Ottoman Empire Part 1 (6-11 century)

Byzantine Anatolia
In 6-11 century Anatolia was ruled by Byzantine Empire.
Multilingual Environment: Byzantine Anatolia was characterized by a
multilingual environment, with Greek, Latin, Persian and Arabian (in Abbasid
Caliphate) being spoken and used in written documents. The need for translating texts
between these languages fostered the development of translation as a significant
intellectual and diplomatic activity as geopolitically Anatolia was on the edge
between Europe and Asia – orthodox and muslim worlds.
One of the principal goals of Byzantine’s intellectual circles was to preserve
and transmit knowledge, which required from byzantine scholars the ability not only
reading and translating the multilingual sources, but also to be a good chronicler. The
most bright example of a chronicle of that times was Chronicle of Theophanes the
Confessor. It was a historical work that provides a comprehensive account of the
history of the Byzantine Empire from the 3rd to the 9th century (AD 284-813), as
well as the history of the Persians, Arabs, Bulgarians, and other neighboring people.
Despite Theophanes used in his work another chronicles, including foreign ones
(Syncellus' Chronicle), he was the one who preserved Byzantine’s history of 7 and 8
centuries that would be otherwise have been lost.
Another form of translation activities of that time was exegesis. A term that
refers to how texts such as scripture are interpreted and explained. The term, which
comes from a Greek word meaning, “to lead out,” connotes that the task of exegetes
—scholars who do exegesis—is to pull meaning out of a text.
At the most basic level, exegesis gives the factual information that will make
the text intelligible, such as context, definition, explanation of obscure vocabulary,
and so on. It answers questions such as, ‘Where is Egypt? What’s a Pharaoh? Why
was there a Roman governor in Judea in the time of Jesus?’”
Change slide!
Medieval times in Byzantine were characterized by Iconoclastic controversy -
the social belief that it is important to destruct icons and God images in order to avoid
pagan practices which was against the Ten Commandments. Iconoclastic controversy
was the result of sectarian disputes within Orthodox church.
One of the most prominent Medieval Christian sect that emerged in the 7th
century in Armenia and Eastern Anatolia was Paulicians. Paulicians were arguing the
official Church's interpretation of holy texts interpretation. For example they didn’t
accept New Testament. They believed Christ had descended from heaven twice, once
to suffer and to die, and once to call apostle Paul and to reveal to Paul the true
significance of his death. Of course they were considered heretical and was a constant
object of persecution by official Church.
 However thanks to such historical conditions of that times two other chronicles
were created, which reveal the details of medieval thoughts and historical events. One
of them the "History of the Paulician Heresy" was written by the Byzantine historian
and chronicler of the 11th and 12th centuries Petrus Siculus. There he provides a
narrative account of the origins, beliefs, and history of the Paulician movement,
offering insights into their religious practices and their interactions with the Byzantine
authorities. The other one Didaskalia (with unknown author) presents the Paulician
theological doctrines, offering insights into their religious beliefs and the reasons for
their divergence from the mainstream Byzantine Orthodox Church.
These documents allowed modern historians to suggest that Paulician
movement was the precursiors of the European Reformation.
 Constantinus Africanus
Constantine the African was a pioneer in the importation, translation and
sharing of medical literature and knowledge from the Islamic world to Christian
Europe. Constantine was born in 1017 in the Tunisia, and studied medicine there, as
well as in Baghdad. He was an avid collector of medical books and treatises, and had
also visited the city of Salerno in southern Italy, which was, in his day, the leading
center of medical learning in Europe. There he saw that the overall level of medical
learning in Salerno lagged far behind that of the Arab and Islamic world of his time.
As fortune would have it, after his visit to Salerno, Constantine was accused of
sorcery in Carthage, where he was living at the time, and was sent into exile.
Recognizing this seeming misfortune as a golden opportunity to take his medical
books and knowledge to Europe, he took his medical library with him on a ship bound
for Salerno.
Perhaps the best known and most important Arabic medical treatise that was
translated by Constantine the African was “The Whole (Medical) Art” by Arabian
physician Alī ibn al-ʿAbbās and translated into Latin classical Greek medical works
by Hippocrates and Galen. So, Constantine the African could be called not only the
Muslim that Ignited the Renaissance, which may be a bit of a stretch chronologically
speaking, but he could definitely be called the Father of European Medicine.
 The Ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans were notorious for
having little respect for any language and culture other than their own,
but they couldn’t have built their highly advanced civilizations without
them. The ability to communicate between language barriers was
essential for consummating government, military, and trade alliances.

