OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

CHE 240

INTRODUCTION

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Occupational health: is the act maintenance and promotion of the highest degree of physical,
mental and social wellbeing of workers in all occupation.
It is the study and recognition of factors inherent or associated with the work process or
working environment that exercise or may exercise harmful effects on health and the utilization
of the study to provide necessary facilities or modify the work method or working environment
to promote the health, safety and wellbeing of workers in all occupation.
Occupational health bothers on health, safety and welfare of workers. It stresses the effects of
working environment on the general wellbeing of workers and the influence of the workers
state of health on their ability to perform the task before them. It is an important means of
achieving higher productivity.
According to W.H.O / I L O joint committee (1950) aims and objectives of occupational health
are as follow:
1. Maintenance and promotion of the highest degree of physical, mental and social
wellbeing of workers in all occupation,
2. The prevention among workers of departure of health caused by their working
conditions;
3. The protections of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors
adverse to health:
4. The maintenance and placing of workers in occupational environment adapted to his
physiological and psychological equipment , and
5. The adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job.
COMPONENTS OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
According to W A H E B, the specific components of occupational health are
1. Occupational medicine
2. Industrial hygiene and safety services
3. Industrial welfare services
4. Ergonomic
5. Occupational psychology
6. Occupational physiology
1.0 OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE:

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This is the branch of preventive medicine with some dose of therapeutic functions carried out
by occupational health physician and his team towards ensuring a total health every worker
Occupational specialists work to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work
can be achieved and maintained.
Occupational medicine centres on preventive medicine and management of illness,
injury or disability related to workplaces.’
In order to carry this out, occupational health Personnel must have the knowledge of the work
environment the products and by- products of processes: must be able to determine which
level of any agent is capable of damaging the health of the exposed workers.
He must be able to determine the susceptibility of workers exposed to certain occupational
hazards.
BRANCHES OF OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE ARE:
1) MEDICAL EXAMINATION
A. PRE-EMPLOYMENT MEDICAL EXAMINATION:
This is the type of examination carried out on the proposed worker who wishes to work in a
particular job. The aim of conducting this test is to determine whether the proposed
employee’s health will allow him fill the position in question. It is usually carried out by
occupational health service of the establishment or affiliated health institution.
Pre-medical test is part selection process. It can be useful component of the selection process
for jobs that require certain physical or mental attributes.
Where it is necessary to list for specific attributes, it is best to only take people who meet all the
requirements. Pre- employment examination relates exclusively to the particular duties of the
job and does not discriminate against people with disabilities
B. PRE-PLACEMENT EXAMINATION:
This is also called POST- OFFER MEDICAL EXAMINATION. It is a medical examination conducted
after an employee has been extended a job offer but has been placed in a position.
PRE-PLACEMENTEXAMINATION: include family history, occupational and social history, physical
examination, biological and radiological examination, vision test, urine and blood examination
PRE-PLACEMENTEXAMINATION may take place prior to placement of a proposed worker in a
new job or following the challenging health problem faced by the worker in a particular job,

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hence the need to change the job in the same establishment placement examination will
enable the management to know where the worker in question can function even with his
challenges.
C. PERIODIC MEDICAL EXAMINATION
This is the type of examination carried out on workers from time to time to determine their
health while on job and to detect some deviation from health caused by their working
conditions and other factor adverse to health.
Physician in industry carry out medical examination regularly in the hope of detecting evidence
of incipient damage. It might be every three month, 6month or yearly, depending on the nature
of work and the working environment (including raw materials and tools used).
Periodic medical examination is carried out on every worker including those with no medical
problems. The aim apart from detection of incipient disease is to evaluate the adjust must of
the individual to his environment.
Through periodic examination, those conditions hidden during pre-employment and pre-
placement examination will be clearly seen and dealt with accordingly before the health of the
workers becomes damaged. May occupational diseases require months or years for
development and also slow progression; therefore they may not be recognized early, hence
harmful to workers, thus the need for periodic medical examination.
2) CURATIVE MEDICINE (TREATMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL AND NON OCCUPATIONAL
AILMENTS)
Occupation Health aims at a total Health of workers. Therefore, the aim of medical examination
is to detect some deviations so as to attain to before it becomes worst.
Curative medicine deals with the therapeutic function of the occupational physician by treating
workers who have one ailment or the other.
Whether, the ailment has a link with occupation or not, failure to treat leads to low productivity
of the worker in work place.
Occupational diseases are those ones having direct link with the occupation while non-
occupational diseases may not have direct link but determine the worker’s productivity,
therefore, both occupational & non occupational ailments should be treated alike.
Curative medicine is oriented towards seeking a cure to workers health problems which is

