Tholkappiyar:

Tholkappiyam
MS. NISHA KUTTY

This chapter elaborates on the earliest known work of grammar in Tamil

Literature. Due to the elaborate explanations of a wide range of semantics
discussed through the course of the text, The Tolkappiyam remains one of
the most crucial textbooks in Ancient Indian Literary history. Through the
course of this module, the intricate details of linguistics and other literary
devices discussed in The Tolkappiyam would be explained at length.

Introduction
 Tolkappiyam is considered to be one of the earliest known texts from
Ancient India. As a text that largely concerns itself with the descriptive
linguistics of the Tamil language, Tolkappiyam has remained available to
scholars who are fluent in Tamil. Translations of the texts, although
attempted, have been largely unsuccessful or incomplete. Tolkappiyam as
a text can be roughly divided into three major sections – the first two
deals with the linguistic intricacies of the Tamil language while the third
section deals with ideas referred to in Tamil Literature. Each of these
major sections has further been divided into nine chapters. As 21st
century scholars, today we can understand that Tolkappiyam deals with
crucial factors pertaining to linguistics like, morphology, phonology,
orthography, semantics and ideas vital to the composition of Tamil
Literature.

The Tolkappiyam was also the first text to classify the Tamil language
into two halves – sentamil (classical Tamil used in works of Literature) and
koduntamil (Tamil dialects spoken by people of various regions of Tamil
Nadu then). The text further categorizes Tamil alphabets into vowels and
consonants followed by a thorough analysis of every alphabet. Compared
to other Indian languages, Tamil has fewer numbers of alphabets and to
make it easier for the reader there is a section devoted to
grammaticization associated with the use of certain words and syntaxes.
 There has been an ongoing debate regarding when the Tolkappiyam had
originally been written. Though it is still imprecise, a large number of
scholars believe the text has been

written between the 5th century BCE and the 3rd century CE. While
commenting on the debate dating Tolkappiyam, in his text Indian Literary
Criticism : Theory and Interpretation, literary critic Ganesh Devy has
stated how S. Ilakkuvanar believed the text to be written somewhere
between 6th century BCE and 10th century BCE. At the same time, Devy
states how Indologist Kamil Zvelebil believes Tolkappiyam to be a
gradually growing body that took about eight centuries to acquire it’s final
shape. Zvelebil’s theory also states that the sections dealing with prosody
and diction in Tamil literature should belong to the 4th or 5th century AD.
Devy completes his argument by stating how Zvelebil’s theory of dating
Tolkappiyam seems most probable.

Apart from the controversy regarding the dating of the text, a complete
understanding of the Tolkappiyam is possible only by analyzing the
historical literary era of which Tolkappiyam remains an integral part.

This historical period is termed as the “Sangam Period” in ancient South

India. The period is believed to have spanned from 300 BCE to 300 CE.
Over 2381 poems are believed to have been composed during this period.
Sangam literature itself can be categorized into two major topics –
Akattiyam and Tolkappiyam.
The Tolkappiyam and Sangam Literature

Renowned scholar A.K Ramanujan wrote two books titled The Interior
Landscape and Poems of Love and War on the beautiful poems from the
Sangam Period. Writing about these, he states, “Tamil, one of the two
classical languages of India, is the only language of contemporary India
which is recognizably continuous with a classical past.

“These poem are ‘classical,’ i.e., early, ancient; they are also ‘classics,’ i.e.,
works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole
tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic
achievement of Indian civilization.

In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else

in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In
their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion
is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design,
impersonality by vivid detail and leanness of line by richness of
implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of Tamil
genius. The Tamils, in their 2,000 years of literary effort, wrote nothing
better”. (Ramanujan: Prologue)
 The rich literary history of Classical Tamil Language is a fascinating one.
Tamil is the earliest Dravidian language and is often considered to be one
of the most creative of the regional literatures in India.

Sangam Poetry, which existed in written form, is considered to be the

most important portion of works within Sangam Literature. The core idea
of Sangam Poetry lies in the different types of literary works and the
feelings transpired through them.

The early stage of Tamil poetry is often referred to as the “Sangam Age”
after three legendary “Sangams” or academies of literary excellence that
are said to have supervised works of the classical poets and scholars.
Indeed, one of the great legacies of the period is a body of poetic works
dated roughly between 1st and 4th centuries Christian era, devoted to the
subject of love (Akam) and the heroic themes of battle and the panegyric
(Puram).

