 『兩 漢魏晉 南北朝 正史 西域 傳 要 注』,北京:中華書局, 2005.

29
"The Han envoy said:" With the Xiongnus father and son live together in a tent and if the father dies
the son marries the stepmother, and if the brother dies his brother marries his wife. Coffins are not
used or other expenses are not made at funerals so that there is no decency."

Zhong xingshuo (中行說) replied:

"The tradition of the Xiongnu is that the people eat the meat of the breeding animals and clothe
themselves with the skin of these animals. The breeding animals feed on grass and drink water so that
the Xiongnus move in adaptation of the seasons. To be prepared for danger and to be prepared for
situation they practice riding and bow and arrow, and when there is nothing to do they enjoy leisure.
Their agreements are simple and easy to keep, the relationship between the prince and his subordinates
is simple and easy so that the country's politics look like one piece.

When the father, older brother, or younger brother dies the Xiongnu takes the widow as his own wife
because he is concerned that the deceased's name might be erased. That is the reason why the
Xiongnus despite all the confusions the culture of the blood clan persists. Although it happens very
seldom in China that the wife of the father or brother is taken as a wife the consanguinity is so torn
that one kills the other, and even changes his family name given by heaven. That's what happens if you
don't heed the blood clan. What use is it if rites are observed but there is no appreciation in the
heart? It just creates hatred between older and younger people. If all means are devoted to the
maintenance of palaces and houses there will be no strength left for productivity. The Chinese have
their agriculture and silk farming, live behind well-secured walls but they do not appear courageously
in times of need to defend their honor; they are generally tired of the daily grind of making
money. Oh, how sad it is to see how the Chinese vegetate in mud houses. Look at yourself and watch
your tongue. What use is it that you let your clothes wag in the wind and wear a crown on your
head?"50

50
漢 使 曰 ： 「匈奴 父子 乃 同 穹廬 而臥。 父死 ， 妻 其後 母 ； 兄弟 死 ， 盡 取 其妻 其妻 妻

之。 無 冠帶 之 飾 飾 ， 闕 庭 之 禮。」 中行 說 曰 ： 「匈奴

之俗,人食畜肉,飲其汁,衣其皮;畜食草飲.水,隨時轉移故其急則人習騎射,寬則人樂無事,其約束輕

,易行也君臣簡易,一國.之 政 猶 一身 也。 父子 兄弟 死 ， 取 其妻 妻 之 ， 惡 種姓 之 失 也。

故 匈奴 雖 亂 必 立 宗 種。 今 中國 雖 詳 不 取其 父兄 之 妻 ， 親屬 益 疏 則 至 殺乃 易姓 ，

皆 從 此類。 且 禮義 之 敝 ， 上下 交 怨望 ， 而 室 屋 之 極 ， 生 力 必 屈。 夫 夫 力 耕 桑

30
The irony of this episode is that this Xiongnu official named Zhong xingshuo (中行說) was originally

a Han Chinese. He was sent by the Han court as an envoy to the Xiongnus. He then switched sides,
helping the Xiongnus as an advisor in the fight against the Han Dynasty.

4.3.3 Torah of the Khazar Turks

The Khazar Turks appear in Jiu Tang Shu(舊唐書) as a tribe of Turks dwelling north of Samarkand

(康國) with the name Kesa (突厥之可薩部)51. In a work published in 1317 titled Wen Hsien Tung

Kao (文獻通考) by Ma Duanlin (馬端 臨)52 the Turkish Khazars are described in Chapter 339 in

detail.

“The Wai-kuo-t'u [map of foreign countries] says: From Yung-chên north there is a country called Ta-
tsin. These people are of great size; they measure five or six chih in height 1. The Kuei-huan-hsing-
ching-chi says: The Fu-lin country is in the west of Chan [old sound: Sham], separated by hills several
thousand li; it is also called Ta-tsin. Its inhabitants have red and white faces. Men wear plain clothes,
but women wear silk stuffs beset with pearls. They have many clever weavers of silk. Prisoners are
kept in the frontier states till death without their being brought back to their home. In the manufacture
of glass they are not equaled by any nation of the world. The royal city is eighty li square; the country
in all directions measures several thousand li. Their army consists of about a million men. They have
constantly to provide against the Ta-shih [Arabs]. On the west the country bounds on the western
sea; on the south, on the southern sea; in the north it connects with Ko-sa Tu-chüeh [the Khozar
Turks].53 "

以求 衣食 ， 筑城 郭 以 自備 ， 故 其 民 急 則不 習 戰功， 緩 則 罷 於 作業。 嗟 土 室 之

人 ， 顧 無 多 辭 ， 令 喋喋 而 佔 佔 ，冠 固 何 當？Sima Qian 司馬遷, Shiji 史記, Book 110.