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different from preventive medicine aimed at preventing the occurrence.
Occupational diseases arise from exposure to factors in a work environment such as physical,
chemical, biological, psychological, ergonomics factors e.g. exposure to lead leads to poisoning,
presence of silica causes silicosis.
Occupational Health Physician does not only treat the patient who has occupational diseases
but also improve the work place condition in order to reduce the number of workers coming
with the same or similar diseases.
Occupational physician are also involved in impairment assessment and return to work. It is the
duty of OHP to notify occupational diseases to the relevant authorities.
3) PREVENTIVE HEALTH SERVICES:
Preventive Health service aims at preventing the occurrence of occupational and related
ailments and conditions.
Preventive Health approach include organization of seminar/workshop to workers, provision
and enforcement of the use of protective devices whole at work, provision of chemoprophylaxis
medicine to workers and regular medical examinations on workers as well as good nutrition to
promote the Health of workers.
4) FAMILY HEALTH SERVICE:
Medical care should not only be given to the workers but an extension should be made to cover
their families especially the immediate family. This is because even when the worker is fit and
sound, he/she cannot still perform well if his /her family member is sick or has any problem /
challenge health wise.
The aim of family health service is a total health for workers and their family for effective
productivity.
5) REHABILITIVE HEALTH SERVICE:
Rehabilitation is the process of restoring a disabled person to a condition in which he is able to
resume normal life early as possible. This involves integrated approach such as medical
treatment, vocational training and resettlement in an employment as well as helping the person
to adjust socially and emotionally to his/her present state.
An occupational disabled person is the one who on an account of occupational injury or disease
is substantially handicapped in obtaining or keeping employment or in undertaking of job on his

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own account of a kind which apart from his injury, disease or deformity would be suited to his
age, experience and qualification.
The practice of rehabilitation originates from the belief that the treatment acute illness is not
complete until the patient is retrained to live and work with what he/she has. O.H. staff
undertaking rehabilitation includes occupational psychologists, medical officers, and
physiotherapists.
Occupational rehabilitative service include apart from physical/medical rehabilitation such as
the provision of wheel chair to a person whose movement is impaired, include economic
rehabilitation through compensation/monetary rehabilitation etc.
2.0 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE:
According to British occupational Hygiene Society (BOHS), industrial hygiene is the science
concerned with the identification, measurement, appraisement of risk and control to
acceptable standard of physical, chemical and biological factors arising in or from work place,
which may affect the health or wellbeing of those at work in or the community.
It can also be defined as the art and science dedicated to the anticipation, recognition,
evaluation, communication and control of Environmental stressors in or arising from the work
place that may result in injury, illness, impairment or affect the wellbeing of workers and
members of the community. The stressors may be biological, chemical, physical, ergonomic and
psychosocial.
Occupational hygiene uses strict scientific methodology and often requires professional
experience in determining the potentials for hazard, exposure or risk in workplace.
Occupational Hygiene is an aspect of preventive medicine aimed at preventing industrial
disease, risk management and industrial safety.
In the same manner, American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) spelt the following as the
function of industrial Hygienists.
* Identification of Health hazards in workplace
* Interpretation of results obtained
* Recommendation for appropriate control measure
* Presentation of specific conclusion to the management, health officials.
* conduct programme to create awareness among workers

