Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)

Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023

Pages 73—83

SOIL IMPROVEMENT OF PETOBO SILTY SAND USING FERRONICKEL

SLAG AND ALKALINE ACTIVATORS
Aswin Lim1,*, Adrianus Renaldy2, David Kristian3
1,2,3
Department of Civil Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, 40141, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: aswinlim@unpar.ac.id

Received: 17 May 2023; Revised: 11 June 2023; Accepted: 18 June 2023

ABSTRACT

This study aims to provide an alternative soil improvement that can be applied in the Petobo area, which
experienced liquefaction on September 29, 2018. Ferronickel slag is utilized as a binding agent.
Furthermore, large concentrations of alkaline solutions (potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide) are
utilized as activators to activate kaolin and initiate the geopolymer production process. From the test results,
it can be concluded that sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solutions are effective to be applied as
an alkaline solution. The maximum unconfined compressive strength of the sample is about 530 kPa with
a concentration of 10% of ferronickel slag and 10M of alkaline activator. This value is twice larger than if
we applied cement to the soil with the same amount of concentration. Hence, the effect of the admixture of
ferronickel slag and alkaline activator is more dominant than the admixture of cement only. Furthermore,
the Scanning Electron Microscope and X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer tests were also carried out to
investigate the chemical bonds that occurred in the samples. It is revealed that the geopolymer matrix
envelops soil particles resulting from the geopolymer reaction. The composition of SiO2 and Al2O3 in the
treated Petobo silty sand decreased. It might be due to the geopolymer reaction that occurs in the sample so
that the content of SiO2 and Al2O3 compounds is reduced. Because it uses an activator in the form of a KOH
and NaOH solution, there is an increase in the levels of MgO compounds in the sample compared to
untreated Petobo silty sand.

Keywords: Liquefaction; Petobo Silty Sand; Soil Improvement; Soil Shear Strength

DOI: https://doi.org/10.32722/arcee.v4i02.5714

ARCEE is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International License.

1. INTRODUCTION

In geotechnical engineering, soil stabilization is an important part that focuses on increasing soil bearing
capacity. Sands in the loose and saturated condition is susceptible to liquefaction during an earthquake. Hence,
it needs soil improvement. Several classic soil improvement methods have been used, such as the Sand
Compaction Pile (SCP) (Okamura et al. 2006; Tokimatsu et al. 1990). This classic technique is considered the
physical method. Another approach is using chemical methods, such as cement grouting, soil deep
mixing(Esmaeili et al. 2021), bio-cementation (Putra et al. 2019), and Fungi (Lim et al. 2020; Lim & Pianica,
2022; Lim et al. 2023). Moreover, ground granulated blast furnace slag is also popular to replace the use of
cement as a binding agent.

73
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

Sharma and Sivapullaiah, in 2012, carried out research on ground improvement of expansive soil with the use
of waste material, GGBS, as an alternative to lime or cement. The study aimed to improve the engineering
properties of black cotton soil by using various proportions of GGBS mixed with black cotton soil. The
improvement was measured through compaction tests and an unconfined compressive strength test (UCS). The
result showed that an increase in UCS occurs until the GGBS level reaches 40% at the curing age of 28 days.
(Yi et al. 2014) investigated the stabilized marine soft clay using GGBS, a by-product of the steel industry,
compared to Portland Cement. In that paper, GGBS activation was conducted using quicklime and hydrated
lime. Results from both lime-activated GGBS with a lime/GGBS ratio larger than 0.10 had a greater UCS
compared to a PC mixture at the curing age of 7 and 28 days. At 90 days of curing age, the optimum ratio of
lime/GGBS was 0.10, with UCS 1.7 times greater than the PC mixture. An optimum ratio of lime/GGBS of
0.10 was obtained at a curing age of 90 days, with UCS 1.7 times higher compared to the Portland Cement
mixture. In addition, Hashim et al. (2015) studied the use of GGBS and the effect of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
concentration in the production of alkali-activated slag (AAS) mortar. The alkaline activator used is a sodium
silicate (Na2SiO3) mixed with sodium hydroxide, with the ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide being
1.7. The concentration of sodium hydroxide solution varies from 6M to 12M. The greatest compressive
strength was obtained at 10M NaOH concentration with a value of up to 40.12 MPa. Alkhafaji et al., in 2017,
carried out a study of chemical soil stabilization using GGBS on soft soil collected from River Alt. GGBS was
added in various proportions of 0%, 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% from the dry weight of soft soil. Investigations
were carried out by testing Atterberg Limits, compaction (maximum dry density (MMD) and optimum
moisture content (OMC)), and unconfined compressive strength (UCS). From the compressive strength test on
samples with 7 days of curing age, obtained optimum levels of GGBS mixture of 6% of the dry weight content
with the highest UCS. Elkhebu et al. (2018), investigated the potential use of alkali-activated fly ash in
stabilizing kaolin clay. The experiment was carried out using alkaline activator potassium hydroxide (KOH)
with a concentration of 12M. Samples were made with fly ash/soil mixture ratios of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%
with the curing age of each sample mixture is 7 days and 28 days. The highest result of UCS was 3.68 MPa on
28-days of curing age with a mixture ratio of 40%.