Thus, it is important to note that Classical poetry from the Sangam

Period can be majorly divided into two types –

● Akam
● Puram

According to Tamil tradition, there were three Sangams from mythological

times. The first owes its origin to Agathiar (Agasthya) who came from
North India and stayed at Madurai, Tamil Nadu. This academy consisted of
549 members, patronized by 89 Pandyas and lasted for 4,440 years.

Once Madurai was submerged in the sea, it led to the emergence of the
2nd Sangam. Agasthya established the 2nd Sangam. The Sangam consisted
of 3,700 poets, patronized by 59 Panyas and lasted for 3,700 years. The last
Sangam lasted for 1850 years and was patronized by 49 Pandyas. The date
of the last Sangam is the early centuries of the Christian era. This is
probably the only historically validated Sangam, located in Madurai, on the
banks of the River Vaigayi.

Sangam Poetry concerns itself with four major goals, namely–

● Aram (Righteousness/virtue)
● Porul (Worldly success)
● Ridu (Release)
● Imbam (Pleasure)

While the first three goals are conveyed through “Puram Poetry”, the last
one is best conveyed through “Akam Poetry”.

Akam

Akam poetry usually deals with feelings of love and affection. They
speak of family and relationships as the central themes through which the
experiences of life are best developed.
 “Akam” deals with two kinds of love:-

1) Mutual Love
2) One-sided love

Sangam Landscapes, into which each of these works of poetry is

categorized, has been classified into ‘thinais’ based on the mood of the
poem, season and land type.

Mutual love itself was reflected through a description of landscape where

the poetry takes place.

Poems on love are named based on the differentiation of the landscapes

they are situated in:-

● Kurinchi (mountains)
● Neytal (Sea shore )
● Palai (Wasteland)
● Mullai (Forest / Pasture)
● Marutani (Agricultural lowland)

No matter what kind, Akam poetry always showcases a conscious

relationship between theme and genre. These poems deal with the
relationship between man and woman and the various stages of love
between them, Puram deals with works of heroism, war and ethics.
 Coming to the role of gender in these poems, the role of women are
practically negligible. However, a lot of importance is given to the chastity
of women in these poems. There are several Akam poems where the
woman (the heroine) relates the depth of her love for the hero by revealing
details about her chastity. Interior landscapes convey the feelings and
emotions involved. These poems speak of how a feeling of possession is
vital in love. In Akam poetry, there would always be a speaker and a
listener. Poetry unfolds through a conversation which is almost like a
dramatic monologue between two people. In case of one-sided love
poems, underlying tension is an almost palpable feeling. The feelings of
love and desires being unfulfilled along with a possibility of separation are
predominant in these poems.

Akam speaks of the interior landscape of one’s own heart and Puram
speaks of the external.

Sangam poetry is essentially court poetry of an age which often spoke

of Heroism. While Akam poetry deals with private emotions, Puram deals
with public domains and public feelings.

There are several examples of famous akam poems that have been
translated in English by AK Ramanujan. One such example has been
illustrated below. The poem was originally composed by Poet Uraiyur
Mutukotra and written in Mullai thinai, titled “What she said”;
“My lover has not come back:

the jasmine has bloomed.

A goat-herd comes into town with goats and milk

to take some rice to others waiting outside,

palmyra rain-guards in their hands,

herds of young ones in their care:

in his hair

nothing but buds of tiny jasmine.”

Tolkappiyam demonstrates the use of these words and their relation to a

particular thinai, landscape or emotion. The use of syntax and choice of
words have been described at length through the course of the
Tolkappiyam, helping us deconstruct how ancient Tamil poetry and its
subsequent followers followed a particular thematic structure.

Puram

Puram poems are always situated in public domains. These poems often
speak of war, bloodshed, love for the one’s own people and politics. These
poems are classified according to the core idea transpired through the
poem:-

● Vetci (Cattle Raid)

● Vanci (Preparation for War, Invasion)
● Ulinnai (Siege)
● Tumpai (Battle)
● Vakai (Victory)
● Kanchi (Tragedy & Instability of the world)
● Patan (Elegy and Praise)

These poems often speak of betrayal, separation and tragedy with relation
to war and politics. Puram poems often showcase love that ends in
bloodshed. Prosaic tears of love and associating love with sacrifice
displays how a certain kind of violence plays part in this kind of love. The
hero’s self-rebellion when it comes to love has been a recurrent idea
conveyed through these poems. Confluence of love and war together has
been found in several Puram poems from the Sangam age.