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* conduct epidemiological studies to ascertain the trend of occupational diseases.
* conduct research to enhance the knowledge and the relationship between Health and
work and the occupational impairment and community pollutants such as noise.
Industrial /occupational Hygiene is designed to reduce losses by making work place conducive
to workers to strive.
Industrial Hygienists attempt to achieve their goal in two ways:
1. Developing methods and standards for protecting the health of workers in their job
environment
2. Promoting the adoption of such methods and standards of industry, labour, official and
non-official agencies.
However, industrial /occupational Hygiene practice can be summarized below:
 EVALUATION OF ACTUAL POTENTIAL HAZARDS IN WORK ENVIRONMENT
The occupational hygienist may be involved in the assessment and control of physical, chemical,
biological or environmental hazards in the workplace which could cause injury or diseases.
Physical hazard may include noise, temperature, extreme, illumination extreme, ionizing or
non-ionizing radiation and ergonomics. Chemical hazards related to dangerous goods or
hazardous substances are frequently investigated by occupational hygienist. Chemical hazards
related to dangerous /hazards it substances are frequently investigated by O.H Hygienist.
Equipment must be used where necessary to measure the level of hazard such as sound level
meter for noise, thermometer for temperature, membrane filter method for determination of
dust and chemical absorbent tubes for chemical substances.
 WORK PLACE ASSESSMENT/SURVEY:
Occupational Hygienist do not rely most on the accuracy of the equipment or method used but
in knowing with certainty and precision the limit of the equipment or method being used and
the error or variance given by using that particular equipment or method.
Walk through survey is used to determine both the type and possible exposure from hazards.
The walk through method can be targeted or limited to particular hazards such as silica dust or
dust to focus attention on control of those hazards.

 SAMPLING OF RAW MATERIALS FOR TOXICITY:

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Every raw material has an impact on the user, thus before any raw material is used by workers,
industrial hygienists should do sampling using suitable devices to determine the level of toxicity
so as to determine the actual time a worker should be exposed to, and the type of preventive
clothing /equipment to be used:
 STORAGE OF RADIO ACTIVE AND INDUSTRIAL TOXIC SUBSTANCES:
Industrial hygiene also involves proper and safe storage of raw materials and other substances
including radioactive substances in such a way that the health of the workers is not in danger.
Radioactive products are stored according to storage information, depending on its chemical
form. It may be needed t be stored in a room temperature, refrigerated or frozen stock vials of
radioactive materials must be stored in a secure manner. A lock box, locked refrigerator/freezer
or locked lab must be used. All radioactive solutions must be well labelled as to isotope, activity
and date. Low level consists normally stored for up to 15 years in a second storage after careful
packaging before disposal as normal waste (either by chemical or sea).
 ENGINEERING CONTROLLING OF PLANT:
Industrial hygiene also aims at controlling of industrial plant so as not to pose risk to the health
of workers. This is done by proper enclosure of industrial plant to reduce the noise
(containment); substitution measure, proper channelling of the gaseous pollutants from the
industrial plants from the immediate surrounding; good designing of machine to reduce the risk
and separation of plant installation from where workers are working.
3.0 INDUSTRIAL WELFARE SERVICES:
These are services and provision aimed at boosting the morale of workers.
Welfare services include:
1. Provision of subsidized but standard canteen and cafeteria services
2. Provision of educational facilities, aids and assistance to the children of the workers
such as scholarship, books etc.
3. Provision of life and Health insurance scheme
4. Provision of shift duty allowances
5. Provision of recreational facilities such as sporting facilities.
6. Provision of free accommodation/housing as well as housing loan to enable workers
own houses of their own.

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7. Provision of transport facilities
8. Provision of hazard/risk allowance.
4.0 ERGONOMICS (HUMAN FACTOR ENGINEERING)
According to INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (ILO); Ergonomics is the application of
human biological science in conjunction with engineering sciences to achieve the optimum
mutual adjustment of man and his work, the benefit being measured in term of human
efficiency and wellbeing.
Ergonomics deals with designing equipment and tools in the most operable way with the
special consideration to space, the comfort and adaptation to the users. The main purpose is to
ensure correct man-machine relationships with emphasis on improved productivity, efficiency,
safety and acceptance of the system by the users.
The principal focus of ergonomics in any design is the user. Unsafe, unhealthy and
uncomfortable conditions at work can be avoided when taking into consideration during design
stages, the physical and psychological status and limitations of users.
5.0 OCCUPATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
This deals with the mental demands or the ability of an individual to perform his or her job. Job
analysis, vocational guidance, study of psychological factors and their relationship with
accidents and their causes are other aspects of the job of this discipline. It covers behavioural
modification, better individual and group occupational health and safety relationship and
elimination of threats to social and peaceful co-existence in places of work
6.0 OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY
This covers aspects of working conditions and health factors associated with environmental
changes created by working conditions
OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
This is the sum total of all conditions, circumstances, and influences that prevail at work place
which have direct or indirect bearing on the Health of workers.