Greece 30-17 BCE

The ancient Greeks saw interpreters as virtually ‘divine’. Interpreters
conducted linguistic activities associated with the god Hermes, the god of
eloquence. The rulers of ancient Greece held diplomacy and eloquence in
very high regard. That’s why interpreters were considered to be talented,
highly trained orators, and they were entrusted with a great deal of
responsibility. For example, rulers would prefer an experienced
interpreter to convey a message rather than trying to do it themselves
and risk not getting their message across.
Development of Translation Methods
The history of translation, especially during ancient times, was fraught with debate. The
debate was between translation methods: word for word vs sense for sense. The sense for
sense term was said to be coined by St Jerome when he translated the Bible into Latin.
He stated that a translator needs to translate “not word for word, but sense for sense”.
The famous Roman scholar Cicero was also notably against word-for-word translation. “I
did not think I ought to count them [the words] out to the reader like coins, but to pay
them by weight, as it were”. As a prominent writer and philosopher, he viewed the work
of a Roman translator as that of an artist. This translation type is used today to ensure the
intended message is retained.
Translation of Religious Texts
As people started to follow religious faiths, the need for translation became much more
significant. Religious texts and spiritual theories needed to be available in multiple
languages so that supporters of different religions could spread awareness.
The history of translation states that the Old Testament is one of the first religious texts
to be translated. Roman translator experts and scholars translated the Hebrew Bible into
Greek in the 3rd century BC. This translated adaptation is known as the Septuagint. The
term Septuagint originates from Septuagainta, the Latin word for seventy. It is also
referred to as the Greek Old Testament.
No less than 70 linguists translated the Bible into Ancient Greek. Back in the 3rd century
BC, there were no tools to help speed up the process. Each translator had to work in
solitary confinement, and according to legend, all versions had identical translations.
This Greek Bible became the basis for adaptations of the Bible into other languages. One
can say that the Greek Bible was a turning point in the history of translation.

Roman 27-12 BCE

The ancient Romans were not much different from the Greeks in their
confidence in the perfection of their language and their culture, and
accordingly, in disregard of the languages and cultures of other nations.
Only the Greek culture was recognized by them as a role model. Everything
else that does not belong to the Hellenistic and Roman civilizations it was
considered barbaric. Why then was translated into the languages with the
great barbarian? Greek culture is the same, recorded in texts and was
known to the Romans from primary sources: an educated Roman possession
of the Greek language was a natural. Desire to enlighten the people of the
Romans, apparently, was not. Accordingly, the translation from Greek into
Latin, is unnecessary, as the language of barbarian, and even more so.
Translation thus fell into the category of secondary activity that does not
require great intellectual abilities, in any case, is not comparable to the
literary work and the art of oratory. Hence the neglect of the Romans to the
translation and the translator.

In ancient Rome the Latin language was dominated. At the same time,
Greek literature, Greek verbal creativity in general, was the subject of
admiration for the Romans and a role model. Write like the great Greek
masters, and can whine and beat them in the art of rhetoric - that many
Roman orators and writers have seen evidence of self-mastery. For Cicero,
as for many of his contemporaries - poets and orators, the translation was a
kind of minor literary work. Translation - is primarily exercise that helps to
the development of eloquence. In one of his treatises on oratory Cicero
writes that in adolescence often practiced eloquence, trying to rephrase in a
more precise and beautiful expressions of what was said in the lofty
speeches or written in beautiful poetry.

Carthage 7-2 BCE

Carthage, a prominent Phoenician city-state located in present-day Tunisia, was
a hub of commerce and cultural interaction, making translation and interpreting vital
for diplomacy, commerce, and cultural exchange.
In a place, where people of many dozens of nationalities lived side by side,
speaking different languages, there was a special caste of “professional translators”.
Already in Ancient Carthage, translators performed both types of translation.
The Carthaginians are believed to have employed bilingual individuals who
were proficient in multiple languages, enabling them to mediate between different
linguistic groups. These interpreters were crucial for conducting negotiations, trade
agreements, and diplomatic relations. Moreover, as Carthage expanded its influence
throughout the Mediterranean, translation became instrumental in the dissemination
of knowledge, religious practices, and cultural traditions across different regions.
. In ancient Carthage, where probably none of the language is not able
to take a dominant position like Latin and Greek in Rome or Greece the
translators were needed not only to ensure the "intercultural
communication" multilingual and multicultural nation, but also to manage
the people.