From the above literature study, it seems that the application of slag has not been reported for application to
sandy soil, but it is promising as the alternative binding agent to replace cement. In this article, Petobo silty
sand was used as the soil sample. As reported by Kusumawardani et al. (2021); Upomo et al. (2023); Jalil et
al. (2021); and Gallant et al. (2020), the Petobo area experienced a huge liquefaction flow slide during the
Palu-Donggala earthquake on September 28, 2018. A bio-polymer soil treated technique by using agarose has
been applied by Beddu et al. (2022) for Petobo silty sand. It indicates that this technique might be effective for
low confining stress or shallow surface treatment.

This study aims to provide an alternative soil improvement that can be applied in the Petobo area for remedial
measures against liquefaction. In this study, ferronickel slag with alkaline activators was used to improve the
shear strength of Petobo silty sand. The alkaline activators used in the experiment were sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH), with a concentration of 10M. The improved shear strength was
measured using the Unconfined Compression Test. Later, a scanning electron microscope was also conducted
to observe the composition of the improved soil.

2. METHODS

2.1 Properties of Petobo Silty Sand and Ferronickel Slag

The silty sand sample used in this study were taken from the Petobo district, Palu City, Central Sulawesi, at a
depth of 0 to 50 cm. The index properties of the soil are shown in Table 1. Sieve analysis was performed to
obtain the gradation curve (Figure 1) (ASTM D6913-04, 2017). It reveals that the soil contains gravel, sand,
silt, and clay at 0.78%, 65.82%, 16.90%, and 16.50% respectively. Based on the USCS system, this soil is
classified as silty sand (SM). This paper is called Petobo Silty Sand. Moreover, the gradation of Petobo silty
sand falls inside the most and potentially liquefiable soil. In addition, the chemical compositions of soil
samples obtained by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) testing are shown in Table 2. The dominant minerals

74
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

encountered in Petobo Silty Sand are SiO2 and Al2O3, which account for 65.94% and 15.89% of the total.
Those two minerals are suitable to be applied with an alkaline activator (Alnahhal et al. 2021).

Ferronickel slag is an industrial waste by-product of stainless steel and nickel alloy production during the
nickel ore smelting process (Kuncoro and Djayaprabha, 2021). The slag is granulated in the process by shock
cooling and pouring pressure water into the pond. In addition, the XRF test was performed to determine the
mineral composition of the slag. The result is listed in Table 2. The main components of ferronickel slag are
SiO2, CaO, MgO, and Al2O3.

Silt Sand Gravel

100
Boundaries for
potentially
liquefiable soil
80
Boundaries for
most liquefiable
Percent finer by weight

soil
60

40 Petobo
silty sand Boundaries for
potentially
liquefiable soil
20

0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Grain size (mm)
Figure 1. Gradation curve of Petobo Silty Sand comparison with a gradation of liquefiable soils (Tsuchida, 1970)

Table 1. Index Properties of Petobo Silty Sand

Properties Value
Plastic Limit, PL % 20.7
Liquid Limit, LL % 22
Plasticity Index, IP % 1.3

