J. agric. Engng Res.

(1967) 12 (1) 22-39

The Wear of Metallic Materials by Soil-

Practical Phenomena*
R. C. D. RICHARDSONt

The wear rates of metallic materials in cutting soil, as in ploughing, have been compared in
the field, using simplified tools. The field test method is described. The field results show that the
wear is of the general type investigated by Khrushchov and Babichev' and that in many soils
most of the wear is caused by stones. The principal abrasives were quartz and other forms of
silica such as flint. Very hard steels and particularly materials containing massive carbides,
wear differently in different soils relative to steels at Hv 500 kg/mm.s
Relative wear results on bonded abrasive discs using flint papers of different grit size show
similarities with results in the field. The coarse grit condition, in which grit fracture is prevalent,
compares quite closely with results in a soil containing ironstone, grains of which also fracture.
Results in a stone-free soil approach those on fine grit.
The maximum hardness Hu of a selection of metals and alloys has been estimated by measure-
ments taken in surfaces severely strained by 'trepanning'. The relative wear resistance f3 on
abrasive of a hardness Ha that greatly exceeds Hu, is not fully determined by Hu as hitherto
accepted.
A soft abrasive wear regime commences when Hu exceeds about 0·8 Ha and ceases, under
some conditions, when the yield stress of the material approximates that of the abrasive. In-
creases in the relative wear resistance b when Hu> 0·8 Ha, compared with fl, suggest that
local regions reach Hu, but other evidence shows that the complete surface does not reach this
hardness. A lower relative wear resistance b on coarse grit compared with that on fine grit
abrasive, is attributed to fracture of the coarse grit when plastic zones in the grit exceed a
critical size. For heterogeneous materials this effect is augmented due to hard particles becoming
less effective when they are small compared with the scale of deformation.
Various practical considerations are discussed.

1. Introduction
It is well known that the phenomena arising in wear differ greatly according to the prevailing
conditions. The present account refers primarily to the wear of metallic tool materials in culti-
vating agricultural soils. It is probable however that the conclusions can be generalized to
embrace related conditions of wear such as are met for instance in civil engineering and mining
operations, as well as in industry generally. The mechanical system falls into the category known
as 2-body wear.
The work to be discussed was carried out with the object of improving the economy of soil
working tools. During the first phase a method of comparing the wear rates of different materials
in the field was developed and several series of field trials were carried out. As expected, the
wear behaviour conformed in several respects to the features observed by Khrushchov and
Babichev 1 , 2 in wear tests on bonded abrasive discs. Similar tests, on abrasive discs, were then under-
taken using both very hard abrasives, and relatively soft abrasives such as flint (a principal
constituent of the field soils) and glass. It was found possible to reproduce important character-
istics of the field results and thus to identify some of the physical factors involved.
Much of this work has yet to be published in full. In the present paper the field method is
described and some of the more important field results are discussed. The principal features
of the laboratory study are summarized. Phenomena thought to be relevant in engineering
practice are discussed, and practical comments are made.
• Paper presented to Conference on the Prevention of Wear by Surface Treatment at the Technische Hogeschool, Eindhoven, 17·18th
January, 1967, organized by the Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs and Bond voor Materialenkennis
t Materials Engineering Section, N.I.A.E.
22
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 23

2. A field method for comparing wear rates

Many previous attempts at comparing wear rates on soil working tool materials have been
unduly limited by the use of practical components as the wearing part and by failure to apply
normal experimental methods. The requirements are briefly as follows:-
(a) The test components should perform the functional duty that it is wished to study.
Working conditions should be nearly the same for all.
(b) It should be possible to complete an experiment within an area of land in which the soil
type and condition are substantially uniform. It is desirable to choose a particular soil
for reference purposes.
(c) The wear test pieces must be homogeneous within the wear zone and a particular material
must be chosen for reference or control.
(d) The wearing surfaces should be nearly identical in shape.
(e) Statistical methods should be used to determine the physical layout of the experiments,
to reduce errors and to estimate them.

Fig. I . Tine and worn test specimen Fig. 2. Profile of a worn edge

In the present case the object was to study the wear on the cutting edges of soil working tools
and in particular to simulate approximately the conditions on a plough share. The wear test
pieces were made in the form of flat rectangular plates measuring -& X 3! X 6 in and were
mounted in a tine (Fig. J). A single tine was used on a fully floating rear-mounted tractor toolbar
and set at a cutting angle of 4° when in work, so that the depth wheels were always loaded
onto the ground. The tool was set at ploughing depth and driven at 2i mile/h. A wavy edge
disc coulter was usually fitted to clear rubbish.
Early work showed that with this arrangement, differences in shape could be kept small if
the total volumetric wear on each specimen was kept roughly the same throughout an experiment.
During initial running no wear occurred on the centre of the square cutting edge profile but the
corners became progressively more chamfered until the cross-section became nearly parabolic
(Fig. 2). Beyond this stage the profile shape changed only slightly, due to rather higher wear
on the undersurface. In plan view the corners of the leading edge became progressively more
rounded.
Specimens were run-in on the test site as a preliminary, to form their edges and to stabilize
the condition of their wearing surfaces. In the developed technique, the cutting edges of the test
specimens were prepared with a chamfer to accelerate this process. Most of the trials were carried
out on grain stubble. A field of about 25 acres is desirable to test about 10 average materials.
If larger numbers are to be compared it is thought best to test them in groups of ten, relying on
the control material to relate the different sets of results .
A randomized split-block layout was found satisfactory, and four blocks or replicates were
usually sufficient to limit the standard error to about 5 % of the mean wear, having extracted
24 THE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS BY SOIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

