By : RANA ATHAR MUNIR

Chapter 2
THE HISTORY OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE
BASIC CONCEPTS

Human Factors is about people: it is about people in

their working and living environments, and it is about
their relationship with equipment, procedures and the
environment. Just as important, it is about their
relationship with other people. It involves the over-all
performance of human beings within the aviation
system. Human Factors seeks to optimize the
performance of people by the systematic application of
the human sciences, often integrated within the
framework of system engineering. Its twin objectives
can be seen as safety and efficiency. ICAO Human
Factors Digest Number 1, 1989.
The History of Human Performance
In November 1783 the first manned balloon voyage took place. Two men
took off from the grounds of the Chateau de la Muette in Paris in a
Montgolfier hot air balloon and landed 25 minutes later, having drifted
five miles and reached a height of 3,000 feet. The trouble was, and still
is, that balloons are non-steerable and are dependent on the wind to
provide their horizontal motive power
To overcome the non steerability of balloons, it became obvious that a
motive unit of some sort was needed to allow them to become a useful
form of transport and the concept of the airship was formulated. It was
not until 1852 that Henri Giffard was able to fly the first practical airship.
Even at this early stage it was realized that the future of aviation lay not
with balloons and airships but with heavier than air machines.
The first powered airplane to fly was a model steam powered aircraft
designed and built by John String fellow in 1848. The first manned flight
of a heavier than air machine, and the beginning of modern aviation,
took place at Kittyhawk in 1903 when Orville Wright made a flight of 12
seconds in the aptly named ‘Wright Flyer’. This short duration flight
ushered in an era which has probably seen a greater number of scientific
advances than any other period in history
With the aircraft came aircraft accidents. In the early decades of this
century a great number of these accidents, indeed the majority,
were caused by equipment failure or other factors outside the
control of the operators. Over the last 30 to 40 years however the
major cause of aircraft accidents has been human factors.
Airframes have become more reliable, modern engines and
associated equipment seldom fail, navigational equipment (both in
the aircraft and on the ground) has improved in leaps and bounds,
giving a degree of accuracy undreamt of by the early pioneers of
flying.
The improvement in the equipment available, allied with the
advances in Meteorological forecasting should have virtually
eliminated aviation accidents except for the most freak conditions,
but these accidents have not reduced at the rate one would expect
from the advances of technology. The factor that has not changed is
the human being. It is often seen in reports of aircraft accidents that
the cause was ‘Pilot Error’ but, of course, a more correct reason
would be ‘Human Error’.
It is unfortunate that errors occur at all stages of an aircraft’s life.
Designers may make small arithmetical slips which may not be
picked up, servicing personnel can put the wrong fuel and lubricants
into engines or fit components incorrectly, operations and loading
staff do get the weights wrong but the major contributions to flight
safety can be achieved by educating the operating crew.
This publication is written to enable you, the future pilot, to
appreciate the limitations of the human being in the aviation
environment. Our bodies are designed to exist on the surface of the
earth and a stable gravitational force. In aviation it is subject to new
factors, among which are altitude, large changes in pressure,
changes of gravitational forces, radiation and shortage of oxygen.
In the purely physical sense you will need to learn how to recognize
the symptoms of oxygen deficiency and the effects of high G forces
or large changes of temperature. You should gain an appreciation of
the problems brought about by stress and time zone changes as well
as trying to organize sleep patterns which may be out of
synchronization with your internal body clock.
As a crew member, you will be flying with many contrasting
personalities some of whom may be from very different cultural
backgrounds from yourself. If you are a member of a large airline,
you will be meeting your fellow crew members mostly for the first
time. It is vital that you become adept in recognizing these different
personalities and be able to work with them as a successful member
of the group. A continuing study of both CRM and Human
Performance will be your basic tool but the development of
successful interpersonal skills must be an on-going personal aim.
It is to be hoped that you will not have to face many emergencies in
your flying career, except in the simulator, but to be forewarned is to
be forearmed. Knowledge brings confidence and the following
chapters are designed to increase your knowledge of yourself and
your limitations.
The Relevance of Human Performance
in Aviation
Aviation in itself is not inherently dangerous but, like the sea, it is
inordinately unforgiving of any carelessness, incapacity or neglect.