51
Jiu Tang Shu 舊 唐, Book 198,西戎.

52
Ma Duanlin (馬 端 臨), Wen Hsien Tung Kao (文獻 通考), Chapter 339; the text is translated by

Hirth, Friedrich, in China and the Roman Orient, Researches into their Ancient and Medieval
Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records, Shanghai & Hong Kong, 1885.

53
In the translation by Hirth, Friedrich, China and the Roman Orient, p. 71 f ..

31
Byzantium is referred to here as Ta-tsin. In the north of Byzantium lived the Kesa Tujue (可薩突厥),

which applies to the territory of Khazaria (in today's Dagestan) at that time.

The famous Schechter Letter54 describes how the Khazar Turks had adopted the Jewish religion. 3
main world religions vied for the favor of the Khazar Turks: Christianity, Islam and Judaism:

“16 - And it came to pass that when the kings of Macedon

17 - and the kings of Arabia heard of these things, they waxed exceeding wroth. And they sent

18 - messengers to the princes of Khazaria with words of blasphemy against Israel, saying:

19 - “What mean ye by returning to the belief of the Jews who are subject under

20 - the hands of all the nations? " And they spake words which are not for us to tell. And they turned
the

21- heart of the princes to evil. Then said the great prince, the Jew: “To what end,

22 - increase words? Let there come (men) of the wise men of Israel and of the wise men of Greece,

23 - and of the wise men of Arabia. And let everyone of them tell before us and before you.

24 - [the work of his God and we shall see] the end. " And they did so and he sent

25- [messengers to the kings of Greece] and to the kings of Arabia. But the wise men of Israel also
offered themselves

26 - [to come to the aid of the men of] Khazaria. There upon the Greeks opened with their testimony

27- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .and the Jews and the Arabians began to contradict them. And
after this

28- [the Arabians bore witness] and the Jews and the Greeks contradicted them. And then opened

29- [the wise men of Israel their testimony] telling from the days of the creation, until the day when
the children of Israel came up

30- from Egypt, and until they arrived at an inhabited country. (To the truth of this), the Greeks

54
Schechter, Solomon, An unknown Khazar document, in: The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol.
3, no. 2 (Oct. 1912), 181-219.
32
31- as well as the Arabians bore witness and confirmed it, but there arose also dissension amongst
them."

The contest was decided by the very existence of the Torah which the Khazars had in their possession:

"32- Then said the princes of Khazaria," Behold, there is a cave in the valley of Tizul. Bring forth for
us

33- the books which are there and explain them to us. " And they did so and went

34- into the cave. And behold, there were there Books of the Law of Moses, and the wise men of Israel
explained them

35- in accordance with the words which they spake first. "

The Khazars cannot decide otherwise because the Jewish rabbi was able to show that what he taught
was already recorded in the Holy Book of the Khazars, in the Torah. That the Khazars owned the
Torah was probably a well-known fact among the Khazars for it were the nobles Khazaria who had the
Bible taken from a cave.

The Khazars therefore always had the Torah with them; however, they were no longer able to read or
understand it. This is what the rabbinical Jews did for them: the Khazars' eyes were opened at the end.

Line 36 describes the process of (re)turning to Israelitism:

"Then Israel, together with the men of Khazaria, returned in perfect repentance."

Now everyone realized that they, the Khazarian nobles and the rabbinical Jews, worshiped the one and
the same God: the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Hence, they undertook the perfect repentance,
for which the Hebrew word "shub ‫ "ׁשּוב‬is used in the Schechter Letter.

It is not a conversion to Judaism but repentance in the sense of Deuteronomy 30: 1:

"But it will happen when all these words come upon you, the blessing and the curse that I have set
before you, and you take it to your heart among all the heathen peoples among whom the LORD your
God has cast you away If you turn back to the LORD your God and obey his voice in all that I
33
command you this day, you and your children with all your heart and with all your soul, the LORD
your God will turn your fate around and have mercy on you and will gather you again from all the
peoples where the LORD your God has scattered you."

Forgetting the Israelites’ identity is and was sin according to the Bible; repentance was the right
reaction to the sin. This repentance was also possible because the Chinese Israelites had kept the
highest commandment of the Bible: never to lose the Torah. According to King Joseph's Letter55 it is
the son of Bulan, King Obadiah (reign 786 to 809) who introduced rabbinic Judaism into Khazaria.