variance due to block and material differences. The land was marked out with 6 ft sighting poles
to form one or more parallelograms and these were divided to form four areas of land (Fig. 3).
The work was done from a caravan in which it was found practical to use a balance of precision
±0'01 g. The specimens were taken in random sequence and run a chosen number of passes in
two or four areas, then cleaned (Fig. 4), dried and reweighed (also measured as a check). The
tractor was driven in a wheel track mark from the previous run so that each area was gradually
worked over starting from one side. A new random sequence was used for each of the blocks
(replicates) comprising the experiment.

fl
I~
1"
,(
if
!!

Ii
H
Jf
(1
i\-----f~:-:------'-
4-27-+-------.-
sr;;'h
-------'i'--';-:-;:--:;:--:,:...:r-i'---------'i'--i-'-c:--:r-T+-
(, ....~ '.J~

I(y Land far runni ng in

(tand equalizing wear Area 2 Area I

1/1./ \
(
J

l_-..- ~ J

Fig. 3. Field layout

Fig. 3 shows part of a layout for comparing four materials. Here each material is being given
one pass in each of the four areas. The number of passes in each area is chosen to give at least
1 g weight loss per block. The total wear of all specimens is kept the same within about 3 g by
giving more resistant materials more passes per area, which are recorded, or by carrying out
equalizing work on some spare land, and reweighing, before proceeding to the next block of
the experiment. Any desired soil properties can be measured during the experiment and
samples can be taken for mechanical analysis.
In a series of four very different soils the wear on the low alloy steel at H = 500 kg/mm 2 used
for control, ranged from 8·7 to 3·7 g/lOOO yd.
A different type of insert test piece used on a chisel ripper tine for field experiments in dry
African soils is shown in Fig. 5.

Wear phenomena observed in field experiments

3.
3.1. Classification of the wear in soil
During development of the field method, the effect of work hardening was investigated by
comparing specimens of copper and mild steel, both annealed and cold rolled. The volume wear
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 25

Fig. 4. Washing a specimen and fitting Fig. 5. Wear test specimen inserted in a
the next one chisel ripper tine point

was approximately in inverse ratio with the annealed hardness or with that attained by material
cold rolled to about 80% reduction in thickness. The annealed and cold rolled materials had
about the same wear rate. As expected, these results showed that the wear mechanism had much
in common with the type of abrasive wear studied by Khrushchev" on bonded abrasive discs.
This similarity was confirmed in a second series of field trials in four very different types of soil.
From here on, a 0'37%C low alloy Ni-Cr-Mo steel, B.S. 9704 EN. 24, hardened and tempered
842,0'74% C steel
1,2

I') Austenitic Mn
steel
88, 0·43% C steel
1-0 024,0-37% C Ni Cr Ma
steel

0'9

.0
0-8
.,;
o -!!!
c
0
.; 0'7
s
..'!:'
e'" t
~
b
0
0'6 -!!'
o
~'L~
Q)
~ 2Mildsteel
Q)
,{I 1----0
> 0'5 58 Austenitic stain less steel
+:
~
Q)
a:: 0'4

+Ti 8 Hardenea
Fiel d resu I ts
0'3
+Annealed

0'2

GAl alloy
0'1

0 100 200 300 400 500

2
Hardness, H, kg / mm

Fig. 6. Comparison of wear results in soil with those ofKhrushchov and Babichev' on corundum cloth (ful/lines)
(Numbers refer to B.S. 9704, EN series steels)
26 'tHE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS BY SOIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

Fig. 7. Ironstone after contact with Ni-Hard white cast iron (light areas are shattered quartz grains)
( x 12)

Fig. 8. Flint after contact with Ni-Hard white cast iron ( X 12)

to a hardness* H = 500 kg/mm ", was used as experimental control in the field trials. The per-
formance of the materials was expressed as a relative wear resistance b taken as the ratio, volume
wear of the reference material/volume wear of the test material, for equal distance run. A set of
results from a very light soil containing ironstone (abrasive constituent quartz), is shown in Fig. 6.
• All hardness values quoted refer to a Vickers diamond pyramid indenter having an angle of 136° between opposite faces
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 27
The full lines represent Khrushchov and Babichev's results' (Chapter 3) for similar materials.
The factor relating the two wear resistance scales is 1/3 0, obtained by equating the wear of the
0·4 %C steels at H = 500 kg/mm",