TYPES OF INTERACTION IN OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

1. Man and physical, chemical and Biological Agents:

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(a) The physical Agents: Physical Agents include vibration, radiation, heat, light, noise,
space, accommodation etc. These factors have influence on workers’ health and
productively
(b) Chemical Agent: worker gets in contact with industrial chemicals, dust, fume and gases
which are detrimental to health. Some of these agents burn skin, cause respiratory
diseases and well as causing non communicable conditions such as cancer.
(c) Biological Agents: exposure to living things/ their products of work place may pose
threat to the health of the workers. These include bacteria, viruses, parasite especially
for health workers and those having direct access to animals.
MAN AND MACHINE INTERACTION
Man has an interaction with industrial machine as he tries to manipulate it for mass production
of industrial goods. The unguarded machine, protruding and moving parts, poor installation of
plant, lack of safely measure are causes of accident.
MAN AND MAN INTERACTION
This includes various associations occurring in work place among people (human relationship).
The level of relationship between the workers and those at management level determine the
work flow and workers health. E.g. leadership style, work stability/security, communication,
fears towards work, relationship with other workers.
OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS
Hazard is any condition or circumstance which predisposes man or itself causes accident,
injury or death. It is a condition with a potential of causing injury or damage. A hazard is not
synonymous with accident or risk. An accident can only occur as a result of exposure to
hazardous condition.
Accident on it part is an undesired event and a consequence of exposure to hazard, which
result in injury to a person, damage to property.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HAZARD AND ACCIDENT

HAZARD

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 ACCIDENT DISEASE

Source: OLUWAGBEMI (2010)

The above figure represents a condition where an unprotected workers in a chesty workplace
with unguarded machinery. This condition with the potential of cooling harm is hazard.
Exposure to hazard may cause an accident resulting in injury as illustrated with arrow A; if the
injury is left untreated, it may be contaminated an infected, and possibility of the unprotected
worker suffering from tetanus is very high especially if he had not been earlier immunized of
tetanus. This is represented by Arrow B. The Arrow C illustrates the relationship between
disease and accident. An unprotected worker suffering from a disease such as epilepsy has a
crisis when operating a machine and there by knocking his head against the machine resulting
in head injury.
Arrow B and C explain the relationship between accident and disease and vice visa.
Arrow C suggests a condition where a worker with a disease in a working environment with
poor ventilation. This has the potential of causing harm (hazards) s co-workers are at risk of
contracting the disease.
On the other hand, arrow E, illustrates a condition in which a worker suffers a respiratory
disorder resulting from exposure to dust over a reasonable length of time. Arrows draw Explain
the relationship between hazard and disease and vice versa.

TYPES OF OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS

1) PHYSICAL HAZARDS:
These include noise vibration, heat, cold, ionizing radiation, ultraviolet radiation, light they may
cause damages ranging from white finger from vibration, genetic changes and cancer from
ionizing radiation, deafness from noise, eye strain, headache, eye pain from poor illumination
visual fatigue/ annoyance form excessive brightness, welder’s flash (keratitis) from ultraviolet
radiation, cut from tools, accident form falling objects, fire from electrical installation, etc.
Some of the hazards here can be perceived before damages caused.
(2). CHEMICAL HAZARDS

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Some of the chemical agents constituting hazards are in form of vapour, gases, fumes, dust and
solid as well as liquids. There are three main routes of entry of chemical hazards into the body
before they can exert their toxic effects. These are inhalation, ingestion, absorption (local
action).
Major industrial poisons include lead and other heavy metals, carbon monoxide, pesticides and
certain other miscellaneous coal tar derivatives. Dust, gases, vapour, fume are the most
dangerous and difficult control.
(3). BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:
These are hazards arising from living agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, toxin associated
with plants and animals. The route of entry include inhalation, ingestion, contact, penetration
through skin, mucosa.
Health workers working with patients and culture are at risk of HIV, TB, Cholera, hepatitis B.
Fungal infection are common among Agricultural workers e.g. farmers lung resulting from
inhalation of contaminated grains dust.
Workers in sewage firm are exposed to endemic bacteria. Also exposure to animals (butchers
and herds men) results in leptospirosis, Brucellosis, anthrax, hydatidosis etc.
(4). PSYCHOSOCIAL HAZARDS
These result as a result of man-made factors in work environment. This include frustration, lack
of job satisfaction, poor human relationship, insecurity, emotional tension, high job demand,
low control of job, repetitive task, interpersonal conflicts, role ambiguity, low self-esteem,
under-utilization of skill, discrimination, absence of social support in workplace which result in
psychological, behavioural, physiological and somatic problem. They can be manifested in
headache, fatigue, dizziness, tension, anxiety, depression, drug use, hypertension, and ulcer.
(5). MECHANICAL HAZARDS:
Mechanical hazards result from the use of appliances and machines such as unguarded parts of
machine, pointed objects, unprotected electrical cables, sharp apparatus, modern power driven
tools vibrating a thousand of times are liable to produce stiffness of fingers. Hand cramps can
occur in writers, painters, typists due to repetitive movement of fingers.
OCCUPATIONAL DEAFNESS
Occupational deafness is hearing loss by excessive noise at the workplace. Noise of about 85dB