Human Performance (sometimes referred to as Human Factors) is
relevant wherever and whenever the human being is involved in
aviation. Thus it plays a fundamental and vital role to promote
efficiency and - above all else - safety in every facet of the aviation
industry. It promotes:
➢ Safety and efficiency
➢ Health, fitness and well-being
➢ Operating skills.
➢ Awareness of the common areas of human error
➢ Judgement and decision-making
➢ Leadership qualities
➢ Crew co-ordination
➢ Efficient design of:
• Aircraft, cockpit, instrument and control layouts.
• Operating Procedures.
• Check Lists.
• Charts.
• Training procedures.
➢ Efficient and comfortable working environments.
➢ Efficient personnel selection
➢ Efficient communications.
These can be summarized as the: Safety and efficiency of the
operation and Well-being of the individual

ICAO REQUIREMENT FOR THE STUDY OF HUMAN FACTORS.

Since the inclusion of Amendment 159 of Annex 1 to the Chicago
Convention, which came into force on 16th November 1989, ICAO has
made the study of Human Factors a mandatory part of obtaining a
professional pilot’s license.
THE PILOT AND PILOT TRAINING
Introduction :
The most flexible but the most error-prone component within
aviation is the aircrew. Thus selection, training, maintenance of
morale and monitoring of aircrews make the largest contribution to
flight safety.
The Competent Pilot:
When assessing the competency of a pilot a number of qualities are
sought. Among the qualities that go towards making a safe,
effective and competent pilot are :
➢ A high sense of responsibility
➢ Ability (academic and flight handling)
➢ Motivation
➢ A good communicator
➢ Flexibility
➢ Physical fitness
➢ Reliability
➢ A balanced personality
➢ A team player
➢ Calmness under stress
➢ An eye for detail
➢ Competency in Risk Assessment
➢ Competency in the skills of Stress and Crew Managements
Training:
There is a number of pilot training methods and techniques : Flight
Simulator, Crew Resource Management (CRM), Line Oriented Flying
Training (LOFT), Self-development, Leadership, Flight Safety,
Survival and Correspondence courses are all available to aircrew. To
ensure the future competency of pilots, courses should designed to
be :
➢ Relevant
➢ Regular
➢ Clear and concise
➢ Time-efficient
➢ Participational
➢ Include course reading and revision material
Self-Training:
Self-Training is a process aimed at developing specific skills,
knowledge or attitudes. As pilots you will, throughout your careers,
be subject to continuous and regular training. It is of fundamental
importance that you do not rely solely on the formal training to
maintain your aviation expertise. Every opportunity should be taken
to increase your competency, knowledge and professionalism.
Always self de-brief after every flight. Read, research, discuss and
discover as much as you can of this enormous and fascinating field.
As your competence and expertise increase so will your self-
confidence. This, in turn, will arm you to tackle new aspects of your
profession with enthusiasm and conviction.
AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT STATISTICS
General :
Statistics play a fundamental role in accident analysis. It is only by the
production of comprehensive and wide-ranging statistics that the root
cause of accidents can be established. The Safety Data Department of
the CAA regularly distribute a number of publications in this field of
which Aviation Safety Review, Data Plus and Global Accident Review are
but three. When compared with other forms of transportation, aviation
has the best safety record (the risk of death per person per year in a car
accident is 1 in 10,000 in the UK and 1 in 4,000 in the USA). The accident
rate is approximately 1 per million airport movements - in other words,
approximately one accident per million legs flown.
The sad fact is that accidents are still occurring. This is in spite of
enormous technical advances in :
➢ Aircrew training and selection
➢ Aircraft manufacture and design
➢ Weather tracking and prediction
➢ Mechanical reliability
➢ Systems monitoring equipment
➢ Communications
➢ Accuracy and range of navigational equipment
➢ Cockpit and cabin layout
➢ Safety equipment
➢ Air Traffic Control expertise and capabilities
➢ Control and weather radar equipment
➢ Airfield lighting and facilities
Even with all the above technical successes, and the overall
standards of safety that have been achieved, the art and science of
advanced aeronautics in all types of flying conditions are not yet
fully perfected. Nor has the complex relationship between
technological progress on the one hand, and human frailty on the
other, been fully resolved. In aviation, perhaps more than in other
fields of human endeavor, mankind remains as much a victim of
himself as of the elements around him.