3.2. Stones and soil properties

It soon became obvious from the sound of the tool and the severity of scoring that much of the
wear was caused by stones. Wear rates on mild steel in two soils whose fine fractions had a
virtually identical particle size analysis, moisture content and in situ shear strength, varied by
about 10 to 1 according to the proportion of stones. Stones were excavated from the tool track
and the metal wear debris were examined (Figs 7 and 8). The force necessary to push stones
out of the way of the cutting edge was estimated by using a penetrometer to force hard steel
spheres into the soil. The plot of average unit stress F/D 2 against penetration strain 15/D
approximated to the form
m
..!!..-
D2 = FD2"" (1 _
f:
-U/D)
•

In all the soils about 40 % of the volume was occupied by gas and water. The flow of the soil
was highly compressible and the force on a 1 in dia ball was typically 150 lb at one diameter
deflection. The greater contribution of the larger soil particles (e.g. stones) to wear may be
accounted for partly by the fact that they cause compaction and strengthening of the fine soil
matrix when they are displaced by the tool cutting edge.
The wear on a set of test specimens varying in thickness (r) was roughly of the form
wear = k 1 + k 2 t.
As the thickness increased threefold, the parabolic edges become 25% more slender, measured
by focal length/thickness.
It was realized that this relationship between wear and thickness was due to the fact that the
total wear path (s) is the sum of the distance a particle slides around the parabolic cutting edge
and the distance the edge slides on the stone surface. Fig. 9 shows a spherical particle of radius r
rolling and skidding round a curved edge. Over the increment shown, the radius of curvature
of the edge is R1, and centre 01' The particle moves about the instantaneous centre 0, at radius R
measured to its circumference.
From Fig. 9 d/
dO = R1

(R + r) t5rp = (R - R 1) 150,
drp R - R 1
dO= R+r
Friction path t5s = 15/ + rt5rp,
r
tis drp drp dO r drp r (R - R 1 ) 1 + R1
d/ = 1 + r d/ = 1 + r dO dl = 1 + R 1 dO = 1 + R1 R + r = 1 + r
R
dsldl is a factor in the expression for the wear intensity, at a point. When the instantaneous
centre lies on the surface, the particle rolls, dsldl is zero and no wear occurs. If the particle does
not purely roll, R is not zero. dsldl is then infinite at a sharp edge (R 1 = 0) and thus sharp edges
on soil working tools are rapidly rounded off. The general point, that wear rates may be pro-
foundly affected by particle motion, is easily overlooked. In the present case the agreement
between the field and laboratory tests (Section 4.3) suggests that the particle loading and motion
28 THE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS BY SOIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

in the field are substantially unaffected by differences in friction when the test materials are harder
than about 400 kg/mm".
All the British soils contained stones (diameter> 2 mm) in which quartz or flint predominated.
Two African soils, in Kenya and Lesotho, were mainly quartz sand with no stones, and one Kenya
soil was pumice. The hardness of the quartz and flint, measured on a Reichert ME.F microscope,
averaged 1000-1140 kg/rnm",

Inste nte neous centre

/-- 0

/
/U
/
/
/
/
/
/
Centre of curvature I.

Fig. 9. Spherical particle rolling and skidding rounda curvededge

The effect of speed over the range 0'5-5 mile/h was to increase the wear rate by about 20 %
and to alter the wear distribution.

3.3 Variations in different soils

The main interest was in differences in the relative wear of different materials. The perform-
ance was expressed as a relative wear resistance b as defined in Section 3.1. The EN.24 steel at
H = 500 kg/mm 2 was used as control and reference in the field tests.
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 29
3.3.1. Tests in British soils
In the second series of trials the soft materials varied somewhat from soil to soil, mild steel
for instance varying from b=0'37 to 0·54. The tempered martensitic steels up to H=500 kg/mm"
and austenitic manganese steel maintained about the same wear resistance relative to the control,
but that of a white cast iron, Ni-Hard, varied from b= 1·6 in the light ironstone soil to b=4'0
in a light flinty soil.

TABLE I

Relative wear resistances recorded in the field and in laboratorytests

(Laboratoryresults converted to refer to EN.24 at H = 500 kg/mm2 as standard)

