Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud's psychosexual theory states five stages of human development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. These
psychosexual stages capture the main growth points of a person from infancy to adulthood and focus on different
facets of wants, needs, and desires.

Here are three terms Freud used within this theory:

● Libido: Sexual energy that can manifest through different types of behaviors
● Fixation: The idea that part of a person's libido is stuck in a particular stage of development through
overindulgence or disruption
● Erogenous Zone: A part of the body that is sensitive to stimulation
The basis of Freud's theory suggests that a person's body has several erogenous zones, believing a person's libido
would grow over time and look for satisfaction through different types of behaviors using these zones, such as
thumb sucking or sex. Depending on what happens in each stage, a person will quickly move from one stop to the
next or develop fixations based on overindulging or disruption.

In addition to the five stages, Freud also explained conscious and unconscious desires through the id, ego, and
superego.
● Id: An instinctive aspect of our biology where the impulsive part of us has desires and will do anything to
fulfill them.
● Ego: A mediator between the id and the world. The ego uses reason to quell desires and fit into society.
● Superego: The moral high ground, incorporating learned behaviors from caretakers and societal norms. The
superego balances the perfectionism of the ego and harnesses the chaotic nature of the id.

The five stages of psychosexual development include:

Oral stage: Between infancy and two years old
Anal stage: Between 15 months and three years old
Phallic stage: Between three and six years old
Latency stage: Between six years old and puberty
Genital stage: Between puberty and death

1. Oral Stage (Birth To 1 Year)

The Oral Stage is the first stage of Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, occurring from birth until
approximately 18 months. During the oral stage, a baby’s libido, or innate pleasure-seeking energy, is focused on the
mouth.
● Example: The baby derives immense satisfaction from engaging in oral activities such as sucking, biting,
breastfeeding, and chewing various objects, satisfying their inherent desires.
During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the
libido.

2. Anal Stage (1 To 3 Years)

The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development between the ages of 18 months and three years.
During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.
● An example of this stage would be a child who takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their bowels.
Freud believed this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose
restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can
determine the child’s future relationship with all forms of authority.
3. Phallic Stage (3 To 6 Years)
The phallic stage, which spans ages three to six, is the third phase of psychosexual development, identified by
Sigmund Freud. This period is marked by the child’s libido (or desire) focusing on their genitals as the primary
source of pleasure. In this stage, children become increasingly aware of their bodies, exhibiting a heightened interest
in their own genitals and those of the opposite sex.

Additionally, their understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form, sparking a complex mixture of
emotions – erotic attraction, rivalry, jealousy, resentment, and fear – collectively termed the Oedipus complex in
boys and the Electra complex in girls.

This period of conflict is resolved through identification, where children start adopting the characteristics of their
same-sex parent.

● Oedipus Complex
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and
marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic
(i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.

Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves
the most. During the phallic stage, what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.

According to Freud, the fear of retaliation from the father (castration anxiety) eventually leads the boy to repress
these incestuous desires and identify with the father, adopting his characteristics and values. The little boy then
begins to resolve this problem by imitating, copying, and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called
identification and is how the three-to-five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.

● Electra Complex
The Electra Complex, a component of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, posits that during the phallic stage of
psychosexual development (roughly between ages 3-6), a girl unconsciously cultivates a sexual attraction towards
her father, viewing her mother as a competitor.

In essence, the girl covets her father, yet recognizes that she lacks a penis, leading to the phenomenon Freud labeled
as ‘penis envy‘ and a subsequent wish to be male. This girl then ostensibly resolves her dilemma by repressing her
desire for her father and replacing her yearning for a penis with a longing for a baby. During this process, the girl
purportedly blames her mother for her ‘castrated state,’ generating significant tension. In order to alleviate this
tension, she then represses her feelings and begins to identify with her mother, thereby adopting a traditional female
gender role.

4. Latency Stage (6 Years To Puberty)

The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to puberty. The libido is
dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden). In this stage,
Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative calm. During this stage, children’s
sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant), and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent
means hidden).

Example: The focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships, and other skills necessary for
successful adult life.
Children focus on developing social and intellectual skills, including school, friendships, and hobbies, instead of on
sexual or romantic interests.

5. Genital Stage (Puberty To Adult)

The Genital Stage is the fifth and final phase of Freud’s psychosexual development theory, beginning at puberty and
lasting into adulthood. During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is directed towards peers of
the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality. Individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to
explore their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly. This period marks the onset of romantic and
sexual emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual
pleasure, rather than self-pleasure, like during the phallic stage.

Piaget’s Theory And Stages Of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of
intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children’s thought.

1. The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, and during this stage, the infant focuses on physical sensations and on
learning to coordinate their body.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

- The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around and exploring
their environment). During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object
permanence; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from them); deferred imitation; and
representational play. They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to
represent the world mentally. At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they
will still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear.

