THESIS

A Corpus Stylistic the Woman Representation in Jane Austen Pride

and Prejudice

SARIWULANDARI
F022202023

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES PROGRAM

FACULTY OF CULTURAL SCIENCES
HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY
MAKASSAR
2023

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 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the researcher presents background of the research,

statement of the research problem, research objective, the significance of

the study, scope and limitation of the research .

1.1 Background

Language as a vehicle of thought espouses and expresses the psyche

and the sociocultural milieu in which it is spoken or written. With the

advancement in computer technology, some samples of such real-life

language across cultures have been converted into recorded resources

called corpora that can be effectively used for various types of language

analysis.

Corpus linguistics is a research approach that facilitates empirical

descriptions of language use. Corpus linguistic research is based on

analysis of a ‘corpus’: a large and principled collection of texts stored on

computer. A corpus is a sample, de- signed to represent a textual domain in

a language, such as everyday conversation in English, newspaper editorials,

personal email messages, or the novels. Just like any sample, a corpus can

be evaluated for the extent to which it represents a ‘population’ — in this

case, the target textual domain (Bieber,1993). Corpus linguistics focuses on

the study of large collections of computerized texts of a specific language

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(written and spoken) and the texts are often carefully sampled to be

representative of that language (Baker, 2010).

Corpus is defined as “a collection of naturally occurring language texts,

chosen to characterize a state or variety of a language” (Sinclair, 1991).

Corpus linguistics methodologies are becoming more popular to analyze

literary texts by building small or large corpora to assist the interpretation of

a literary work, to provide a more systematic description of the salient

features of a work, or to investigate the psychological processes involved in

comprehending a text. A corpus is the collection of both written and spoken

texts that can be used to represent the language variety, consider the

number of its connotations, machine-readable form, sampling and

representativeness, finite size, and the idea (Lüdeling & Merja, 2009). The

term for corpus linguistics refers to the study of language data on a large

scale that employs computer to analyze extensive of transcribed utterances

or written texts in the study of language; procedures and methods for

studying language (McEnery & Hardie, 2011).

A corpus study would often comprise of both qualitative and quantitative

methods: “Association patterns represent quantitative relations, measuring

the extent to which features and variants are associated with contextual

factors. However, functional (qualitative) interpretation is also an essential

step in any corpus-based analysis” (Bieber et al.,1988). Corpus Linguistic

(CL) analysis validates subjective critical analysis since quantitative

analysis guides qualitative analysis (McIntyre and Walker, 2010). Corpus

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studies in literature do not aim at consuming conventional literary theories;

vice versa, they validate literary theories by supporting those using empirical

data. Moreover, using CL methodologies does not claim that corpus

techniques can ever replace manual analysis. On the contrary, it

complements the manual analysis by covering additional aspects of a text

and adding further techniques to the stylistic’ toolkit, with the help of which,

analyzing the style associated with individual authors and works becomes

less complicated (Mahlberg and McIntyre, 2011).

Investigating literary works using the corpus method has often fallen

within the `Corpus Stylistics' category. Corpus Stylistics is the blend of

analytical practices and methods. Corpus Stylistics employ a few corpus

techniques, including using computerized literary works and implementing

statistical strategies for analysis (Wynne,2005). Corpus-based investigation

assists in construing the reader's insights about literary works (Biber, 2011).

Furthermore, the objectivity and reliability of the results are achieved by

using corpus tools in research (Biber et al, 2011). In this sense, corpus

stylistics may be seen as an approach that unites language and literature

through novel descriptive techniques that adhere to linguistics apparatuses

while explaining specific textual aspects and connecting them to literary

interpretation (Mahlberg, 2007).

Corpus provides actual language use that can be employed as a device

in conducting research, one of them can be applied in the study of literature

(Bieber,2011). It is a common practice that many researchers tend to rely

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on their intuition when it comes to criticizing the characters in literary works.

The presence of corpus would be beneficial in assisting the researcher in

the study of literary works especially the aspect cannot be accomplished

intuitively.

Previous study Mahlberg (2007) has revealed the use of corpus device

to analyze a novel “ Clusters, key clusters and local textual functions in

Dicken’s. The literary works that selected are Charles Dicken’s novels. The

results show that clusters interpretation can be the indication of local textual

functions. There are benefits in using corpus device in literary stylistic and

criticism (Mahlberg, 2007). Fischer-Stracke (2009) has suggested using

corpus stylistics as a potential device that can be employed in conducting

literature research.