Field results
Vickers Corundum Flint - -
hardness cloth paper Light Quartz Flint
Material H, 180 grit 40 grit soil Light sand paper
kg/mm iron- soil soil 180 grit
stone flint (Kenya)
--
Carbon and low alloy steels (B.S. 970)4
EN.42 0·74%C steel 500 H3 1·20 H4 H4
0·74 %C steel 650 1'22 1·23 1-42 1'37 1'58
0'74%C steel 820 1'53 1'80 1·76 1·95 2'32 2'06
EN.8 0·43 %C steel 500 1'00 1·05 1·02
0'43 %C steel 600 HI 1·17 1-34 1'34 1-45 1'26
EN.24 0'37%C, Ni-Cr-Mo steel 350 0'97 0·72 0·86 0'94
--
0·37 %C, Ni-Cr-Mo steel Reference 500 1'00 1·00 1·00 1'00 1·00 1'00
--
Alloy steels
A.Mn Austenitic manganese steel 220 1'38 1·27 1·09 1·08 1'39 1-60
KE 275 0·4 %C, 10%W, 3%Crhot die steel 600 1·39 1·37 1·66 1·67 2-48 2-89
C.Cr 2%C, 14%Cr die steel 700 1·75 1·78 1·94 2·07 11·7
2%C, 14%Cr die steel 860/900 2·04 3·50 2-93 3-34 32·6
Cast hardfacing alloys
Delcrome 3%C, 30%Cr, Fe base -610 2·12 2·25 2·28 3-32 9-60 129
Stellite 1 2'5%C, 33%Cr, 13%W, Co base -630 1·71 2·29 2-49 4'26 10·3 26·9
White cast irons
Ni-Hard 3%C, 1'7%Cr, 3%Ni -700 1'52 1'50 1'71 2'50 5·95
W.I. 3-6%C -700 1'53 1'59 2'32 3'81 4·32

In a third series of trials these two soils were again employed and the test materials included
a eutectoid carbon steel at H=820 kg/mm", and a selection of steels, irons and hardfacing alloys
containing carbides. As expected from the previous results, all the carbide-bearing materials
had a higher relative wear resistance in the light flinty soil, and so to a lesser extent did the hard
carbon steel (Table I). On this occasion the Ni-Hard gave b=2·50 in the light flinty soil and this
somewhat lower result was associated with a lower soil moisture content and higher strength
measured by penetrometer readings with spheres. The value compared closely with results in a
strong clay-flint soil.
30 THE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS BY SOIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

It was concluded that :

(a) Even moderately hard carbide such as cementite can be hard compared with flint. It
was later seen that the cementite is strained plastically with the rest of the structure (Fig. 10) and
may therefore work harden, and that other carbides also strain plastically even when they are
initially harder than the quartz abrasive.
(b) Higher contact stresses increase the ratio scratch depth/carbide diameter and the carbides
become less effective as to a greater extent they are swept out as part of a chip, rather than being
themselves worn. Increased fracture of the abrasive surface might also occur with the effect
mentioned in (c) below.

Fig. 10. White iron worn in stony soil and sectioned nearly parallel to the direction of abrasion, showing flow of the
cementite ( x 540)

(c) Some unexplained differences existed between the ironstone and the flint. The severity
of abrasion cannot be judged altogether by appearance since surface deformation can result
from rubbing as well as scratching. It was suspected that particle fracture in the weak ironstone
might render it more effective in cutting hard material than the smooth strong surface of the
flint, even though the latter produced a more deeply grooved wear surface. This was suggested
by the conventional grinding wheel practice of using a coarse grit and a weak bond to grind very
hard material.

3.3.2. Tests in African soils

Field tests were also carried out in two very dry African soils to test for thermal effects using
the chisel ripper tine (Fig. 5). The soils contained no stones and the sand and silt size fractions
were quartz. Undisturbed, the soil was very hard but it crumbled to powder at the tool face.
Although the tool became hot to touch there was no evidence that the wear was affected by
frictional heating. It is seen however from Table I that , compared with the ironstone soil, the
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 31

carbide-bearing hardfacing alloys, increased in relative wear resistance about four times, to
b :!:::: 10, and so to a lesser extent did the harder hypoeutectoid steels, as well as the hot die steel.
These results were consistent with the previous findings in British soils. It was concluded that:
(a) In soils consisting of minerals softer than quartz, large increases in life may be expected
from the use of steels somewhat harder than the usual 500 kg/mm-, or from materials containing
massive carbides.
(b) At normal cultivation speeds, thermal effects are negligible even in extremely hard,
dry soil.
(c) There is no evidence that the moisture content of the soil has much effect on relative
wear except through its influence on soil strength.
(d) Carbide-bearing materials become very effective in resisting abrasion in quartz soil free
of stones, due to the small scale of surface deformation and because of plastic flow rather than
fracture in the abrasive (see (e)).
(e) Steel hardened to 600 kg/mm> or more also increases in wear resistance in stone free,
compared with stony, quartz soils. This was imperfectly understood but was associated with
some work hardening effect. It was found later that materials that can work harden to about
0·8 Ha or more (Ha=hardness of abrasive) show rises in b that become larger when the abrasive
does not shatter on contact, but flows plastically (Section 4.3).

4. Laboratory investigation of wear phenomena

Wear tests were carried out on a rotating disc abrasion tester (Fig. 11) using a method similar
to that of Khrushchov and Babichev'. Armco iron was used as the reference and control material.
The abrasive was termed hard when its hardness Ha exceeded the maximum hardness Hu of the
test material or its constituents, when heavily strained.