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 is the highest permissible noise level for industrial workers. Occupational deafness occurs
among workers in oil exploration activities, heavy industrial machinery, construction firms,
power plants and detonating or blasting jobs. Occupational deafness is the greatest health
problem from occupational noise. Others are annoyance, speech interference, increasing in
pulse rate and increase in sweating and physiological changes, e.g. high blood pressure. Its
control measure (5) include medical check-up, use of PPE, legislation etc.
Noise is often defined as unwanted sound but it can better be define as wrong sound, in the
man`s sound may be another man`s noise. Properties of noise are of two
i. Loudness or intensity
ii. Frequency.
INTENSITY (LOUDNESS)
Loudness depends on the aptitudes of the vibrations which initiate the noise. The loudness of
noise is measured in decibel (db).
Community noise level is given below
___160 Mechanical damage
___ 150
___ 140 Threshold of pain
___ 130
___ 120 Motor car horn
___110 Train passing station
___100
___85 (Recommended max. 85 (dB)
___80 printing press
___70 Heavy street traffic
___60 Normal conversation
___50
___40 Quiet library
___30
___20 Whispering
___10

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Research has shown that human ears respond in a non-uniform way to different sound pressure
level i.e. respond not the real loudness of sound, to the perceived intensity.
A weighing curve, called A has been constructed which tasks into account the subjective effects
of that sound pressure level an therefore expressed in dB (A), that is in decibels conforming to
the weighing curve A because this reflects the perception of that sound emission by the normal
human ear.
Acceptable noise levels are given in the table below.

Source Acceptable Level (dB)

Residential (1) Bedroom 25
(2) Living room 40

Commercial (1) Office 35-45

(2) Conference 40-45
(3) Restaurants 40 - 45

Industrial (1) Workshop 40 - 60

(2) Laboratory 40 - 50

Hospital (1) Ward 20 – 30

FREQUENCY
Frequency is donates as Herts (H2). One H2 is equal to one wave pre-second. Human ears can
hear frequencies from about 20- 20,000 H 2 but this range is reduced with age and other
subjective factors.
Noise may be measured using sound Level Meter. This instrument has a microphone and
electronic circuits and weighing network. These networks are classified as A, B and C. the sound
level is lower than other networks (B and C). Readings are obtained in “A” weighted scale and
represented as dB (A). The advantages of these networks is that senility can be varied alternate
certain frequencies and intensity of sound in similar to that received by human ear.
Graphic records are used to plot sound levels with reference to time. It is possible to detect

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peak values, which cause hearing damages. Nose dosimeters are used to monitor the exposure
of workers in factories.
Other instruments are:
Audiometer, octane band frequency analyser
EFFECTS OF NOISE
1. Auditory effects which include
(a) Auditory fatigue
(b) Deafness which may be temporary or permanent depending on the level of exposure.
2. Non-auditory effects which include
a) Interference with speech
b) Annoyance
c) Efficiency where mental concentration is to be undertaken, a low level of noise is always
desired. Reduction in noise has been found to increase work output.
d) Physiological changes. A number of temporary physiological changes occur in the human
body as a result of noise exposure. These arise in blood pressure; arise in intracranial pressure,
an increase in heart rate and breathing and an increase in sweating.
CONTROL OF NOISE
1. (a) Careful planning of cities i.e. decision of city into zone with separation of areas
(b) The separation 0f residential areas from the main street.
(C) Widening of main streets to reduce the level of noise penetrating into dwelling.
2. Control of vehicles: - Heavy vehicles should not be routed into narrow streets.
Indiscriminate blowing of the horn and use of pressure horn should be prohibited.
3. Industrial and railways: - Control of noise at source is possible in industries. Special area
must be ear marked outside residential areas, for industries, for railways and similar
installations. If these demands cannot be met, protective green belts must be laid down
between the installation and residential areas.
4. Protection of exposed persons: - Hearing protection is recommended for all workers
who are consistently exposed to noise louder than 85 DB in the frequency bands above 150HZ.
Workers must be regularly rotated from noisy areas to comparatively quilt post factories.