The researcher chose Jane Austen with her Novel “Pride and Prejudice.

Jane Austen is the most renowned novelist In English literature, her works

have been widely discussed in the study of literature. Austen creates her

works as the reflection of the social phenomena or conditions at the time.

The literature as cultural and historical phenomena and to investigate the

conditions of their production and reception (Klarer, 2014). Novel is one of

media which is described the conditions of a society, because a novel

explains the story more detailed than a short story or poet.

Jane Austen's novels portray the role of women in English society

during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. She is the most important

female writer in the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain. During this time,

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women were expected to fulfill specific roles in society, primarily as wives

and mothers. Jane Austen’s novels have become the famous novel in two

hundred years and she is one of the novel writers with the theme of

feminism, she wrote many stories that made women the main actors with

high courage and opposed the behaviour towards women at that time.

She has written six novels during her whole life, most of which are based

on her own life and love experiences. In those novels, she has created many

vivid female characters who have attracted millions of readers through

centuries. Those female characters’ unique life experiences actually reflect

women’s status both in marriage and in society in Austen’s time. She is an

independent female writer who can bravely break the bonds of patriarchal

authority. It can be considered as a great progress for women in Britain at

that time. One of her greatest works being Pride and Prejudice. Within the

novel, she uses many stylistic devices such as irony, incongruities, pacing,

connotation, ambiguity, and point of view or perspective.

Jane Austen wrote Pride and Prejudice and was able to portray themes

as serious and gender roles and love, while including ironic comments and

comedy throughout the novel making it truly an amazing work. Holmes

(2001:305) says that sexist is an attitude where the people giving valuation

or stereotype to a person based on the gender or sex rather than the

attitudes of the person itself. It means, sexist focuses on sex to judge

person, even the person has a good speech or good attitude they will get

the negative stereotype because of the sex. Sexist language encodes

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stereotyped attitudes to women and man. Both theories will be conducted a

new knowledge, that is language can discriminate one sex. In fact, in Pride

and Prejudice the word, which is reflected sexism found easily, it means

there are sex discrimination act found in the story line. This study will be

focused on analyzing the gender representation and how the woman is

portrayed in 18th century in Pride and Prejudice novel by Jane Austen.

1.2 Research Questions

As the research background have been explained clearly and

concisely, this research is guided by following research questions:

a. What is the gender representation in the literary works Pride and

Prejudice by Jane Austen corpus based study ?

b. How the woman in the 18th century is portrayed by Jane Austen

through literary works “ Pride and Prejudice” corpus based study?

1.3 Research Objectives

In line with research questions above, this research sets research

objectives as follow:

1. It aims to reveal the gender representation in the novel “Pride and

Prejudice” by Jane Austen corpus-based study.

2. It aims to investigating how the woman in the 18th century portrayed

by Jane Austen through the novel “Pride and Prejudice” corpus-

based study.

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1.4 Scope of Research

The focus of this study is the analysis of adjectives, verbs, and noun

that have been used with both male and female characters in the novel

to examine the gender representation in the novel “Pride and Prejudice”

by Jane Austen. And classify three main categories in part of speech

namely adjective, noun and verb that attach to the collocation of woman

to describe how woman portrayed in the 18th century.

1.5 Significance of Research

The researcher expects to pave new paths for upcoming researches

to understand new perspective of stylistic and portrayal of gender role

in Jane Austen “Pride and Prejudice and contributes to literary field

especially stylistic and the usage of corpus device.

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Previous Related Studies

The principles of corpus linguistics have been around for almost a

century. Lexicographers, or dictionary makers, have been collecting

examples of language in use to help accurately define words since at

least the late 19 century. Before computers, these examples of

language were essentially collected on small slips of paper and

organized in pigeonholes. The advent of computers led to the creation

of what we consider to be modern-day corpora. The first computer-

based corpus, the Brown corpus, was created in 1961 and comprised

about 1 million words. Today, generalized corpora are hundreds of

millions of words in size, and corpus linguistics is making outstanding

contributions to the fields of second language research and teaching.