Dry unit weight,d kN/m3 13.4

dmin kN/m3 12.1

dmax kN/m3 16.3

Void ratio, e - 1.04

Porosity, n - 0.51
Relative density % 37.84
Specific Gravity, Gs - 2.73

75
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

Table 2. Mineral composition of Petobo Silty Sand and Ferronickel Slag

Petobo Silty Ferronickel

Composition
Sand Slag
SiO2 % 65.94 62.57
Al2O3 % 15.89 13.46
Fe2O3T % 5.47 4.93
MnO % 0.085 0.074
MgO % 1.8 1.51
CaO % 1.78 6.66
Na2O % 1.78 1.65
K2O % 2.86 2.72
TiO2 % 0.63 0.53
P2O3 % 0.12 0.1
SO3 % 0.015 0.16
Cr2O3 % 0.027 0.012
CuO % 0.013 0.007
NiO % 0.007 0.004
PbO % 0.003 0.004
Rb2O % 0.013 0.012
SrO % 0.021 0.04
ZnO % 0.012 0.012
ZrO2 % 0.028 0.029
LOI % 3.51 5.5

2.2 Experimental plan and mixing procedure

Table 3 lists the experimental plan in this study. In total, three series were conducted. The objective of series
1 is to examine the effect of cement on soil improvement. Series 1 is for comparison with series 2 and series
3. For series 2 and series 3, the purpose is to examine the effect of ferronickel slag with KOH and NaOH as
the alkaline activator. Later, the results of those three series would be compared to each other. This
experimental plan prepared the NaOH and KOH solution in 10M. For the other molarity, it is worth
investigating in the future.
Table 3. Experimental plan for study

Series Cement (%) FS (%) KOH NaOH Objective

To examine the effect of cement on soil
1 3;5;10 - - -
improvement
To examine the effect of FS with KOH on soil
2 - 3;5;10 10M -
improvement
To examine the effect of FS with NaOH on
3 - 3;5;10 - 10M
soil improvement
Note: FS stands for Ferronickel Slag

Figure 2 shows the material used in the experimental program. The soil was taken from the Petobo area at the
elevation of 0 – 0.5m (surface soil). The ferronickel slag was produced by PT Growth Java Industry,
meanwhile, Potassium Hydroxide and Natrium Hydroxide were bought from the chemical store.

76
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2. The photo of (a). Petobo silty sand, (b) Ferronickel slag, (c). Potassium hydroxide, (d). Natrium
Hydroxide.

Figure 3 depicts the preparation of the soil sample. First, the Petobo silty sand was mixed with ferronickel slag
in the amount of 3, 5, and 10% of the dry weight of the Petobo silty sand. Second, the alkaline activator solution
was prepared by mixing the solid KOH or NaOH with distilled water. To get 10M of the solution, it needs
561.05 gr of solid KOH or 400 gr of solid NaOH mixed with 1 liter of distilled water. Then, the mixed soil
with slag or cement was poured inside the mold, and the alkaline activator was injected using a syringe until
the sample was saturated. The amount of solution is about 30 ml. Finally, the sample was cured for 7, 14, and
28 days. To prepare series 1 samples, the slag and alkaline solution were replaced by cement and distilled
water, respectively. The procedure of mixing was identical to Series 2 and 3.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 3. The photo of sample preparation (a). Dry mixing between sand and slag, (b) Alkaline solution, (c).
Injecting the solution, (d). After injection

77
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

2.3 Testing method

ASTM D2166-00 (2000) was used to conduct the unconfined compressive strength of the soil. The soil samples
were tested within 7, 14, and 28 days. The purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive
strength (qu) of the samples. The UCS test measures the strength of the sample. Tests carried out for each
proportion of the sample have reached the age of curing 7 days, 14 days, and 28 days. UCS was performed
according to ASTM D2166-00 (2000) standard using a triaxial test tool with zero confining pressure.
Unconfined compressive strength (qu) is obtained from the maximum deviatoric stress of tested samples.
Figure 4 shows the typical sample before, during, and after testing. Moreover, the experimental flowchart is
shown in Figure 5.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. The photo of a sample (a) before a test, (b) during a test, (c). after a test.