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Periodic audiogram check-up and use of ear plugs, ear muffs are also essential as the situation
demands.
5. Legislation: - Many states have adopted legislation providing controls which are
applicable to a wide variety of sources. Workers have the rights to claim compensation if they
have suffered a lot of ability to understands speech.
6. Education: - No noise abatement programs can success without people`s participation.
Therefore, their education through all available media is needed to highlight the importance of
noise as a community hazard.
RADIATION
Radiation is the emancipation of energy in form of electromagnetic waves, inducing
gamma rays, X rays, infrared and ultraviolet rays and visible light rays. It may damage living
tissues (Weller 2000).
According to WAHEB (1991), radiation is the energy which is transmitted, or absorbed in form
of particles or waves.
Effects include cancer are genetics damage
TYPES OF RADIATION
1. Electromagnetic radiations i.e. X-rays and gamma rays which is the greatest man-made
radiation exposed to by the general population at the present time.
2. Corpuscular radiations: - i.e. alpha particle (electrons) and protons.
3. Rad: - is the unit of absorbed dose. It is the amount of radioactive energy absorbed per
gram of tissue or any material. 1mrads-0.001 rad
4. Rem: - is the product of the absorbed dose and the modifying factors. The rem indicates
the degree of potential danger to health. The radiation to which the average citizen is exposed
is made up of potential danger to health. The radiation to which the average citizen is exposed
is made up almost of the fast moving, highly penetrating x-rays and gamma rays, where rem
and rad are equal.
5. Roentgen: - is the unit of exposure. It is the amount of absorbs in air at a given point i.e.
number of ions produced in 1ml of air.
Ionizing radiation is applied to radiation which has the ability to penetrate tissues and deposits
it energy within them.

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 EFFECTS OF RADIATION
Biological Effects: the biological effects of ionizing radiation may be divided into 2:-
1. Somatic effects: - A dose of 400-500 roentgens on the whole body is fatal in about 50
percentage to the whole body was found to effects the white blood corpuscles and to produce
mild lassitude and softening of the muscles. The delay effects take time to develop: the intent
period many very form a few weeks to years. It is now fairly established that delayed effects are
mainly of three kinds: Leukemia, Malignant tumours and shortening of life.
2. Genetic Effects:- while somatic effects are recognizable within the life span of the
irradiated person, genetic effects from injury to chromosome is associated with sterility. Point
mutation affects the genes. Immediate
i. Radiation Sickness

ii. Acute radiation syndrome

Delay

i. Carcinogenesis
ii. Leukemia Genetic
iii. Point mutations
iv. Chromosome mutations
MEASUREMENT
These following instruments can be used to measure radiation (1) Ionization chambers
(2) Geiger Muller tubes (3) Scintillation counter (4) Film Badges (5) Thermo luminescent dose
meter.
GEIGER MULLER COUNTER
This is an instrument used for detecting ionization radiation. It is used to detect the movement
of a single particle through a defined volume. It consists of a gas filled tube.
An electronic current pulse is produced when the gas is ionized by radiation and of a device to
register the pulse.
Gas filled counter collects the ionization produced by radiation as it passes through the gas and
amplify to produce an audible pulse or other signals.
It is used to determine radioactively by measuring member of particles emitted bay radioactive