Causes of Accidents
General Approximately 73% of all accidents are caused by Human
factors. Historically this figure has not changed since the 1950’s. CFIT
(Controlled Flight into Terrain) remains the most common general
form of accident.
Causes of Accidents:
The five most common specific causes of pilot-induced accidents, in
order of frequency, are :
➢ Loss of directional control
➢ Poor judgement
➢ Airspeed not maintained
➢ Poor pre-flight planning and pre-flight decision making
➢ Not maintaining ground clearance
The phases of flight most prone to accidents are, in order of precedence
➢ Intermediate and Final Approach
➢ Landing
➢ Take-off
➢ Descent
Flight Safety
Roles played by the various aviation participants in Flight Safety:
Air transport is a huge system employing millions of people in
thousands of different capacities. Those having a direct influence on
flight safety are noted below together with their possible limitations
National and International Authorities (ICAO., IATA., EASA, CAA.,
FAA etc)
These organizations have, among their responsibilities those of
setting , implementing and monitoring flight safety standards. They
are also charged with developing the aviation industry within their
field of influence. The two requirements sometimes conflict and, on
many occasions, responsible compromises have to be found. This
conflict necessitates limitations which, in many cases, are based on
either financial or political considerations.
Commercial Organizations
Commercial Organizations can suffer from a similar dilemma. The
financial position of the organization may drive flight safety
parameters. Smaller companies can be particularly vulnerable to
cash problems
The outward signs could include :
➢ Stretched crew duty times
➢ Poor rostering
➢ Unserviceability's carried
➢ Weaknesses and short-cutting in maintenance and operational
procedures
➢ Poor communications
➢ Short-comings and non-standardisation of cockpit layouts
➢ Lack of passengers and aviation facilities
➢ Poor industrial relations
➢ Rise in accident rate
Management :
A minor change of policy may have far-reaching effects. For example
a change in the utilization of an aircraft may effect workload,
servicing schedules, rostering and render procedures invalid. The
ripple-effect is normally felt throughout the organization and can
have a direct influence on flight safety. In-depth consultation is a
pre-requisite to effective aviation Management.
Training Staff:
Training Staff are at the coal-face of Flight Safety. The interface and
feed-back between Management and Technical/Flight personnel
often takes place at this level. The professionalism, motivation,
flexibility and communication abilities of Training personnel are all
fundamental to the augmentation of Flight Safety Standards.
Technical/Flight Personnel :
At the end of the line are the Technical/Flight personnel. On their
shoulders lie the ultimate conflict. Should job security be put at risk
because of Flight Safety considerations? Should a pilot, for example,
agree to fly after extended duty times in order to satisfy a valued
contract? Equally should an Engineer submit to Managerial
pressures in order to satisfy serviceability demands. Sadly, this
quandary has been faced many times in the past and will continue to
be confronted in the future.
THE MOST SIGNIFICANT FLIGHT SAFETY EQUIPMENT:
It is generally considered that the most significant item of technical
equipment that has been introduced in the 1980’s and 1990’s which
has contributed most to the reduction of accidents is the Ground
Proximity Warning System (GPWS) and later the Enhanced Ground
Proximity Warning System (EGPWS).
DUTIES OF FLIGHT CREW
Flight crew duties and responsibilities of a commercial company
normally include the following:
ALL FLIGHT CREW
➢ To be conversant and up-hold both the laws/regulation of the
country and the rules of the company. Ignorance not an acceptable
excuse for any contravention.
➢ Shall obey all lawful commands which the Commander of the
aircraft may give for the purpose of securing the safety of the
aircraft and of persons or property carried therein, or to the safety,
efficiency or regularity of air navigation.
THE COMMANDER
➢ Maintain familiarity with relevant air legislation, practices and
procedures together with provisions of the company Operations
Manual.
➢ Be responsible for the safe operation of the aircraft and the safety of
its occupants and cargo. This responsibility starts when he/she
enters the aircraft with the intention of flying or when he/she first
signs the flight documents and ends when the post-flight
documents are completed and signed.
➢ Subject only to the above, act to the benefit of the company’s
commercial advantage.
➢ Have the authority to give all commands he/she deems necessary for
the purpose of securing the safety of the aircraft and the persons or
property therein.
➢ Have the authority to disembark any person, or any part of the
cargo, which in his/her opinion, may represent a potential hazard to
the safety of the aircraft or its occupants.