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence – knowing that an object still exists, even if it is
hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object. Towards the end of this
stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in their play that they can use one object
to stand for another. Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and
feelings. The child begins to be able to store information that it knows about the world, recall it, and label it.

2. The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 – 7 Years)

Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage. It takes place between 2 and 7 years. At
the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations, so the thinking is influenced by the way things appear
rather than logical reasoning. A child cannot conserve which means that the child does not understand that quantity
remains the same even if the appearance changes. Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people
see the world as he does. This has been shown in the three mountains study. As the preoperational stage develops,
egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend
play becomes more important. Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policemen), and
may play these roles with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental
imagery. During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing,
such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself. A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world
looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought. Moreover, the child
has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves
classifying objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously. Infants at this stage also demonstrate
animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a
person’s.

By 2 years, children have made some progress toward detaching their thoughts from the physical world. However,
have not yet developed logical (or “operational”) thought characteristics of later stages. Thinking is still intuitive
(based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric (centered on the child’s own view of the world).

3. The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 – 11 Years)

By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of logical rules) so they can
conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a different way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement
in inclusion tasks. Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may change in
appearance, certain properties remain the same. During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture
a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape). During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin
to think about how other people might think and feel.

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real
(concrete) materials or pictures of them. Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s
cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can
work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). Children can
conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays
the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. But operational thought is only effective here if the child is
asked to reason about materials that are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be
overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

4. The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Over)

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in
an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for
higher-order reasoning. Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not
everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to
engage in scientific reasoning. Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g. they can understand division and
fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational
thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints. During this stage, adolescents can deal with
abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and
fractions). They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples.
Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if
money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could speculate about many possible consequences. From about 12
years of age children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its content. During this time,
people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses. This stage sees the
emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience
across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the
development and growth of human beings. Erikson's theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle.
This principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a larger
community.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the
most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability
and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult
caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails
to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their
life.

● Outcomes: If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable. During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when
caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to
develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about
striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which
Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused
on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
● The Role of Independence- At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about
what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.

● Potty Training- The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control
over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was
quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling
of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.

● Outcomes: Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy;
failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in psychosocial
development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social
interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

● Outcomes: The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality
known as purpose emerges.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through
social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need
to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.

● Outcomes: Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers,
or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence,
in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in
developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a
person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper
encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel
insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships,
while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships
with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.
● Building On Earlier Stages: Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships.
Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships
and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change
that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in
their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. At this point in
development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they
lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do. Erikson's theory differed from many others because it
addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and
feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness,
and despair. At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a
life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those
who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things
they feel they should have.​
● Outcomes: Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel
proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means
looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom,
even when confronting death.

Kohlberg’s Stages Of Moral Development

Level 1: Preconventional Morality (Obedience and Punishment Orientation)
Preconventional morality is the first level of moral development, lasting until approximately age 8. During this level,
children accept the authority (and moral code) of others. Preconventional morality is when people follow rules
because they don’t want to get in trouble or they want to get a reward. This level of morality is mostly based on what
authority figures like parents or teachers tell you to do rather than what you think is right or wrong. Authority is
outside the individual, and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions.
● For example, if an action leads to punishment, it must be bad; if it leads to a reward, it must be good. So,
people at this level don’t have their own personal sense of right and wrong yet. They think that something
is good if they get rewarded for it and bad if they get punished for it.
● At the preconventional level, children don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, moral decisions are
shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. The
child/individual is good to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

Level 2: Conventional Morality (Individualism and Exchange)

Conventional morality is the adolescent phase of moral development focused on societal norms and external
expectations to discern right from wrong, often grounded in tradition, cultural practices, or established codes of
conduct. We internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models at the conventional level (most adolescents
and adults). Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the group’s norms to which the
person belongs. A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships and social order is seen as desirable
and must influence our view of right and wrong. So, people who follow conventional morality believe that it’s
important to follow society’s rules and expectations to maintain order and prevent problems.
● For example, refusing to cheat on a test is a part of conventional morality because cheating can harm the
academic system and create societal problems.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality (Good Interpersonal Relationships)

Postconventional morality is the third level of moral development and is characterized by an individual’s
understanding of universal ethical principles. When people decide based on what they think is right rather than just
following the rules of society. This means that people at this level of morality have their own ethical principles and
values and don’t just do what society tells them to do. At this level, people think about what is fair, what is just, and
what values are important. What is considered morally acceptable in any given situation is determined by what is the
response most in keeping with these principles. They also think about how their choices might affect others and try
to make good decisions for everyone, not just themselves.
● Values are abstract and ill-defined but might include: the preservation of life at all costs and the importance
of human dignity. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice.