4.1. Wear by hard abrasives 5

The method used satisfied the standard conditions set up by Khrushchov and Babichev.'
The relative wear resistance on hard abrasive is termed p. These tests were done mainly to
establish relative wear relations that could be taken as normal for the material and against
which the effect of soft abrasive could be viewed. Many of the results were in general, but not
precise, agreement with the Russian work.
Thus the ratio PI H for annealed metals and alloys varied considerably and the hardening effect
of impurities or alloy additions did not produce an increase in P according to the same propor-
tionality. Changes in relative wear resistance of ± 10 or 20 % occurred in metals and single-
phase alloys tested on different 180 grit surfaces. These changes were ordered according to
the abrasiveness of the surface and independent of the hardness of the abrasive matter.
Variations in relative wear resistance, also in the region of 10 or 20 %, were recorded in tests

Fig. 11. N.I.A.E. abrasion tester Fig. 12. 'Trepanning' tools

32 THE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS BY S OIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

on surfaces of different abrasive material and grit size, over the range 180-30 grit. These tests
showed, however, that to this order of precision a soft metal (such as Armco iron) could be used
as control, to show up effects occurring when harder materials are tested on abrasives (flint and
glass) that might be relatively soft in some cases (Ha < Hu).

08, 0'43% C steel martensite

ei, 2'0

oJ 024,0'37% C low aHoy

"c steel me rtensite
Zon
on
! Austenitic stainless
steel

Q)
>
IMI 160 0Ta./
"
Q) /'
Il: IMI130Ti ./
Ni o »> ""
Fe (Z'Q> . Fe
./ .0 Be Cu (aged)
IMI 115 T i / )Y,
/ Be Cu
/

~rass

Fig. 13. Relative wear resistance on 180 grit corundum cloth-maximum hardness (Numbers refer to B.S. 970·, EN
series steels. Fe(2) is zone refined iron)

4.2. The hardness of metallic materials at high strain 6

Khrushchov and Babichev' suggested that under abrasion metallic materials become work
hardened to a maximum extent throughout a sufficient volume of the surface to determine the
further wear. However, they did not evaluate this hardness. Values much higher than those
recorded on worn surfaces by Goddard and Wilman, 7 and Alison and Wilman" were measured
by taking micro hardness impressions directly in the surface of circular tracks produced by
'trepanning' tools developed for the purpose (Fig. 12). The tool tips were blunted to minimize
cutting and the method was designed to achieve a deformed zone of satisfactory size, to apply
an extremely high strain, and to minimize strain reversal.
A plot of p against Hu (Fig. 13) or against the mean hardness of the specimen surface, shows
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 33

that Pis not fully determined by either of these strength parameters, and it appears from Section
4.3 that only a part of the wearing surface becomes fully hardened. Changes in the distribution
of strain round wedges and indentors arise from the elasticity, work hardenability and anisotropy
of the materials and also depend on the indentor shape." Mulhearn and Samuels'? found that
the profile shape of wear grooves did not correspond with that of the grit particles producing
them.
It may therefore be concluded that wear depends to some extent on a variety of strength
properties and that at a given wear rate neither the strength nor the flow of materials is generally
identical. The moderate variation in Pon different abrasives is then accounted for by the differ-
ential effect of the strength and topography of the abrasives on the strength and flow of the
wearing materials.
It may also be important to realize the major limitation of work hardening that can result
from alternating plastic strain. General accounts are given by Wood 11 and by Coffin.'! In
extreme cases strain softening occurs.Pr" These mechanisms are generally accepted in relation
to fatigue and it is now suggested that they should be considered in relation to abrasive wear.
Transformations occurred in an austenitic stainless steel and in an austenitic manganese steel,
the wear debris being magnetic. The latter material work hardened from 220 to 900 kg/rum",
well above the maximum of 660 kg/mm" hitherto accepted."

4.3. Wear by soft abrasives"

Relative wear resistances on potentially soft abrasives, or under general conditions, are desig-
nated b, and those on hard abrasives used for reference are identified by p. The reference materials
in all cases were soft compared with the abrasives. The laboratory results for band p are relative
to Armco iron which is soft compared with all the abrasives used, including silicon carbide
Ha=3000, corundum 2160, garnet 1360, flint 1060 and glass 590 kg/mm", Field values for bare
relative to the steel EN.24 at H =500 kg/mm-, which is just soft compared with flint or quartz.
Values of band p measured in the laboratory can be converted to relate to the steel used for
reference in the field work, as in Table I. Increases in wear resistance on soft abrasive can be
measured by the wear resistance ratio b(p.
When materials that had been compared in the field were tested on 180 grit flint paper, (repre-
senting the several forms of silica in field soils), the relative wear resistances b of some of the
materials containing carbides were much higher than the values recorded in any of the soils
(Table I). Following the conclusions from the field tests (Section 3.3), the scale of deformation
and the particle loading were increased by testing on 40 or 36 grit papers. The excessively high
wear resistance values then dropped decisively and closely resembled some of the field results.
In Table I the columns are arranged in Older so that the wear resistance of the harder materials
generally increases from left to right. It is seen that, for the most part, the field results are brac-
keted by those obtained on coarse and fine grit flint papers in the laboratory, and the coarse
grit data follow quite closely the values in the soil containing ironstone. Corresponding data
for soft materials such as mild steel and titanium do not agree so well. The laboratory results
in the Table apply to a particular load and specimen diameter. The relative wear of carbide-
bearing alloys is found to vary with load and diameter as well as with the grit size of the abrasive.
It is hoped therefore, by suitable control of the test variables, to reproduce closely the wear
relationships recorded in particular soil conditions. The importance of the contact conditions in
determining b shows that, in a particular soil, the relative wear of materials on share cutting
edges would not in general be the same as on plough mouldboards for instance. This accounts
for some of the difficulties that have arisen in the past.
The main characteristics of soft abrasive wear are discussed briefly below. Some results for
substantially homogeneous materials are shown in Fig. 14 and 15. Using the relative wear resis-
tance P, on hard abrasive, as a source of comparison, it is seen that the wear resistance ratio
h(P exc-eeds unity when the relative hardness HulHa exceeds about 0·8. Increases in b(P are much
34 THE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS BY SOIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