I get teary eyed when I think of my friendship

with the man from the mountain filled with gods.

I shiver with pain like the innocent peacock

that panics
after it eats the golden tiny millet

left as offering to the gods in the mountain kuravars’ fields,

and trembles like a beautiful veriyāttam dancer in a ritual.

Main Ideas Transpired Through Sangam Poetry

In their antiquity and their contemporary outlook, there is not much

else in any Indian literature that equals to the quiet and dramatic Akam
poems. In their values and stands, these poems represent a mature
creativity. Passion is balanced through the use of dramatic poetic
measures while impersonality by vivid details remains a classic feature of
Puram poems.

Keeping these in mind, there are some major ideas transpired through
Sangam Poetry. These are:-

1. Secularism
2. Different descriptions of Private and Public worlds where questions
of personal emotions and desires hold importance.
3. Greater good of the Tamil community
4. Heroism
5. Metaphors and Imagery
6. Use of realism through descriptions of mundane (daily) activities
7. The importance of “Karma” (Action) over “Dharma” (Duty)
 8. The emergence of a non-Sanskritic tradition irrespective of the fact
that Sangam poetry is a tradition as ancient as Sanskrit literature
9. Focus on the use of dramatic dialogue where a certain degree of
democratic language is involved
10. Emergence of social reality; in instances where the woman in the
poem speaks to the mother of the man, implicating a certain kind of
social relationship between the two.
11. Sangam poetry as a form of court poetry, where specific methods of
writing poetry are employed through generic decisions and linking
natural landscapes to feelings of love.
12. The existence of a certain amount of orality involved in poetic
writing. This was an important feature of Sangam poetry.

Tolkappiyam – The Text

Tolkappiyam derives its name from the confluence of two words –

“Tonmai” (ancient) and “Kappiam” (literature). It is an extensive work on
the grammar of the Tamil language and is the earliest extant work on
Tamil Literature. The text itself comprises of three books or ‘atikarams’
that have been written in the form of short formulaic compositions or
‘noorpas’. These three books are, namely:-

❖ Ezhuttadikaram – Deals with the formation of words and

combination of words in

Tamil Language
 ❖ Solladikaram – Deals with Syntax in Tamil

❖ Poruladikaram – Deals with the tools used to convey thoughts and

emotions in Tamil Literature

Each of these three books has been further divided into nine chapters
each.

Tolkappiyam formulated thirty phonemes and three dependent sounds

for the Tamil language.

1. Ezhuttadikaram

The first book of Tolkappiyam deals with the formation of words and
combination of words in Tamil Language. This book has nine subsections
that focus on the linguistic aspect of the Tamil language in totality. These
nine subsections are:-

1. Nuul Marabu – Focuses on Tamil language itself and organises them

into consonants, vowels and diacritic symbols.
2. Mozhi Marabu – The second sub section focuses on a well-defined
classification of phonemes and elision. These classifications are
unambiguous and follow a thorough enlisting of linguistic
measurements by focusing on the use of vowels and their
consequent sounds.
 3. PiRappiyal – The third sub section focuses completely on the use of
articulatory phonetics in Tamil, followed by the explanation of visual
representation of each alphabet.
4. PuNaRiyal- The fourth sub section speaks about words that have
come into existence through the combination of two or more words
in Tamil.
5. Thokai Marabu – The fifth sub section is often considered a
continuation of the fourth section as it focuses on explanations
regarding combination of words based on their meaning in Tamil.
6. Urubiyal – This sub section focuses on word modifiers that are
added to the end of a noun or pronouns to create a new meaning.
7. Uyir Mayangial – This sub-section focuses on the combination of
words that contain a vowel at the beginning and end with a vowel as
well.
8. Pulli – Pulli placement is one of the most distinguishing factor
associated with characters in the Tamil language. Often found in the
Brahmi script, the pulli is distinguished by its placement. The
sub-section focuses on the combination of words with a consonant
upon consonant ending.
9. KutriyalukarappunaRiyal – The last sub-section explores the words
created by combining initial vowel-phonetic upon the shortened ‘u’
vowel-ending.