Start

Literature Curing time: 7, 14, 28 days

review

Sample
Unconfined
preparation
compression XRF Test SEM Test
test

Index Prepare Alkaline

properties test activators
Test analysis and
interpretations

Mixing the soil Mixing the soil with Slag

with cement and alkaline activators Conclusions / Finish

Figure 5. The experimental flowchart

78
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 6 shows the comparison of the unconfined compressive strength of samples treated with cement,
ferronickel slag with KOH, and ferronickel slag with NaOH. For the cement-treated sample, it is seen that the
higher the cement content, would yield the greater the unconfined compressive strength (qu). The difference
was insignificant for the cement amount of 3% and 5%. The maximum qu reached 28 days. The value for
cement content of 3%, 5%, and 10% at 28 days was 72 kPa, 88 kPa, and 247 kPa, respectively. In addition,
the increment of qu from 14 days to 28 days is also not significant. For the ferronickel slag (FS) and KOH
treated sample, the 3% and 5% amounts of FS yield relatively close results. But, for the 10% FS+KOH, the q u
was significantly higher than the 3% and 5% FS+KOH. The value for FS+KOH content of 3%, 5%, and 10%
at 28 days was 182 kPa, 215 kPa, and 518 kPa, respectively. These values are about two times larger than the
values of the cement-treated sample. For the ferronickel slag (FS) and NaOH treated sample, the 3% and 5%
amounts of FS also yield relatively close results. However, for the 10% FS+NaOH, the qu was significantly
higher than the 3% and 5% of FS+NaOH. The value for FS+NaOH content of 3%, 5%, and 10% at 28 days
was 117 kPa, 140 kPa, and 531 kPa, respectively. These values are also about two times larger than the values
of the cement-treated sample.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6. The comparison of unconfined compressive strength of sample treated with (a). cement; (b). FS+KOH,
and (c). FS+NaOH.

Figure 7 depicts the typical stress-strain curve of samples treated with cement, FS+KOH, and FS+NaOH. The
curves were adopted from the 10% amount of binder. The stress-strain curve yields quite similar curves for the
other amount of binder. Hence, for simplicity, only 10% amount of the binder curves were shown here. In
general, the characteristic of the stress-strain curve indicates the strain-softening behavior. In terms of soil
strength, the strain-softening behavior reflects hard soil. For FS+NaOH and FS+KOH samples, the maximum
deviatoric stress was reached when the strain was about 2.5% (2.5×10-2). The strain generally falls between
10-3 and 10-6 for most geotechnical cases. Hence, it could be concluded that the sample treated with FS+NaOH
and FS+KOH possibly applies in geotechnical cases. As shown in Figure 6, Young’s modulus at 28 days for
cement, FS+NaOH, and FS+KOH are 12800 kPa, 23400 kPa, and 26200 kPa, respectively. Young’s modulus
of the sample treated with FS+KOH and FS+NaOH has Young’s modulus about twice greater than sample
treated with cement.

79
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. The typical stress-strain curve of the treated sample with (a). cement; (b). FS+KOH, and (c).
FS+NaOH.

Figure 8 depicts the comparison of the unconfined compressive strength of samples treated with a binder of
3%, 5%, and 10%. For a 28-day curing time, the sample treated with FS+KOH yielded a greater q u than the
others. This result was observed for binders 3%, 5%, and 10%. In general, it could be concluded that FS+KOH
has a better performance in improving Petobo silty sand than applying cement or FS+NaOH. Although for
binders 5% and 10%, the qu for FS+KOH and FS+NaOH are close to each other. In addition, the application
of cement to Petobo silty sand seems not very effective compared to using FS+KOH or FS+NaOH. The qu of
the cement-treated sample is always lower than the others.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8. The comparison of unconfined compressive strength of sample treated with (a). binder 3%; (b). binder
5% and (c). binder 10%.

Figure 9 shows the image of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) of untreated Petobo silty sand, treated
sample with cement, treated sample with FS+KOH, and treated sample with FS+NaOH. The magnification of
samples was 250 times. The sample used for SEM is a 28-days curing time and 10% binder. It can be seen
from all the photos that it is proven that there is a geopolymer reaction where the geopolymer matrix envelops
soil particles which is the result of the geopolymer reaction.