100 42 t H X ~ }steets with H>Ha

0:>/ 8 W 24 42
8X / 0:>0:> co
50
/
2/
/
20 /
/ X A Mn
10
/
/
/
5 /
Mo /
~ Rh 42 Steels wit" H< Ha
/ X Cr Sainitie X
/ 24 X 8
2
AMn / 0W 42 X X24
/42 42 0 2001180 grit abrasive
M0r.! Fe WA $if8~24 ~ 8X 42 X 24
58c:J X0 t\8 8 X 58
24 ~4 42

AMn Austen it ic Mn steel

58 Austen itic Ni Cr steel
42 0'74% C steel martensitie (') FI int ,Ho= 1060 kg/mm 2

8 0 -43% C steel martensitie x Glass, Ho = 590 kg/mm 2

24 0'37% C Ni Cr Mo steel martensit ie 8 Garnet,Ha=13 6 0 kg I mm 2

1-4 1- 6 I· a 2'0 2-2 2-4 2'6

Relative Hardness. Hu ! Ha
Fig. 14. Wear resistance ratio hIP and relative hardness Hul Ha on 200/180 grit abrasive papers
(1) Steels of uniform hardness; (2) Metals
(Numbers refer to B.S. 9704, EN series steels)

100

50
42X
8X
/
/
/
/
*
42
0:>

Steels with H >Ha

/2
W /
20
XI
/ X 24
10 8X /
/
/
5 /
/
/ XAMn
/
/ Steels with H< Ha
2
Ma / / X 42
24 . ~ f&W/ ( i~42 X 24
36 /30 grit abrasive
42 8 Cr 42

0 '50L'6- - ...J
0 .La- - .l.1'0- - -IL
_2- - ...J
I'-4 - - ,.I..
' 6- - '":'
I'-
.e- - 2...J..0
: -- -:'-::- - --:--:.- ----:

Relative Hardness. Hu lHa

FiC. 15. Wear resistance ratio hIP and relative hardness Hu/Ha on 36/30 grit abrasive papers
(1) Steels of uniform hardness; (2) Metals
(Numbers refer to B.S. 97(j4, EN series steels)
R. C. D. RIC H A R D SON 35

greater on fine grit (Fig. 14) than on coarse grit abrasive (Fig. 15). The significance of blP as a
variable confirms that the wear mechanism is similar to that on hard abrasive but modified
by further damage to the abrasive.
Martensitic steels are potentially hard compared with quartz when their hardness H is greater
than about 600 kg/mm". The carbide phases of all the multi phase materials containing sizeable
carbides were hard relative to quartz and b exceeded p.

4.3.1. Work hardening

At given values of HulHa, h/P is normally greater for metals than for steels. However when
H;;;. Ha or when steels are work hardened to a hardness greater than Ha before test, blP can
exceed that for a metal. The curves for the metals in Figs. 14 and 15 (broken curves) therefore do
not seem to represent the extreme case of full work hardening at the surface. The performance
of surfaces of fixed hardness (H=Hu) is shown in the full curves estimated from the initial wear
rate of polished steel specimens that work harden slowly. Comparison of the full curves with the
other results in the graphs confirms that neither metals nor alloys under abrasion reach maxi-
mum hardness throughout a sufficient volume of their surface to determine the wear fully.
Nevertheless for many of the materials some regions probably reach Hu to account for the ob-
served rise in b at Hul Ha ~ 0·8 (Section 4.3.3.).
When Hu » Ha, and to a greater extent when H;;;. Ha, martensitic steels for instance, reach a
steady state of wear quite slowly. Their wear would be greatly affected by any departure from
unidirectional abrasion.