ii. Solladikaram
 The second book of Tolkappiyam completely deals with the words and
parts of speech in Tamil language. This book classifies Tamil words into
four broad categories:-

*Iyar chor (Tamil words in common usage)

*Thiri chor (Tamil words used in literature)

*Vada chor (Tamil words that have been borrowed from Sanskrit)

*Thisai chor (Tamil words that have been borrowed from other
languages)

Each of these four books contains nine subsections that concentrate on

the formation and usage of syntax, adjectives, nouns, verbs, suffix-prefix
and adverbs in the Tamil language. These nine subsections are:-

● KiLaviyaakkam – Deals with gender, number, person etc.

● VEtRumaiyiyal – Deals with how case works in syntax.
● VEtrumaimayangial – Deals with case and their correlation with
suffix.
● ViLimarabu – Deals with how vocative cases are formed in Tamil
language.
● Peyariyal – Deals with nouns.
● Vinaiyiyal – Deals with verbs.
 ● Idaiyiyal – Deals with suffix and prefix formations in Tamil.
● Uriyiyal – Deals with nature of qualifiers with reference to the use
of adjectives and adverbs.
● Echchaviyal – Deals with miscellaneous ideas associated with syntax
formations in Tamil.

iii. Poruladikaram

Poruladikaram contains the most significant set of information in the

Tolkappiyam when it comes to Tamil literature. Poruladikaram in totality
speaks about the descriptive use of natural landscape with relation to
human emotions in Sangam literature. The third book provides
classifications of different landscapes, seasons and religious deities and
speaks about different modes of life attributed to each of the
combinations of landscapes and seasons, for different types of people.
This book also discusses the Phonemic Deviations prevalent in Sangam
poetry. Poruladikaram contains 9 subsections, which are:-

● AkaththiNaiyiyal – Deals the life of couples

● PuRaththiNaiyiyal – Deals with the different aspects in the public life
of people
● KaLaviyal – Literature where secretive love is exposed through
someone and how they expose it is well described.
● KaRpiyal – Deals with the lives of couples in love
 ● PoruLiyal – Deals with how couples inform their families and friends
about their relationship and how they react to this.
● Meyppaattiyal – Deals with how feelings are expressed.
● Uvamayiyal – Deals with natural landscapes and metaphors related
to them.
● SeyyuLiyal – Deals with grammar in Tamil poetry
● Marabiyal – Deals with the chronology of Tamil language

Authorship

As previously mentioned, attributing the authorship of Tolkappiyam to a

single author has been a controversy for centuries. However, vast amount
of historical and linguistic evidence the authorship of the Tolkappiyam has
been attributed to a Tamil Sangam poet named Tholkappiyar. Though
several critics have stated that Tholkappiyar’s name is derived from the
text itself, there is no clear indication as to when Tholkappiyar existed.
According to sources, Tholkappiyar is believed to have been the disciple of
Agathiar (Agasthya) and was born in the Tamil month of Chitirai around
865 BC. Tholkappiyar is believed to have been born in the Adankodu
village in Vilavankodu taluq situated in modern-day Kanyakumari district
of Tamil Nadu. References point to this fact in his work Tolkappiyam.
There have been assumptions about why Tolkappiyam was compiled in the
first place. Sources within the state believe that Tholkappiyar was asked to
compile the great text on Tamil grammar after “Agathiar”, a text on Tamil
grammar composed by his guru Agathiar, disappeared.
 After the Tolkappiyam, another text on Tamil grammar Nannul had been
composed by Pavananthi Munivar around the 13th century AD and it
serves as a commentary on older works like Tolkappiyam itself.

Religion and Tolkappiyam

Tolkappiyam along with other ancient Tamil texts like Pattupattu (10
songs) and Ettutokai (8 Anthologies) shed light on the early religious
beliefs of the Tamil people from the bygone era.