80
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 9. The SEM images of (a). Untreated Petobo silty sand, (b). treated sample with cement, (c). treated
sample with FS+KOH, and (d). treated sample with FS+NaOH

An X-Ray fluorescence test was carried out to determine the composition of the compounds that make up the
material used in this study. The results of the XRF test are presented in Table 4. When the sample was mixed
between soil+cement, soil+FS+KOH, and soil+FS+NaOH, the composition of SiO2 and Al2O3 in the Petobo
silty sand with FS+KOH, Petobo silty sand with FS+NaOH was reduced compared to the untreated sample
(Table 2). This might be due to the geopolymer reaction that occurs in the sample so that the content of SiO 2
and Al2O3 compounds is reduced. Because it uses an activator in the form of a KOH and NaOH solution, there
is an increase in the levels of MgO compounds in the sample compared to untreated Petobo silty sand.

Table 4. Mineral composition of the treated sample

Composition Soil+cement Soil+FS+KOH Soil+FS+NaOH

SiO2 % 59.59 46.9 60.91
Al2O3 % 13 9.23 13.07
Fe2O3T % 4.57 1.39 4.68
MnO % 0.11 0.62 0.13
MgO % 2.74 18.37 2.85
CaO % 3.27 20.94 3.55
Na2O % 1.54 0.11 5.41
K2O % 8.75 0.16 3.33
TiO2 % 0.52 0.21 0.53
P2O3 % 0.099 <0.001 0.11
SO3 % 0.14 0.25 0.15
Cr2O3 % 0.026 0.33 0.024
CuO % 0.006 0.003 0.006
NiO % 0.004 0.004 0.005

81
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

Composition Soil+cement Soil+FS+KOH Soil+FS+NaOH

PbO % 0.004 0.001 0.004
Rb2O % 0.012 <0.001 0.011
SrO % 0.027 0.091 0.028
ZnO % 0.011 0.011 0.011
ZrO2 % 0.031 0.019 0.029
LOI % 5.53 1.39 5.14

4. CONCLUSION

The Petobo silty sand contains gravel, sand, silt, and clay at 0.78%, 65.82%, 16.90%, and 16.50% respectively.
The dominant minerals encountered in Petobo Silty Sand are SiO2 and Al2O3, which account for 65.94% and
15.89% of the total. Those two minerals are suitable to be applied with an alkaline activator. Laboratory tests
of mixing Petobo silty sand with ferronickel slag and activator solution (KOH and NaOH) have been
successfully carried out. Mixing results are also compared with conventional mixtures, namely soil-cement.
The strength of the sample was tested by an unconfined compressive strength test, and the chemical bonding
that occurred was proven by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction spectrometer (XRF)
tests. From the test results, the highest unconfined compressive strength value was obtained from samples with
a mixture of 10% ferronickel slag and 10M KOH or 10M NaOH. This mixture had an unconfined compressive
strength of nearly 200% greater than the mixture of soil cement at a curing period of 28 days. The SEM and
XRF tests also proved that the mixed sample formed a geopolymer matrix, and a chemical reaction occurred.
This could explain the reason for the increase in the free compressive strength of the mixed soil. From the two
findings above, a mixture of ferronickel slag and activator solution (NaOH and KOH) could be applied for
large-scale experiment works shortly.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge the research facility provided by Parahyangan Catholic University and research
funding from Ikatan Alumni Teknik Sipil (IATS) UNPAR. Also, the ferronickel slag was provided by PT Java
Growth Industry.

REFERENCES

Alnahhal, M. F., Kim, T., & Hajimohammadi, A. (2021). Waste-derived activators for alkali-activated
materials: A review. Cement and Concrete Composites, 118, 103980.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.103980
ASTM D2166-00, (2000) Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, United States.
ASTM D6913-04, (2017) Standard Test Methods for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Soils Using
Sieve Analysis, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, United States.
Beddu, A., Setiawan, H., & Anugrah, M. R. (2022). Shear strength behaviour of liquefiable sand of petobo on
treated by agarose under direct shear test. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering, 1212, 012035.
Elkhebu, A. G., Zainorabidin, A., Bujang, H. B., Bakar, I. H., Abdeljouad, L. A., & khalef Dheyab, W. (2018).
Alkaline activation of clayey soil using potassium hydroxide & fly ash. International Journal of
integrated Engineering, 10(9), 99-104.
Esmaeili, M., Astaraki, F., Yaghouti, H., & Rad, M. M. (2021). Laboratory Investigation on the Effect of
Microsilica Additive on the Mechanical Behavior of Deep Soil Mixing Columns in Saline Dry
Sand. Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering, 65(4), 1080-1091, https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.18126