➢ Not allow a person to be carried in the aircraft who appears to be
under the influence of alcohol or drugs to the extent that the safety
of the aircraft or its occupants are likely to be endangered.
➢ Have the right to refuse transportation of inadmissible passengers,
deportees or persons in custody, if their carriage poses any risk to
the safety of the aircraft or its occupants.
➢ Ensure that all passengers are briefed on the location of emergency
exits and the use of relevant safety and emergency equipment.
➢ Ensure that all operational procedures and checklists are complied
with, in accordance with the company’s Operations Manual.
➢ Decide whether or not to accept the aircraft with unserviceabilities
allowed by the company Minimum Equipment List (MEL).
➢ Ensure that the aircraft and any required equipment is serviceable
➢ Ensure that the aircraft mass and balance is within the calculated
limits for the operating conditions.
➢ Confirm that the aircraft’s performance will enable it to safely
complete the proposed flights.
➢ Not permit any crew member to perform any activity during take-
off, initial climb, final approach and landing except those duties
required for the safe operation of the aircraft.
➢ Ensure that the required documents and manuals are carried and will
remain valid throughout the flight or series of flights
➢ Ensure that the pre-flight inspection has been carried out.
➢ Maintain a high standard of discipline, conduct and appearance.
➢ Shall not permit the Flight Data Recorder (FDR) to be disabled,
switched off or erased during flight. Nor will he/she permit data to
be erased after flight in the event of an accident or an incident
subject to mandatory reporting.
➢ Shall not permit a Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) to be disabled or
switched off during flight unless he/she believes that the recorded
data, which otherwise would be erased automatically, should be
preserved for incident or accident investigation. Nor may he/she
permit recorded data to be manually erased during or after flight in
the event of an accident or incident subject to mandatory reporting.
➢ Take any action he/she considers necessary, in the event of an
emergency that requires an immediate decision. In such cases
he/she may deviate from rules, operational procedures and methods
in the interests of safety.
➢ Has the authority to apply greater safety margins, including
aerodrome operating minima, if deemed necessary.
➢ Ensure that a continuous listening watch is maintained on the
appropriate radio frequencies at all times whenever the flight crew is
manning the aircraft for the purpose of commencing and/or
conducting a flight and when taxiing.
➢ Ensuring the welfare of the passengers and crew.
THE 1st. OFFICER / CO-PILOT
➢ Is responsible to the Commander to assist in the safe and efficient
conduct of the flight. He/she will report to the Commander any
incident that has, or may have, endangered safety
➢ In the event of incapacitation of the Commander the 1st. Officer /
Co-Pilot will assume command.
➢ Maintain familiarity with relevant air legislation, practices and
procedures together with provisions of the company Operations
Manual.
➢ Assist the Commander as requested, concerning operational and
administrative duties in relation to the flight.
➢ To carry out such duties, as are allocated to him/her by the
Commander, concerning the flight in accordance to the company
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). These may include
procedures, limitations and performance of the specific aircraft type.
➢ To volunteer such advice, information and assistance to the
Commander, as may contribute favorably towards the safe and
efficient conduct of the flight.
Flight Engineer
Where there is no Flight Engineer, these duties would be carried out
by the Commander or First Officer.
➢ Advise the Commander of aircraft serviceability and any acceptable
deferred defects.
➢ Carry out external, internal engineering checks and complete all
necessary documentation.
➢ Complete all checklists in the manner specified in the Operations
Manual.
➢ Maintain fuel and instrument logs and any other records required.
➢ Operate power plants and systems ensuring limitations are not
exceeded and advise the Commander of any malfunction.
➢ Assist in monitoring all flight indications, especially attitude,
altitude/height, speed and heading together with all warning lights
and flags.
➢ Assist in monitoring the navigational displays.
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CREW
➢ To assist the Commander in the safe and efficient conduct of the
flight and to report to the Commander any incident that has
endangered or may endanger safety.
➢ Shall carry out any lawful instructions of the Commander and to
assist him/her concerning operational and administrative duties in
relation to the flight.
➢ To support the Commander in the maintenance of a proper standard
of crew discipline, conduct and personal appearance.
➢ Maintain familiarity with relevant air legislation, practices and
procedures together with provisions of the company Operations
Manual as are necessary to fulfill his/her function