The Corpus-based methodology has markedly altered the stylistic

study. Additionally, it has further improved research reliability (Bibber

& Douglas, 2005). A corpus-based analysis is an essential empirical

method for examining diverse language patterns in literary works

(Biber,2011). Corpus stylistics analysis is a purely objective statistical

method that, at its best, is directed by a somewhat subjective process

of comprehension (Crystal, 1972). It applies the corpus linguistics tools

for the analysis of texts and mixes it with the percepts of stylistics.

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Corpus stylistic research is typically seen as a relatively recent

innovation: a continuation of previous linguistic corpus-based studies

which concentrated on more conventional issues of lexical and

syntactic variation in use (Biber,2005). Using corpus-based

methodologies in literature enables a more significant, wide, and in-

depth analysis of the fundamental ideas incorporated into various

linguistic forms while also contributing to the study of literary texts'

stylistic elements.

Mahlberg (2010) has analyzed “the keywords in Jane Austen’s

Pride and Prejudice” by comparing the novel with 18 others novelists

from the 19th century. The keywords are obtained by employing

corpus Wordsmith device. One of the keywords found in Jane Austen’s

novel is the noun civility. Mahlberg (2010) further explains that there

are two options for analyzing the keywords. The first is by comparing

the keyword civility in Jane Austen’s novel with the other 18 novelists.

The second option is to link the analysis of civility on the body

language in Pride and Prejudice. Mahlberg’s (2010) research also

suggests the benefit of a corpus in literary criticism.

Next previous study Arslan, Mehmood, and Haroon (2022)

analyze four books produced by different writers and investigate how

language variation used to indicate gender discrepancies to convey

subjective and objective situations. The quantitative corpus analysis

showed that majority of the adjectives used to denote the feminine

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gender were mild and empathetic whereas the males were depicted

as dominating and governed by the usage of words that separate

masculine and feminine composition. With the use of corpus linguistics

tool Wmatrix and feminist theories of Sara Mills, the segregation of the

female characters in a corpus of one novel from Final Flight from

Sanaa was quantitatively analyzed (Saif Al-Nakeeb, 2018). The study

revealed that females were presented in the term of their physical

appeal and sexual orientation whereas males were introduced in terms

of their colors, physical strength, talent, persona and degree of power

(either physical or social). Trudgill (2001) accumulated the corpus of

Shakespeare's entire tragedies as well as the corpus of

Shakespeare's Macbeth for reference corpus. He employed both

methods (qualitative and quantitative) in his research. With the help of

a frequency list and concordance lines, he examined the portrayal of

men and women in these two corpora. Man was shown as a superior,

smart, and courageous character whereas woman was portrayed as a

helpless, foolish, and cowardly creature.

And in another study Fischer-Starcke (2009) has analysed “the

keywords and frequent phrases of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice”.

As a result, Fischer-Stacrke (2009) has found the patterns of dominant

keywords and the most frequent phrases such as mental concept and

emotions, expressions of uncertainty, expressions describing

communication, and negatively connoted words and their colligation

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with grammatical negations. Furthermore, the research shows the

family relationship that people in Jane Austen era often use their

daughters to raise the social status through marriage. It also discusses

how female characters of the novels are developed. The characters

live under strong patriarchy situation yet they still appear as strong and

independent women.

Online personal advertisements posted by Malaysian adults were

examined by Bakar (2013) using corpus to look at various language

manifestations of gender identities. He conducted a qualitative

analysis of the traits of identity categorization and manifestations of

attitude towards masculinity and femininity. His examination of

linguistic materials revealed that in Malaysian personal ads,

masculinities are portrayed through physically fit and sensitive new-

age males, whereas femininities are shown as sympathetic and

powerful. The studies mentioned above demonstrate that various

gender-based studies have already been undertaken in corpus

stylistics. The current research differs from the earlier research

because this novel has yet to be investigated using the theoretical

consideration of Dale Spender, and corpus has not been used as a

tool for stylistic analysis.