From ancient times to the modern-day Tamil Nadu, Murugan is a chief

deity in the Hindu spectrum. Murugan or “Karthik” as he is known in other
Indian cultures is the son of Lord Shiva. He is described and illustrated as
one of the most beautiful gods seated on a blue peacock – an ever-young,
ever resplendent figure of divinity among the Tamil people. In the third
book of Tolkappiyam, we are introduced to the idea of Sangam landscapes
and how they can be related to the descriptions in the poems. These
attributions help us understand which Hindu deities were worshipped
during the Sangam Period. These “thinais” are attributed to a specific
religious figure as well as the season and the flora/fauna associated with
it. Murugan was considered as the patron deity of the “Kurinchi” ‘thinai’,
situated in the Blue Mountains (Nilgiris). “Kurinchi” – the ‘thinai’, is named
so after a flower of the same name which is believed to bloom only in the
mist engulfed greenery of the Nilgiris. “Kurinchi” is a ‘thinai’ which deals
with the meeting and union of two lovers.

The Tolkappiyam states that the next thinai, “Mullai” or forests have
Lord Vishnu or Tirumaal as the patron deity. “Mullai” is a thinai where
poems glorify lovers’ spat and their eventual reunion. The other patron
deities for the other three ‘thinais’ include: – Goddess

Durga or Kottravai for “Palai” or wasteland/desert, showcasing lovers’

separation and hero’s journey through a dangerous territory; Lord Indra
or Vendan for “Marutham” or agricultural lowlands, where lovers elope to
hide their love away from others; Lord Varuna or Kadalon for “Neythal” or
sea coast, where lovers experience the longest separation from each
other. Below is a table which tabulates these attributions more closely.
The Tolkappiyam and Its Contribution to the Indian Literary Tradition

Not only did The Tolkappiyam throw light on the culture and life of
people in Tamil Nadu from the ancient age, but also contributed to the
Indian linguistic study as we know it today. Without the Tolkappiyam, a
major part of India’s linguistic history would have been void. As a country
which has been constantly overshadowed by Postcolonial sentiments,
Tolkappiyam towers as a text which showcases Indian literary brilliance.
As a text written in Pre-Christian era, Tolkappiyam exhibits a linguistic
and literary precision that is much beyond its time. Beginning from the
deconstruction of constants, vowels and use of syntax, Tolkappiyam is the
first text of grammar steeped completely in Indian linguistic
understanding. It is one of the first books in the world to have decoded
literary tools with such precision, given the time period it is a part of.
Tolkappiyam also gave shape to Indian poetic traditions for centuries to
come. The relation to Sangam Literature holds true not just for works
from the ancient age but also today. The intricacies with which each of
these ‘thinais’ attribute their relation to a season, a religious deity and
flora/fauna is the earliest known example of literary metaphors in Tamil
literature. Even today, the attributions given to each of these ‘thinai’
remain valid in modern-day Indian theatre or films. Separation between
lovers is often showcased through deserts in celluloid, union of lovers is
shown is a beautiful landscape, mostly having mountains have a backdrop
and lastly, sea coast is used to depict ‘viraha-gatha’ or long periods of
separation between lovers.
Thus showing the relevance of how Tolkappiyam shaped the landscape of
Indian poetic imagination for centuries that followed.

To Conclude

Tolkappiyam shaped up the history of poetic tradition in India for

centuries to come. As a country constantly struggling with the colonial
ideas instilled in our history, Tolkappiyam as a pre-colonial text outshines
the binding shackles of literary conflicts. It exhibits the rich and vibrant
culture existent in ancient India and the deep rooted understanding of
grammaticism. Tolkappiyam helped in shaping the face of Indian poetic
thought for centuries that followed, by detailing factors that contributed
to the existence of Indian poetry as we know it today. The residual
reflections of the intricacies within Sangam poetry can still be seen in
contemporary Indian poetry where characters follow similar modes of
expression as seen within Sangam literature. Irrespective of various
controversies which surround its dating and authorship, the Tolkappiyam
continues to remain an anchoring precursor in the history of Indian
literary tradition.

Summary

This module traces the origin and evolution of Tolkappiyam – the

earliest extant text of grammar in India. We discuss the various intricacies
associated with Tolkappiyam and its major contribution in deconstructing
Sangam poetry for scholars of centuries that followed. The Tolkappiyam is
a text which is steeped in the rich study of ancient Tamil grammar, its
syntax and other various components of grammar. It also helps us
understand the slow evolution of ancient Tamil language. It is also
interesting to see how translation plays an important role in bringing
Tolkappiyam to a wider range of audience. Though the number of
translations is sparse, Tolkappiyam and its literary brilliance has reached
far and wide, much beyond the periphery of Indian literature.