82
 Applied Research on Civil Engineering and Environment (ARCEE)
Vol. 04 No. 02, June 2023
Pages 73—83

Gallant, A. P., Montgomery, J., Mason, H. B., Hutabarat, D., Reed, A. N., Wartman, J., ... & Yasin, W. (2020).
The sibalaya flowslide initiated by the 28 September 2018 MW 7.5 Palu-Donggala, Indonesia
earthquake. Landslides, 17, 1925-1934.
Hashim, A. N., Kamarudin, H., Begum, N., Al Bakri Abdullah, M. M., Razak, K. A., & Ekaputri, J. J. (2015).
Effect of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration on compressive strength of alkali-activated slag
(AAS) mortars. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 754, 300-304.
https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.754-755.300
Jalil, A., Fathani, T. F., Satyarno, I., & Wilopo, W. (2021). Liquefaction in Palu: the cause of massive
mudflows. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 8(1), 21, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-021-00194-y.
Kuncoro, A., & Djayaprabha, H. S. (2021). The Effect of Sodium Hydroxide Molarity on The Compressive
and Splitting Tensile Strength of Ferronickel Slag-Based Alkali-Activated Mortar. Media Komunikasi
Teknik Sipil, 27(2), 151-160, https://doi.org/10.14710/mkts.v27i2.32706.
Kusumawardani, R., Chang, M., Upomo, T. C., Huang, R. C., Fansuri, M. H., & Prayitno, G. A. (2021).
Understanding of Petobo liquefaction flowslide by 2018.09.28 Palu-Donggala Indonesia earthquake
based on site reconnaissance. Landslides, 18(9), 3163-3182, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-
01700-x.
Lim, A., Atmaja, P. C., & Rustiani, S. (2020). Bio-mediated soil improvement of loose sand with
fungus. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 12(1), 180-187,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2019.09.004.
Lim, A., & Pianica, L. (2022). Efek Gradasi Tanah Pasir Pada Penggunaan Jamur Rhizopus Oligosporus untuk
Perbaikan Tanah Pasir Lepas. Jurnal Aplikasi Teknik Sipil, 20(2), 157-162,
http://dx.doi.org/10.12962/j2579-891X.v20i2.9769.
Lim, A., Henzi, P., & Arvin, O. (2023). Comparison of pleurotus ostreatus and rhizopus oligosporus fungi for
loose sand improvement. Journal of GeoEngineering, 18(1), 1-10,
https://doi.org/10.6310/jog.202303_18(1).1.
Okamura, M., Ishihara, M., & Tamura, K. (2006). Degree of saturation and liquefaction resistances of sand
improved with sand compaction pile. Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental
engineering, 132(2), 258-264, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:2(258).
Putra, H., Yasuhara, H., Kinoshita, N., & Sudibyo, T. (2018). Improving shear strength parameters of sandy
soil using enzyme-mediated calcite precipitation technique. Civil Engineering Dimension, 20(2), 91-95,
https://doi.org/10.9744/ced.20.2.91-95.
Sharma, A. K., & Sivapullaiah, P. V. (2012). Improvement of strength of expansive soil with waste granulated
blast furnace slag. In GeoCongress 2012: State of the Art and Practice in Geotechnical Engineering,
Oakland, California, USA, 3920-3928, https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784412121.402
Tokimatsu, K., Yoshimi, Y., & Ariizumi, K. (1990). Evaluation of liquefaction resistance of sand improved
by deep vibratory compaction. Soils and Foundations, 30(3), 153-158,
https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.30.3_153.
Tsuchida, H. (1970). Prediction and Countermeasure against Liquefaction in Sand Deposits. Seminar of the
Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of Transport, Yokosuka, Japan, 3.1-3.33.
Upomo, T. C., Chang, M., Kusumawardani, R., Prayitno, G. A., Kuo, C. P., & Nugroho, U. (2023). Assessment
of Petobo Flowslide Induced by Soil Liquefaction during 2018 Palu–Donggala Indonesian
Earthquake. Sustainability, 15(6), 5371, https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065371.
Yi, Y., Li, C., Liu, S., & Al-Tabbaa, A. (2014). Resistance of MgO–GGBS and CS–GGBS stabilised marine
soft clays to sodium sulfate attack. Géotechnique, 64(8), 673-679, https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.T.012

83