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materials in a given time.
CONTROL
 Adequate control and surveillance of x-ray installation protection of workers,
improvement in techniques and improvements leading to close reduction.
 Proper use of lead shields and leach rubber aprons.
 Workers must wear a film badge or dosimeter which shows accumulated exposure to
radiation since last time the instrument was charge.
OFFENSIVE TRADE
Offensive trade are such that emanate offensive odour which are not expected to practice
within human environment and where it is practice should be done under a very good hygiene
condition, so as not to contribute nuisance to man`s health.
Examples of offensive trade are:
 Locust bean trade
 Tie and dye
 Palm oil trade
 Piggery
The requirements of offensive trade include:
1. Well ventilated either through natural or artificial
2. It must be sited at the outskirt of the community
3. There must be adequate supply of water
4. It must be well illuminated
5. There must be provision of adequate drainage system
6. There must be adequate provision for waste disposal
7. There must be provision for protective devices or equipment.
CONTROL OF OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD
Principles of occupational hazard control include:
1. Complete Elimination
a. By substitution: substitution is the process of replacing a substance, process, equipment
with a less hazardous or risky ones in an occupational environment. As the most effective
method, consideration should be given to weather it is necessary for hazardous substances

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 to be replaced with ones which will not have an adverse effects either on employers or
employees. In industries, noisy machines can be replaced by quieter ones, the use of fiber
to replace asbestos, radiation replaced by ultrasound, fossil fuel replaced by biogas etc.
b. By change of process: automation or mechanization of process prevents employees from
coming in contact with contaminants or machines and increases distance from it as far as
possible.
2. ENGINEERING CONTROL:
a. Containment at source e.g. sound muffling in cars
b. Total enclosure of the process to completely isolate the workers from hazard e.g.
transformer stations
c. Partial enclosure with exhaust ventilation situated at the site of emission of dust, vapour
and fumes can remove contaminates from the breathing zones of the exposed persons
d. Good general ventilation for removal of small quantities of low toxicity substances and
introduction of fresh air
e. Installation of local exhaust ventilation at the source of generation of air contaminants
3. ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL
a. Time limited/ regulated exposure: by reducing working time of exposure to hazardous
processes or substances and removal of employees from exposure once a stipulated
dose has been reached
b. Shifting work practice
c. Segregation of the process
4. THE USE OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE DEVICES:
PERSONAL: Protective devices are devices, equipment, and clothing worn by workers to
prevent direct exposure to hazards. They include hand gloves, facemask, ear muff, ear
plugs, overalls, coverall, helmet, safety boots, respirator,
Other methods of hazard control are:
1. HEALTH EDUCATION: creation of awareness in a working environment to both
employers and employees on what constitute hazards, their effects and ways of
controlling them.

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2. Good house-keeping and sanitation: include general cleanliness of workplace,
segregation of waste from source and adequate disposal, maintenance of washing and
catering facilities, provision of potable water and sanitary facilities, proper storage of
radioactive waste, adequate lighting and heat regulation, ventilation, dry method etc.
3. LEGISLATION: promulgation and enforcement of laws to protect workers in their
working environment
4. Environmental monitoring of health hazards
5. Introduction of suppression or wet method to reduce airborne dusts from operations
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES ARE DISEASES: which occur as a result of exposure to physical,
chemical, biological, mechanical, ergonomic factors in the working environment
CATERGORIES OF OCCUPATION DISEASES
According to WAHEB, the following are broad categories of occupational diseases.
 Occupational LUNG DISEASES
 Occupational Dermatitis
 Occupational cancer
 Occupational injuries/ accident
 Occupational Asphyxiation
OCCUPATIONAL LUNGS DISEASES
These are group of occupational lung diseases caused by inhalation of dust, fume, gases,
vapour.
DUST IS FORMED when earthly materials are reduced to small size by grinding, crushing, drilling
and blasting. The particles vary from 1 to 200 micro meters.
The main dust induced diseases are:
i. Pneumoconiosis
ii. Byssinosis
iii. Extrinsic allergic alveolitis
PNEUMOCONIOSIS
This is a group of diseases which result from the effect of inhalation of various mineral dusts on
lungs. Each of the diseases is characterized by chronic fibrotic change. They include