"After the days of Bulan there arose one of his descendants, a king, Obadiah by name, who
reorganized the kingdom and established the Jewish religion properly and correctly. He built
synagogues and schools, brought in Jewish scholars, and rewarded them with gold and silver. They
explained to him the Bible, Mishnah, Talmud, and the order of divine services. The King was a man
who revered and loved the Torah. He was one of the true servants of God."

The Arab historian Ibn al-Faqīh al-Hamadānī confirms this process in a work dating to 1010:

"And they (the Khazars) took on the difficult obligations imposed by the law of the Torah, such as
circumcision, ritual ablutions, ablution after the shedding of (male) semen, the prohibition of labor on
the Sabbath and during the feast days , the prohibition of (consumption of the meat of) animals that are
(prohibited) according to this religion, and so on."56

That is probably the birth of Orthodox Judaism as we know today.

5. Meaning of the Words Xiongnu, Yuezhi and Zhaowu

5.1 Xiongnu stands for Zion

The names of this two ethnic groups also reveal their Israelite background.

Xiongnu is one of the self-designations of the Xiongnu. It is a phonetic transcription of a Xiongnu

word that Chinese historians adopted later. The Chinese characters have the meaning "the ugly slaves"
which certainly does not show any affection and is hardly suitable as a self-designation.

55
Reprinted in Marcus, Jacob, R., The Jew in the Medieval World: A Sourcebook, 315-1791,
Cincinnati, 1938, pp. 228 ff.
56
Quoted in Brook, The Jews of Khazaria 94-95.
34
How this word was used by the Xiongnus themselves emerges from the correspondence between the
Xiongnu King Maodun (冒頓) and the Han Emperor in 318 BC. In it the Xiongnu King calls himself
"Xiongnu Darqa" and the Han Emperor calls him "Xiongnu da chanyu (匈奴大單于)".

In another letter the Xiongnu King boasts of his many recent conquests and says:

"They [the conquered people] have all become Xiongnus."57

"Xiongnu" is therefore not a breed name. It is not something that one is born into. One can become a
"Xiongnu", be it voluntarily or by force, like after a conquest. This is a concept known from religious
wars.

Another self-designation can be made out in the sources. In the letter from the Xiongnu King to the
Han Emperor quoted above the term appears: "The nation that draw the bow (諸引弓之民)."

"[We have] defeated 24 countries and the inhabitants have all become Xiongnus. All the nations that
draw the bow have united into one house."

This expression clearly relates to the concept of the character Yi (夷) which is composed of the
character for bow 弓 and the character for great 大. With this the Xiongnu King refers to the
connection between them and 9 Yi from the Spring and Autumn Period. This passage therefore means:
"The 9 Yi tribes, driven out of their homeland by Qin and others, have become a house again through
the Xiongnus."

We encounter this "trait" of the Xiongnus 600 years later when the Mongols encounter Turks and
Arabs in the Central Asian region. The Xiongnus and Turks feel related as "nations that draw the bow"
and this is where they differ from the Arabs. The Arabs have also fought with bows and arrows. But
that didn't matter. Only Mongols and Turks were descendants of the Yi (夷), the Arabs were not.

In this context it is interesting to know that the Yuezhis belonged to the 24 states defeated by the
Xiongnus. They, too, are now counted among the Xiongnus by King Maodun.

Xiongnu has therefore not a racial but a religious connotation.

What could be meant by this phonetic transcription of the word from the Xiongnu language becomes
clear when we consult Persian sources. The Persians had used the term "Chionites" for the Xiongnus
who invaded Bactria in AD 356. Ammianus Marcellinus who reports about it uses the word
“Chionitae” for the intruders which is based on the Middle Iranian etymon “xiyōn” and the Greek
suffix “-ιται” (“tribe”)58.

It is obvious that the Persians could only have meant the Hebrew Zion (‫ )צִ ּיֹון‬by "xiyon" since the
Persian Great King Cyrus II new the Zionites for had ordered the return of the Babylonian Jews to
Canaan.

57
皆已爲匈奴, Han Shu 漢書, Book 94, 匈奴傳.
58
See Yu, Taishan, Αλχονο Coins and the Ethnicity of the Hephthalites, in: Eurasian Studies, English Edition II, 2014, S. 38 f..
35
It is therefore quite possible that the Xiongnus, if they were Israelites, called themselves "Zionites",
that is, as people who had the return to Zion as their goal of life, like the Zionists in 19th century in
Europe.