The current study attempts to fill the void by analyzing the

representation of male and female characters with adjectives, verbs

and nouns and by applying the framework of Australian writer and

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 researcher Dale Spender. The current study is also corpus-based

using AntConc Version 4.2.0

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Corpus linguistics is currently enlarging our understanding of

several phenomena in linguistics and literature. By way of

computerized data, large numbers of words are analyzed with

efficiency and accuracy, Corpus based methods have been adopted

both directly and indirectly in language teaching, data-driven learning

and in lexicography (Ridwan Wahid, 2011). Along with them, the use

of corpus linguistics has also been extended to literature. Literary

analysis, either quantitative or qualitative, can result in a very detailed

stylistic descriptions of literary texts that can either complement

conventional interpretations or enable insights not possible through

intuition alone (Adolph’s, Svenja, 2006).

2.2.1 Corpus-Base techniques to analyze literary works.

The analytic potential of certain corpus techniques might

sound great in gaining some insightful knowledge that can be used

in generating a sort of rigorous understanding of literary meanings

and the way language is organized in a literary text (Khalid Shakir

Hussein, 2015). Using corpora, huge quantities of literary language

is completely reachable and open to systematic analysis and detailed

description (Khalid Shakir Hussein, 2015). However, Intuition does

not work under the unprecedented huge amounts of corpora.

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2.2.1.1 Concordances

The term concordance is encountered by almost everyone who

works on any area in corpus linguistics. Concordance analysis is

probably the most known corpus analytic tool. There are a lot of

corpus linguists who tried to offer definitions to what a concordance

refers to. According to John Sinclair (1991).

A concordance is a collection of the occurrences of a word-form,

each in its own textual environment. In its simplest form it is an index.

Each word-form is indexed, and a reference is given to the place of

the occurrence in a text. Word-form or lemma is “a set of lexical forms

having the same stem and belonging to the same major word class,

differing only in inflection and/or spelling” (Francais and Kucera

,1982) and can be looked for independently.

There are various concordance programs that are also referred

to as KWIC (Key Words in Context) (Scott, 2010), because they all

referred to a list of all the occurrences of a word-form in a particular

corpus, along with its context in which it usually occurs to the left and

right of a search word. Table (1) below shows a concordance in

KWIC format. In this example the search word woman in the novel

Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen.

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 Concordance programs are highly effective corpus analysis

tools that enables researchers and scientists to bring the examples

of a particular word or character present in the original context.

2.2.1.2 Frequency list

Word frequency analysis is a technique that requires analysts to

examine how frequent or infrequent a particular word (or a phrase)

Appears in a corpus (text)(O’keefe,2007). In a word frequency

analysis, they will give data about the number of times each word is

used in the content.

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2.2.1.3 Collocate Lists

Collocates constitute the words that surround a particular

search word (Scott,2010). The phenomenon of Collocation, as

described by Firth (1957:14), considers the very fact certain words

tend to occur in combination with each other within certain linguistic

contexts. Therefore, a collocate is most definitely a word that exists

in the surrounding environment of another word (Baker, 2006:37).

Collocate lists are closely related to concordances. The latter

produces the actual occurrence of a search word accompanied with

its textual environment, so what is displayed is the search word within

its whatever context (Khalid Shakir Hussain, 2015). The emphasis on

the collocate list, however, is not the search word but the company-

words as distributed around (Scott, 2010: 121-22). For instance, the

software AntConc provides researchers with an independent window

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within which collocating occurrences and their frequencies can be set

in columns and rows.

The use of corpus-based techniques in literary analysis has

several benefits. Such techniques prove us to not fully satisfied with

the intuitive critical interpretations of a literary text. By virtue of such

techniques, the linguists are provided with neutral and impartial

insights into the literary texts under investigation. Moreover, because

of the user-friendly corpus software, it is much easier to bring out

some invisible meanings that could be missed or unrecognized.

These three techniques tackled above have their own role in

investigating hidden meanings of literary works, Linguists can bring

some examples of a particular word or phrase using concordance

programs, check the frequency of a word-by-word frequency analysis

tool, and finally search a word that occur in combination with other

words within certain linguistic contexts.

Currently, to conduct the research, the researcher use some

theories related to adjectives, nouns, and verbs classification that

attach to the collocation of woman. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives are

parts of speech, or the building blocks for writing complete

sentences. Nouns are people, places, or things. Verbs are action

words. Adjectives are descriptive words. Based on its definition, the

noun is a word that refers to a person, (such as Ann or doctor), a

place (such as Paris or city) or a thing, a quality, or an activity (such

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as plant, sorrow or tennis) (Oxford Learners’ Dictionaries, 2017).