Spiritual Development Theory

Fowler does not define faith through any particular religion but describes it as a specific way of relating to the
universe and creating meaning. He proposes seven stages of development (starting, oddly, with Stage 0).

Stage 0: Primal or Undifferentiated Stage (Birth to 2 years)

In this stage, a very small child learns to rely on the goodness (or badness or inconsistency) of the world based on
how that child is treated by their parents. This is very similar to Erik Erickson’s initial stage of human psychosocial
development, Basic Trust vs. Mistrust.
Stage 1: Intuitive-Projective Stage (3 to 7 years)
In Stage 1, children are beginning to be able to use symbols and their imaginations. However, children in this stage
are very self-focused and inclined to take very literally (and self-referentially) ideas about evil, the devil, or other
negative aspects of religion. The ability to sort out reality from fantasy is not well developed.
Stage 2: Mythic-Literal Stage (6 to 12 years, school age)
During this stage, information is organized into stories. These stories, along with moral rules, are understood
literally and concretely. There is little ability to step back from the story and formulate an overarching meaning.
Justice and fairness are seen as reciprocal. A few people remain in this stage throughout their lives.

Stage 3: Synthetic-Conventional Stage (Adolescence to early adulthood; some people remain permanently in this stage)
In this stage, people believe without having critically examined their beliefs. Their beliefs are in what they have
been taught and in what they see “everyone else” as believing too. There is a strong sense of identity with the group.
People in this stage are not very open to questions because questions are frightening at this point of development.
People in this stage place a large amount of trust in external authority figures and tend not to recognize that they are
within a belief system “box” as their beliefs are internalized but have not been examined.

Stage 4: Individuative-Reflective Stage (The earlier in adulthood, the easier on the person)
In this stage, a person begins to recognize they are in a “box” and look outside it. People in this stage ask questions
and see the contradictions or problems in their beliefs.

Stage 5: Conjunctive Stage (Usually not before mid-life)

In this stage, a person who has gone through the deconstruction of the individuative-reflective stage begins to let go
of some of the reliance on their own rational mind and recognize that some experiences are not logical or easily
understood at all. The move here is from either/or to both/and; complexity and paradox are embraced. People in this
stage are more willing to dialogue with people of other faiths, seeking further information and correction to their
own beliefs, and are able to do this without letting go of their own faith.

Stage 6: Universalizing Stage

Very few people reach this stage, which is characterized by seeing all of humanity as one brotherhood and taking
profound, self-sacrificing action to care for all humanity because of this view.

Havighurst's Developmental Stage and Tasks Theory

Stages of Life: As we have already seen, people change a lot from when they are babies to when they are adults. But
even adults change from when they are 20 to when they are 80. Havighurst identified six stages of life that people go
through. They are:
1.) Infancy and early childhood, which lasts from birth to age 5. These are babies who are just learning to walk
and talk and figuring out the world around them.
2.) Middle childhood lasts from age 6 to age 12. During this time, children become more self-sufficient as they go
to school and make friends.
3.) Adolescence, which lasts from age 13 to age 18, comes with hormonal changes and learning about who you are
as an individual.
4.) Early adulthood lasts from age 19 to age 30 and involves finding an occupation and often finding a life partner
as well.
5.) Middle Age lasts from age 30 to age 60 and is the time when most people start a family and settle into their adult
lives.
6.) Later Maturity is the time of life after age 60. During this time, people adjust to life after work and begin to
prepare themselves for death.
As you can see, each life stage has specific developmental tasks that generally occur in that time period. Someone in
early childhood, for example, is likely not going to be starting a family of their own, unless it's a pretend one. In
contrast, someone in middle age is probably not learning to walk and talk. That's already happened by then.

Sullivan’s Interpersonal Psychodynamic Theory

● Anxiety: the “main disruptive force” in interpersonal relations
● Basic Anxiety: fear of rejection by significant persons
● Interpersonal Security: feelings associated with relief of anxiety, the point when all needs are met, or a
sense of total well-being
● Parataxic Distortion: a person’s fantasy perception of another person’s attributes without consideration
important personality differences
● Selective Inattention: how people cope with the anxiety caused by the undesired traits
● Self System: The collection of experiences or security measures to protect against anxiety
● Good Me: represents what people like about themselves and is willing to share with others
● Bad Me: what people don’t like about themselves and are not willing to share. Develops in response to
negative feedback with feelings of discomfort, displeasure, and distress. The “Bad Me” creates anxiety.
● Not Me: the aspects of self that are so anxiety-provoking that the person does not consider them a part of
the person. It contains feelings of horror, dread, dread. This part of the self is primarily unconscious
(dissociative coping).