Database- an organized collection of logically related data.
Relational Databases - establish the relationships between
It can be of any size and complexity.
Data - referred to facts concerning objects and events that
could be recorded and stored on computer media.
Metadata - are the data that describe the properties or
characteristics of end-user data and the context of that
data.
Every time you take a photo with today's cameras a bunch
of metadata is gathered and saved with it:
 date and time
 filename
 camera settings
 geolocation
Each book has a number of standard metadata on the
covers and inside. This includes:
 a title
 author name
 publisher and copyright details
 description on a back
 table of contents
 index
 page numbers
Relational databases - (most common type of database)
store and provide access not only data but also metadata
in a structure called data dictionary or system catalog.
Database Management Systems - is a software system
that is used to create, maintain, and provide controlled
access to user databases.
Data Models - Designing a database properly is
fundamental to establishing a database that meets the
needs of the users.
Entities - is like a noun in that it describes a person, place,
object, event, or concept in the business environment for
which information must be recorded and retained.
Relationships - A well-structured database establishes the
many relationships
Most relationships are one-to-one (1:1), one-to-
many(1:M), or many-to-many(M:N).
Ex: Customer – Orders
Seller – Buyer
Orders – Products
entities by means of common fields included in a file,
called a relation
Traditional File Processing Systems - Before the use of
computer, a manual file system was used to maintain the
records and files.
Database Application
1. It can refer to software running a database system.
MongoDB Server or SQL Server.
- Efficiently store and retrieve data from a file system
to a network client.
- Offer rich capabilities for querying and manipulating
data from a variety of drivers.
- Secure and authorize the access to the stored data
- Scale
- Provide fault tolerance and recovery (including
backups) for our data
2. It can refer to applications that are heavily coupled to
a specific database and built to provide elements of
that database to the end user.
- Online encyclopedias (Wikipedia)
- Social media websites (Facebook)
- CRM systems (Salesforce)
- Email systems (Gmail)
- E-commerce websites (Amazon)
Several Disadvantages associated with conventional File
Processing Systems.
1. Program-Data Dependence
2. Duplication of Data
3. Limited Data sharing
4. Lengthy Development Times
5. Excessive Program Maintenance
Database Approach
 Program-Data Independence – separations from
the application programs that use the data.
 Planned Data Redundancy – Good database design
attempts to integrate previously separated data
files into a single, logical structure.
 Improved Data Consistency – By eliminating or
controlling data redundancy, we greatly reduce
the opportunities for inconsistency
 Improved Data Sharing – Authorized internal and
external users are granted permission to use the
database, and each user is provided one or more
user views into the database to facilitate this use.
  Increased Productivity of Application Development
– A major advantage of the database approach is
that it greatly reduces the cost and time for
developing new business applications
 Enforcement of Standards – When the database
approach is implemented with full management
support
 Improved Data Quality – Concern with poor quality
data is a common theme in strategic planning and
database administration today.
 Improved Data Accessibility and Responsiveness –
With a relational database, end users without
programming experience can often retrieve and
display data even when it crosses traditional
departmental boundaries.
 Reduce Program Maintenance – Stored data must
be changed frequently for a variety of reasons:
New data item types are added, data formats are
changed.
 Improved Decision Support – Some databases are
designed expressly for decision support
applications.
 Cautions About Database Benefits – Many
organizations have been frustrated in attempting
to realize some of these benefits.
Costs and Risks of the Database Approach
 New Specialized Personnel – Organizations that
adopt the database approach need to hire.
 Installation and Management Cost and Complexity
– A multiuser database management system is a
large and complex suite of software that has a
high initial cost
 Conversion Cost – The term legacy system is widely
used to refer to older applications in an
organization that are based on file processing and
or older database technology.
 Need for Explicit Backup and Recovery – A shared
corporate database must be accurate and
available at all times.
 Organizational conflict – A shared database
requires a consensus on data definitions and
ownership
Components of the Database Environment
 Computer-aided software engineering
(CASE) – Automated tools used to design
databases and application programs.
 Repository – Centralized knowledge base for
all data definitions data relationships, screen
and report formats and other system
components.
 DBMS – A software system that is used to
create, maintain, and provide controlled
access to user databases.
 Database – An organized collection of
logically related data
 Application programs - Computer programs
that are used to create and maintain the
database and provide information to users.
 User interface – languages, menus, and
other facilities by which user interact with
various system components.
 Data and Database administrators – Data
administrators are persons who are
responsible for the overall management of
data resources in an organization
 System developers – Persons such as
systems analysts and programmers who
design new application programs.
 End-users – Persons throughout the
organization who add, delete, and modify
data in the database and who request or
received information from it.
The Range of Database Applications
 Personal Databases – are designed to
support one user. Personal databases
have long resided on personal
computers.
Workgroup Databases
- is a relatively small team of people who
collaborate on the same project or application
or on a group of similar projects or
applications. It typically comprises fewer than
25 persons.
Departmental / Divisional Databases
- are designed to support the various functions
and activities of a department or division.
- A department is a functional unit within an
organization.