While verb is a word or group of words that expresses an action (such

as eat), an event (such as happen) or a state (such as exist) (Oxford

Learners’ Dictionaries, 2017). In addition, adjective is a word that

describes a person or thing, for example big, red and clever in a big

house, red wine and a clever idea (Oxford Learners’ Dictionaries,

2017). Classification adjectives, nouns, and verbs are:

a. Adjectives

Adjectives can be categorized based on three semantic types of

large adjective classes that are proposed by Dixon (2009). The

adjective classes are described as;

a. Core semantic types, they are;

Dimension (big, small, long, etc).

Age (new, young, old, etc.),.

Value (good, bad, lovely, etc.).

Color (black, white, red, etc.).

b. Peripheral semantic types, they are;

Physical property (hard, soft, heavy, etc.)

Human propensity (jealous, happy, kind),

Speed classes (fast, quick, slow, etc.).

c. Semantic types in large adjective classes, they are;

Difficulty (easy, difficult, tough, etc.).

Similarity (like, unlike, similar, etc.).

Qualification (define, true, probable, etc).

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 Quantification (all, whole, many, some, etc.).

Position (high, low, near, etc.).

Cardinal numbers (first, last together with other ordinal

numbers).

b. Nouns

Theory to classify functional characteristics of a noun has

been employed by Delahunty and Garvey’s (2010). The noun is

divided into a modifier of other nouns and the head of a noun

phrase. Some functions traditionally associated with nouns

(e.g., subject, direct and indirect object of clauses, an object of

a preposition, subject and object complement) are the functions

of noun phrases. They propose two classes of nouns.

(a) Concrete nouns name classes of physical things, e.g., floor,

car, paper, etc.

(b) Abstract nouns refer to words that are not physical or things

that existed only in minds, e.g., goodness, truth, reason,

etc.

c. Verbs

The theory Haspelmath and Sims (2010), who characterized

the Verbs have affixes indicating tense (present, past, future),

aspect (imperfective, perfective, progressive), mood (indicative,

imperative, optative, subjective, etc.), polarity (affirmative,

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 negative), valence-changing operations (passive causative), and

the person/number of subject and object(s).

2.2.2 Corpus Analysis of Gendered Language

The expression of gender in language is a topic that has received

much attention over the years, and corpus analysis has made

significant contributions to this field. By providing statistical analysis

of data, the corpus approach can “serve to corroborate the findings

of a more impressionistic approach, and to suggest new directions

for further interrogation of the texts themselves” (Thornbury, 2010).

An analysis of the adjectives and verbs that collocate with the

lemmas man/woman shows that there is a general tendency for men

to be represented as strong (stocky, climb, dig) while women are

represented as weak (vulnerable, abuse, oppress). Men tend to be

portrayed as subjects exercising forms of power, such as legal

execution, violence, and ownership. Women, on the other hand, tend

to be depicted as the objects of power, particularly related to sexual

violence, limitation, and categorization (Pearce, 2008). Gesuato

(2003) claimed that lemmas man and woman tend to occur in

complementary distribution; women are typically associated with

domains of physical attractiveness, civil rights, religion.

2.2.2.1 Theories of Language and Gender

Gender is referred variously across areas of social science. In a

specific social setting, the culture legalizes values, expectations,

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 meanings and patterns of behavior and communication of its

society.

Gender issue which is a social construction according to culture

and belief has been studied in language use since 1970s. When a

language is expressed, it is considered that men and women use

different expressions. There are some theories that have been

proposed related to this concern such as the Deficit Theory, the

Dominance Theory, the Radical Theory, the Difference Theory and

the Reformist Theory (Fatima Sadiqi,2003).

There are some theories that develop regarding language and

gender as stated in Sadiqi, those are:

a. The Dominance Theory

Dominance theory considered that men and women could

express language differently because there was an inequity of

power relations between men and women. Men dominated the

language because men had more power in politics and culture in

social life. Due to their power, men could have control over many

aspects, including language use O’Barr and Atkins (1980).

Nonetheless, some studies argued against this theory by

mentioning that the term of power in this theory is oversimplified.