4.3.2. Grit size

When relatively hard metals and alloys are tested on glass papers of a range of grit size, there
is an abrupt fall in blP between 200/180 grit and 120 grit. The high wear resistance ratios are
associated with wear and plastic flow of fine grit, and the sudden drop with extensive fracture
of the coarser grit. It is suggested that fracture is due to high particle loading. When loads are
small, brittle solids deform plastically, but they shatter when the plastic zone reaches critical
dimensions.Y'"
Observations in the field lead to similar conclusions. Weak material such as ironstone with
a surface that shatters easily (Fig. 7), wears the hard materials more 'severely' (Table I) than the
stronger flint (Fig. 8), whilst in stone-free quartz soil the results tend to the fine grit values. Flint
stones constitute a more 'severe' soft abrasive condition (i.e. h/P is lower) when supported in a
stronger soil (Section 3.3).
As the grit is progressively coarsened, b appears to reach a minimum. It is not yet clear how
much b continues to increase as the grit size is reduced below 200/180 mesh, or whether the
threshold at Hu/ Ha ~ 0·8 is affected.

4.3.3. Limiting conditions

The transition from hard to soft abrasive wear appears to occur at around the value HulHa = 0·8.
This may be related to the cessation of true scratching, observed by Tabor," when the tool
is less than about 20 % harder than the material.
The upper limit, at which abrasive wear ceases, was investigated by tests on steel with glass as
abrasive. On coarse grit, scratching does not cease until the yield stress Y of the unstrained
steel approximately equals the yield stress Ya of the abrasive. Below this level a spherical surface
on the grit can cause plastic flow in a flat surface of the steel which can gradually become ridged
and can then be cut. Marsh" interrelates the hardness and yield stress of highly elastic solids
(with Y/E exceeding about 1/200). Since E for metals is usually greater than for minerals of about
the same hardness, the metal has to be considerably harder than the mineral in order to have a
similar yield stress and therefore to resist scratching. Fig. /6 shows a steel at H=813 kg/rnm"
tested on 30 grit glass paper Ha=590 kg/mm" (Y~ Ya). The specimen was not scratched, but
36 THE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS nv SOIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

a secondary texture can be seen. The type of wear corresponding to this condition requires
investigation.
On fine grit, the full curve in Fig. 14 shows that the wear resistance becomes very large at
HulHa === 1,2, when according to Tabor's result, the metal should scratch the abrasive. However,

Fig. 16. 0'74%C steel at H = 813 kgjmm 2 after sliding on 30 grit glass paper, showing secondary wear texture
Interference contrast (x 116)

Pig. 17. 0·74 %C steel at H = 880 kgjmm" after sliding on 200/180 grit glass paper, showing incipient scratching
and secondary wear texture
Interference contrast (x 116)

some scratching of the test specimen occurs even when Yexceeds Ya (Fig. 17). This is attributed
partly to the fact that in the absence of fracture, grit can flow and harden due to strain or strain
rate. A secondary texture similar to that of Fig. 16 can also be seen. Edges appear specially
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 37
prone to scratching. The effective strength of the grit may be enhanced by its confinement and
the presence of a general hydrostatic pressure. Soda glass was scratched by glass abrasive with
identical strength properties, sliding slowly to avoid melting. Pyrex glass H=790 kg/rum!
was also scratched by glass grit at H=590 kg/rum".
Conditions for the cessation of abrasive wear are very important in relation to surface treat-
ments that must confer extremely high wear resistance in order to be economical. It is clear that
surface films and core materials must be designed to avoid any plastic strain in the underlying
material.

4.3.4. Heterogeneous materials

The soft abrasive wear of single phase metals and alloys is very sensitive to grit size, but that
of heterogeneous materials with a phase harder than the abrasive is even more so. Measure-
ments of the size of carbide particles and wear debris show that this is due to the fact that large
carbide particles offer a powerful obstruction to wear. However, when the carbides are small,
compared to the size of a chip of wear debris, they are probably effective only insofar as they
contribute to the bulk strength of the material. As expected from field results, the wear of these
materials can be very sensitive to the contact stress measured by the load over the area of the
wearing face, and to the specimen diameter. Both in stony soils, and on coarse grit surfaces,
the wear resistance of the matrix material appears to be particularly important. The 'ranking
order' of the materials with respect to wear, changes radically according to the test conditions.
As discussed in Section 3.3, carbide constituents can flow and probably work harden under
abrasion. In general, carbide particles become more effective against wear as their hardness
(strained or unstrained) approaches or exceeds Ha, as their size and proportion increases, and
as the wear resistance of the other phases increases on the abrasive in question, the latter being
specially important under coarse grit conditions.
Care should be exercised in generalizing these conclusions to embrace hard phases other
than carbides since the wear of various brittle solids was found to involve different relationships
from those applicable to metals and alloys.
Many of the characteristics of the fine grit and coarse grit conditions can be identified with the
types of wear classified by Avery20 . 21 and Norman" as low stress and high stress abrasion.