Xiongnus would therefore be advocates of the restoration of Zion. Another aspect supports this
finding.

In the Ancient Israel the City of David stood on the Mount Zion and was built with marble by
Solomon. Hence the city was also called the "White City".

It is fact that the Xiongnus often built their cities in white color or called them the "White Cities". The
Xiongnu cities were therefore "white Zion cities".

Here are some examples:

The 11th century capital of Xixia State known as Tongwancheng was called "Chagan Algasun" by the
Mongols, which means "the White City". Today the ruin is near a village called “Bai cheng zi” which
means “Little White City”.

The first capital of the Jurchen (女眞) was called Bai cheng, " White Castle" which in turn suggests
that the Jurchen were related to the Xiongnus. The Jurchen who would later found the Jin (金)
Dynasty and the Qing (淸) Dynasty, were a Yi people.

Khubilai Khan had four capitals, one of which was called "Chagan Khota", "the White City".

Other "white cities" can also be found in Europe. Attila's seat in Hungary was called Ezilburg and was
called "the White City" by Hungarian historical annals. Belgrade also means "White City".

5.2 Yuezhi stands for Judah, Zhaowu stands for Samaria

Xiongnu is thus the designation of a creed (such as "Christian", "Mohammedan" or "Buddhist"), namely
that one longs for the restoration of Zion which is a well-known Biblical topos. Then what could „Yuezhi”
stand for? The phonetic reconstruction for 月氏 in Old Chinese is (after Pulleybank) * ŋw𝘢 t-tēɦ59. From
here the way to Judah is not far. Yuezhi could therefore stand for the Jews in general. Later Yuezhi called
themselves "Zhaowu". As already stated, this was the original name of the city which was destroyed by
the Xiongnu in 176 BC. After that time the royal family changed their surname to Zhaowu or named
their cities as Zhaowu 9 Tribes (昭武九姓) cities.

One of them is the city of Kang, now known as Samarkand. The word "Samarkand" can be split into
"Samar" and "kand" (Sogdian "city"). Samar, like Zhaowu, may have been the phonetic transcription
for the Hebrew word "Shomron ‫"ׁשֹׁ ְמרֹון‬, Samaria. According to this, Zhaowu 9 tribes (昭武九姓)
could be interpreted as the "Nine tribes of Samaria", which would correspond to the self-designation
of the Israelites during the Spring and Autumn Period, 9 Yi (= 9 Tribes of Israel).

59
The Reconstruction of The Name Yuezhi 月氏/月支 Hakan Aydemir, 2019, p. 258.
36
The fierce battle between the Xiongnu and Yuezhi would be understandable in this context. This
conflict is an ancient political and religious struggle between Israelites tribes. Some are the
champions of Zion, ie Judas, others want to continue the way of Samaria. The Yuezhi were originally
led by the Tribe of Judah, giving the nation their name. Later, the Northern Israelites, the Samarians,
took the lead.

The Yuezhi later founded cities and states intended to evoke associations with Samaria. For example,
the already mentioned city of Samarkand. Another example is Sarmatia which was the dominant
power in the years from 130 BC on the north shore of the Black Sea. Sarmatia was a name for a tribal
association into which many individual ethnic groups were integrated. The association was led by the
so-called "Royal Sarmatians"60.

It can also be no coincidence that ancient Korean states (and many Chinese too) named countless of
their cities Pyongyang or Pingliang, meaning "City of Peace", hence Jerusalem. Here are some
examples:

The capital of Xiongnu State Han Zhao (漢趙), AD 304–329, was called Pingyang (平陽).

The Xiongnu state Xia (407-431) established the capital Pingliang (平凉) (428-430) in Gansu, which is
still called by that name today. The Korean state of Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) had no less than 5
capitals named Pingliang (平壤).

It can not be a coincidence that ancient Korean states (and also many Chinese ones) called countless of
their cities Pyongyang or Pingliang, which means "City of Peace" = Jerusalem. Some examples are:

The capital of Xiongnu state Han Zhao (漢趙), 304 - 329 AD, was named Pingyang (平陽).

The Xiongnu state Xia (407-431) established the capital Pingliang (平凉) (428-430) in Gansu, which
is still called that today.

The Korean state of Goguryeo (37 BC - 668 AD) had no fewer than 5 capital cities all called
Pingliang (平壤).

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