They argued that in a communication process, the sex of

communicant is less crucial than experience and social status. It

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 means that women can express language better if they have higher

level status than men’s in society (Spender and hultz 1980).

b. The Deficit Theory

In this theory, it is believed that the language of women is not

good enough as the language of men. So, women are considered

to copy most of men’s language, while men play important role in

creating the language. As a result, women use the language by

imitating men’s language and by expressing the language that is

not as perfect as men. The work of De Beauvoir (1949) and Danish

grammarian Jespersen (1922) supported those ideas. Meanwhile,

Lakoff’s view is a little different. He argued that gender inequity that

happened when women expressed their language occurred

because they were marginalized in their social life (Lakoff 2004).

They were hoped to speak in certain ways according to their social

level which is lower than men’s. Consequently, the language

expression of women was not as efficient as men’s.

c. The Radical Theory

The views which considered humans view their world through

the language that they use and express. Therefore, the fact about

the world is built based on the language that is created by men.

Women were just the followers who merely imitate the language

that were created by men (Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis and

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 Orwell’s). As a result, women had lack of experiences and

perceptions because they had limited linguistic expression.

d. The difference Theory

According to The Difference theory, because boys and girls were

not socialized similarly, they had different sociolinguistic

subcultures which are called male subcultures and female

subcultures. In this theory, the place of women’s conversation was

tried to be taken back by feminist by arguing that the pattern of

women’s speech was different from men’s. Even women are

considered to have some superiority in some certain linguistic

domains. However this theory was criticized by arguing that it just

pay attention on women’s contributions to the language, but it

ignore the social reality that women and men are considered

unequal.

e. The Reformist Theory

In this theory, reformist feminists criticized sexist language that

is considered unreasonable and able to create bias when the reality

is represented. They also proposed reforming language by avoiding

the use of sexist words in language and neutralizing the sexist

words like chairperson instead of chairman, Ms instead of Missus

or Miss, men and women instead of men, humanity instead of

mankind and he or she instead of he. Although this theory is very

popular, some critics were addressed by arguing that the prejudice

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cannot be changed because there is no control toward people say

and mean.

Gender in language use which is one of discussions in

pragmatics consists of some terminologies that are used to

represent men and women directly in a language, those are

Grammatical Gender, Lexical Gender, Referential Gender and

Social Gender.

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 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The current research is considered mixed method research because

it uses both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The present

study though it is corpus based yet it is descriptive in nature. Descriptive

study is the one from where we obtain useful information (Gao, 2009).

The effective use of corpora is a unique approach to undertake

empirical language analysis for specific outcome. The current study has

utilized the plain text of the novel Pride and Prejudice as it's corpora.

The corpus comprises of 125.978 total word tokens. The software

AntConc version 4.2.0 is used for analyzing and interpreting data. In the

AntConc, the usage of Concordance lines and Word lists are chosen for

the data analysis: only those traits are employed that assisted in

providing answers to the relevant research questions. The concordance

lines display keywords in context (KWIC) findings by offering the context

of a word with the terms before and afterwards. This feature of KWIC

supplies a variety of words like adjectives and verbs to demonstrate the

depiction of male or female characters. The word list reflects the.

3.2 DATA SOURCES

The data is a collection of facts, such as values or measurements. It

can be numbers, words, measurements, observations or even just

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 description of things. The data of this research were from the utterances

by all female and male characters in Pride and Prejudice the

researchers classify them based on three selected theories. The theory

of semantic types of large adjective classes Dixon (2009) is used to

classify the adjectives. Delahunty and Garvey’s theory (2010) is used to

classify the nouns, and Haspelmath and Sims’s theory (2010) is used

to classify the verbs.

3.3 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE

Jane Austen’s literary works are selected. This research applied two

research approaches; the quantitative approach was used to describe

the frequency of words used in the novel and will analyse with Antconc

software with the total of 125.978 -word tokens of the novel Pride and

Prejudice by Jane Austen. A qualitative approach will use to explain the

representation of corpus-based findings and with a corpus-based

stylistic to determine how the perceives feminism and whether his

interpretations of feminism diverge from Spender's theoretical views.

Consequently, the researchers classify three main categories in part of

speech namely adjective, noun, and verb that attach to the collocation

of [woman] and the novel will split into three groups: use of adjectives,

use of verbs and verb to examine gender representation in the selected

novel.