5. Practical discussion
The fact that the ranking order of different materials can change, even in a single condition,
according to the duty (e.g. share edge or mouldboard) has hitherto obscured the principal
wear phenomena and led to contradictory conclusions. Soft abrasion becomes more 'severe'
as shattering increases at the contact surfaces and as the scale of cutting increases. The severity
cannot be judged reliably by the appearance of worn surfaces, since deformation results from
rubbing as well as scratching. The average wear rate is of little significance when it depends
mainly on the proportion of stones present. A lot of information can however be obtained from
soil samples including any coarse fractions, and from knowledge of the soil condition and duty.
The abrasion of flints was more 'severe' in a strong clay than in a weak sandy matrix. The most
important abrasive constituent of soils and many rocks is quartz and other forms of silica with
a hardness of about 1060 kg/mm'', Silica also makes up a stiffening network in many plant
structures and may be an important abrasive in crop materials. 23
The material used typically for agricultural soil-working parts is a eutectoid carbon steel or
silico-manganese steel. at a hardness of about 500 kg/mm-. At this level the wear resistance is
usually reasonable. the notched tensile strength is a maximum'" and the fatigue strength is a
maximum. When impact and other conditions such as thickness permit, chilled iron is used.
High hardness materials, or surface treatments. are only commonly used when contact stresses
are low. such as on plough mould-boards. and when frictional characteristics are important.
Hardfacing alloys of the high carbon type are sometimes used, specially for repair or reclamation.
38 THE WEAR OF METALLIC MATERIALS BY SOIL-PRACTICAL PHENOMENA

However, in many cases the conditions involve high contact stresses and the materials are rela-
tively ineffective because the matrix material is not sufficiently strong relative to quartz. Thus
high alloy hardfacings containing carbides of hardness about 2000 kg/rum" wear only marginally
less than an unalloyed pearlitic white iron in conditions such as the ironstone soil (Table I).
Improvement must normally depend on making a true assessment of the conditions of wear
and impact. Better use can probably be made of existing materials and surface treatments
when the abrasive is softer than quartz, or under light contact conditions. Under grit fracture
conditions, wear-resistant tips and inserts may be helpful. However, the main need seems to be
for the development of improved materials or treatments. There is no present evidence that
chemical effects, heating, or soil moisture content, have any direct importance over the range of
conditions explored. The most significant requirement is for developed hardness higher than
that of the abrasive (1060 kg/rum" for quartz). This occurs to some extent in martensitic steels
harder than about 600 kg/rum! and in any materials containing iron or alloy carbides. To be
effective under severe conditions, the carbides or other hard particles need to be large and sup-
ported by a matrix that itself becomes harder than the abrasive. Since hard martensitic steels
harden slowly when worn by soft abrasive, their wear resistance will be greatly reduced by any
departure from unidirectional abrasion. This must apply to some extent to all metallic materials.
Further investigation of the wear properties of non-metallic brittle solids is needed since they
differ greatly from those of metals. This should be borne in mind if the use of hard phases other
than the usual metallic carbides is considered, or if surface treatments are applied that render the
surface non-metallic.
Study of the limiting conditions at which abrasive wear ceases is important with respect to
surface treatments and specially so in applications where the tolerable wear is small. It seems
that in such cases little reliance can be placed on work hardening in service unless it is extremely
superficial, since plastic flow must be avoided. When the abrasive is confined, a large excess of
hardness may be necessary to resist scratching, particularly at edges. It is possible that the
benefits of surface treatments may be applied to cases where the tolerable wear is large and wear
resistance in depth is required, by lamination of surface treated material, possibly using adhesives.
In stony conditions the preservation of sharp edges presents difficulties and very large differ-
ences in wear resistance may be needed to preserve an edge approximating to a desired shape.
Lamination of treated sheet material might be helpful for this and also assist in resisting impact.
It should be useful in development and in setting quality standards, if test conditions can be
chosen to represent practical circumstances well enough in the laboratory. Much work would
be needed to relate the various field and laboratory test conditions and satisfactory methods of
reproducing specific 3-body wear conditions remain to be discovered. Simple means are required
of measuring very low wear rates.
The present paper relates solely to wear properties. However, cases of 2-body wear are often
associated with impact. A major effort is required to set up practically significant criteria for
the impact resistance of hard materials, remembenng that in service some surfaces will have
been conditioned by wear.

Acknowledgements
This paper includes work that is to form part of a thesis to be submitted to the University of
London for the degree of Ph.D.
The author wishes to state his appreciation of the freedom accorded him in carrying out this
investigation. Thanks are due to D. I. McLaren who suggested wear of agricultural machinery
as a subject for inquiry, to Professor J. M. Alexander and Dr D. Lloyd Thomas of Imperial
College, London, and Dr D. Tabor of Cambridge University, for information and advice.
Some experimental materials were supplied by manufacturers and the International Nickel
Co. (Mond) Ltd, who supplied the cast irons, should be specially mentioned.
The field experiments in Africa were conducted for the author by S. W. Cooper, Nakuru,
R. C. D. RICHARDSON 39

Kenya, and A. H. Gibson, Maseru, Lesotho, formerly Basutoland. Qualitative analysis of soils
was carried out by E. J. Hill, Imperial College, London.
The author wishes to express his thanks to many friends and colleagues, specially to D. G.
Attwood for the benefit of his metallurgical knowledge in the later stages and experimental
assistance (metallography and micro-hardness measurements), and to A. W. Barker who shared
creatively in the practical work throughout.

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