- A department is generally larger than a
workgroup (25-100).
Enterprise Databases
- is one whose scope is the entire organization or
enterprise.
- An enterprise database does, however, support
Web-Enabled Databases
- Easy connection of multiple platforms enables
companies to reorganize their operations and
develop new applications faster and at lower
cost.
The Database Development Process
- An Enterprise data model is only one part of an
overall (ISA) or blueprint for information
systems in an organization.
1. Data – can be represented at a general
level
2. Processes – these can be represented by
data flow diagram, object models with
methods or other notations
3. Networks – that transport data around the
organization and between the organization
and its key business partners.
4. People – who perform processes and are
the sources and receivers of data and
information
5. Events and points in time – these can be
shown by state-transition diagrams.
6. Reasons – often shown in textual form;
some diagramming tools such as decision
tables
Information Engineering
- emphasizes the importance of understanding
relevant data when creating and maintaining
information systems.
- Information Engineering follows a top-down
planning approach.
- Information Engineering includes four steps:
planning, analysis, design and implementation
I.E. Planning Phase
1. Identify Strategic planning factors
a. Goals
b. Critical success factors
c. Problem areas
2. Identify corporate planning objects
a. Organizational units
b. Locations
c. Business functions
d. Entity Types
3. Develop an enterprise model
a. Functional decomposition
b. Entity-relationship diagram
c. Planning matrixes
Information Systems Planning
- The goal of information systems planning is to
align information technology with the business
strategies of the organization.
Identifying Strategic Planning Factors
- are organization goals, critical success factors,
and problem areas.
Identifying Corporate Planning Objects
- The corporate planning objects define the
business scope.
 Organizational units – various departments of
the organization.
 Organizational locations – places where
business operations occur.
 Business functions – Related groups of
business processes that support the mission of
the organization
 Entity types – Major categories of data about
the people, places and things managed by the
organization.
 Information systems – application software
and supporting procedures for handling sets of
data
Developing an Enterprise Model
1. Functional breakdown - is the process of
breaking down the functions of an
organization into progressively greater
levels of details.
2. Enterprise data model - is often described
using entity-relationship diagramming.
3. Various planning matrixes – The planning
matrixes serve an important function
because they provide an explicit approach
for describing business requirements
without requiring that the database be
explicitly modeled.
Database Development Process
- Information System planning, which is based on
information engineering, is one source of
database development projects.
Systems Development Life Cycle
- A traditional process for conducting an
information systems development project is
called SDLC.
Planning
 Purpose: to develop a preliminary
understanding of a business situation
 Deliverables –A written request to study the
possible changes to an existing system
Analysis
 Purpose: To analyze the business situation
thoroughly to determine requirements
 Deliverables: Functional specifications for
a system that meets user requirements
and a feasible to develop and implement
Design
 Purpose: To elicit and structure all
information requirements:
 Deliverables: Detailed functional
specifications of all data, forms, reports,
displays and processing rules: program and
database
Implementation
 Purpose: To write programs, build data
files, test, and install the new system, train
users, and finalize documentation
 Deliverables: Programs that work
accurately and to specifications,
documentation, and training materials.
Maintenance
 Purpose: To monitor the operation and
usefulness of a system and to repair and
enhance the system.
 Deliverables: Periodic audits of the system
to demonstrate whether the system is
accurate and still meets needs
Managing the People involved in database
development
a. Business analysts – Work with both
management and users to analyze the
business situation
b. Systems analysts –May perform business
analyst activities but also specify computer
system requirements
c. Database analysts and data modelers –
Concentrate on determining the
requirements and design for the database
component of the information system.
d. Users – Provide assessment of their
information needs and monitor that the
developed system meets their needs
e. Programmers – Design and write computer
programs that have commands to maintain
and access data in the database embedded
in them.
f. Database architects – Establish standards
for data in business units, striving to attain
optimum data location, currency, and
quality.
g. Database administrators – Have
responsibility for existing and future
databases and ensure consistency and
integrity
h. Project managers: Oversee assigned
projects,
i. Other technical experts – Networking,
operating systems, testing data
warehousing and documentation
Three-schema Architecture for Database
Development
1. External schema – This is the view of
managers and other employees who are
the database users.
2. Conceptual schema – combines the
different external views into a single,
coherent definition of the enterprise’s
data.
3. Internal schema – consists of two separate
schemas: logical and physical schema.
a. Logical – data management
technology (Relational)
b. physical describes how data are to be
represented and stored in secondary
storage using a particular DBMS
(e.g. Oracle/MySQL)
  Data may be located on four tiers: a client
server, an application and application
server, a web server, and a database
server.

Three tiers are also commonly used:

1. Client tier – A desktop or laptop computer,

which concentrates on managing the user-
system interface and localized data – also
called the presentation tier. Web scripting
tasks may be executed on this tier.

2. Application / Web server tier – Process

HTTP protocol, scripting task. Performs
calculations and provide access to data –
also called the process services tier.

3. Enterprise server(mainframe)tier –
performs sophisticated calculations and
manages the merging of data from
multiple sources across the organization