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3.4 PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTING DATA

There are five steps in conducting this research:

(1) Pride and Prejudice novels in the form of pdf soft files selected

considering their popularity.

(2) The files are then converted into the .txt format.

(3) The text with txt files are processed into AntConc ver.4.2.0w by (1)

clicking file and input the novels in .txt format, (2) applying 4L to 4R

to the Windows Span, (3) choosing Sort by Frequency, (4) clicking

Advanced (checklist the option Use search term(s) from list below,

write the word ‘woman’ and its plural form ‘women’, henceforth

‘woman’ will be written in bracket [woman] and clicked apply), and

(5) clicking start. Fourthly, the researchers select the highest

adjectives, nouns, and verbs that collocated with [woman]. The

last step, the researchers click each word of adjectives, verbs, and

nouns of [woman] to obtain the context or detail information. The

researchers exclude the adjectives, verbs, and nouns that do not

suit with the aim of the research.

3.5 PROCEDURES OF ANALYZING DATA

To conduct the research, the researchers use some theories

related to adjectives, nouns, and verbs classification. Based on its

definition, the noun is a word that refers to a person, (such as Ann or

doctor), a place (such as Paris or city) or a thing, a quality or an activity

(such as plant, sorrow or tennis) (Oxford Learners’ Dictionaries, 2017).

27
While verb is a word or group of words that expresses an action (such

as eat), an event (such as happen) or a state (such as exist) (Oxford

Learners’ Dictionaries, 2017). In addition, adjective is a word that

describes a person or thing, for example big, red and clever in a big

house, red wine and a clever idea (Oxford Learners’ Dictionaries,

2017).

Adjectives can be categorized based on three semantic types of

large adjective classes that are proposed by Dixon (2009). The

adjective classes are described as; (1) Core semantic types, they are;

dimension (big, small, long, etc), age (new, young, old, etc.), value

(good, bad, lovely, etc.), and color (black, white, red, etc.). (2)

Peripheral semantic types, they are; physical property (hard, soft,

heavy, etc.), human propensity (jealous, happy, kind), speed (fast,

quick, slow, etc.). (3) Semantic types in large adjective classes, they

are; difficulty (easy, difficult, tough, etc.), similarity (like, unlike, similar,

etc.), qualification (define, true, probable, etc), quantification (all,

whole, many, some, etc.), position (high, low, near, etc.), cardinal

numbers (first, last together with other ordinal numbers). The

researchers employ Delahunty and Garvey’s (2010) theory to classify

functional characteristics of a noun. The noun is divided into a modifier

of other nouns and the head of a noun phrase. Some functions

traditionally associated with nouns (e.g., subject, direct and indirect

object of clauses, an object of a preposition, subject and object

28
complement) are the functions of noun phrases. They propose two

classes of nouns; (1) concrete nouns name classes of physical things,

e.g., floor, car, paper, etc. (2) Abstract nouns refer to words that are

not physical or things that existed only in minds, e.g., goodness, truth,

reason, etc.

Additionally, the researchers also employ the theory from

Haspelmath and Sims (2010), who divide three characterizations of

each adjective, noun, and verb as; (1) in many languages, nouns have

affixes indicating number (singular, plural, dual, etc.), case

(nominative, accusative/ direct object, ergative/subject, dative/indirect

object such as we, them, or dinner), possessor person/number (such

as my, your, his, etc.), and definiteness. (2) Verbs have affixes

indicating tense (present, past, future), aspect (imperfective,

perfective, progressive), mood (indicative, imperative, optative,

subjective, etc.), polarity (affirmative, negative), valence-changing

operations (passive causative), and the person/number of subject and

object(s). (3) In a fair number of languages, adjectives have affixes

indicating comparison (comparative degree, superlative degree,

equative degree), and in a few languages, adjectives are inflected for

agreement with the noun that is modified.

29
Framework of corpus-linguistic techniques in the process of theorizing

A corpus analysis examine the word frequency of word forms and

lemmas, to demonstrate their relevance in the specific corpora (Bednarek &

Caple, 2014). A lemma describes a word family or a set of words that have

the same meaning (Baker et al., 2008). In corpus linguistics, common

analytical techniques are dispersion, frequency, clusters, keywords,

concordance, and collocation. This part discusses how these techniques

can contribute to uncovering discourse practices.

30
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