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1. SILICOSIS: this is a form of silicosis caused by inhalation of free silica dust. It is common
among grind stone cutters, quarry workers, pottery workers, workers in cement
factories, sand miners, stone crushers, glass making industries, bricklayers etc.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
May initially be symptomless, dyspnoea followed by total incapacitation.
2. ASBESTOSIS: this is an occupational disease caused by inhalation of fine asbestos dust. It
is common among workers of asbestos cement factories, asbestos heat insulation,
ceiling board, motor casket, locomotive break pad factory, and ship yards.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Progressive breathlessness, unproductive cough becoming mucous, weight loss, grey
cyanosis, decrease lung total capacity, finger clubbing
3. COAL WORKERS PNEUMOCONIOSIS: caused by inhalation of coal dust or in mixture with
silica. It is called ANTHRACOSIS when caused by coal dust but ANTHRASILICOSIS when
caused by mixture of coal dust with silica. Common among coal miners, foundry
workers, welders, boilers –scalers, hematite miners.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOM
Breathlessness, weight loss, heart failure, fever, coughs.
4. BARATOSIS: occur as a result of inhalation of barium peroxide during mining. It also
occur among ink, glass, insecticides manufacturers
5. STANNOSIS: occur as a result of inhalation of tin dust. Occupational exposure includes
handling of tin ore or during crushing and churching process. It also occurs during
exposure to tin fume in any process which involves molten metal.
6. SIDEROSIS
Caused by inhalation of iron dust, it is common among workers of iron and steel
industries, rolling mills, mining and crushing of iron ores, grinding and during welding,
traditional blacksmith.
7. BYSSINOSIS
This is a non-fibrotic occupational lung disease resulting from inhalation of cotton dusts.
It common among workers of textile factories Symptoms

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Occupational disease with tightness of the chest (obstructive airway, asthmatic type). In
progressive disease symptoms get more frequent, unproductive cough, dyspnoea.
ENTRINSIC ALLERGIC ALVEOLITIS
These are caused by inhalation of dust which produces alveolitis that result in the
reduction of gas transfer across the blood-lung barrier.
Typical examples are:
1. BAGASSOSIS: Caused by inhalation of dust from moulds, bagasses or sugar cane dust. It
is characterized by fever, dyspnea, acute fever, breathlessness, and hemoptysis.
Occupational exposure includes workers of sugar industries, manufacturers of
fiberboards, those who dispose sugar cane wastes.
2. FARMERS LUNGS. It is occupational lung disorder that occurs as a result of inhalation of
spore laden dust. It occurs among Agricultural workers exposed to dusts from mouldy
hay and straw. It may also occur among local mattress makers who use dry straw in their
trades. It is characterized by sudden onset of fever, dyspnoea productive cough,
malaise, breathlessness, dry cough and evening fever.
GENERAL PREVENTION AGAINST OCCUPATIONAL LUNGS DISEASES
1. Ventilation- dust should be controlled at source through installation of exhaust
ventilation
2. Wet method: application of water to suppress dust with the main objective of
preventing the dust from becoming airborne
3. Regular medical examination
4. The use of personal protective devices such as face mask, nose mask, respirator
5. Health education
6. Legislation
7. Substitution method
8. Limitation of exposure
9. Enclosure of dusty process
OCCUPATIONAL DERMATITS
This is an occupational skin disease characterized by local inflammation of the skin
resulting directly from or aggravated by the working environment. It occurs in workers of all

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ages and in any work setting. It is the commonest occupational disease (see table 8:1 below)
and responsible for enormous loss of working hours. It causes a great deal of illness, anxiety,
personal mystery and reduced productivity and efficiency. The frequency of occupational
contact dermatitis has been discovered to be directly proportional to the level of hygiene
practice among workers and in the workplace and generally the disease is preventable.
Skin diseases constitute 50% of all occupational diseases. Substances used in various
industries may affect workers resulting in skin problems or allergic reactions. There may be
irritation of skin. Poisoning may occur from toxic chemicals from soap manufacturing industries,
pharmaceuticals, chemical, textile, building and construction, hair dressing, dyes and drugs
operations.
CAUSES
The causes of contact dermatitis are chemical, physical, mechanical, and biological agents.
Chemical Factor
The chemical factors are divided into two main types. These are primary skin irritants and
secondary sensitizers.
The primary skin irritant is a substance that causes damage at the site of contact when there is
direct contact between the chemical and the skin. The irritants include strong acids, alkali,
aromatic amines, phosphorous, ethylene oxide and metallic salts that can produce observable
effects within a few minutes after being in contact with the skin. The weak ones in contrasts
require days before manifestation of clinical changes. In the letter category are soap,
detergents, solvents, and diesel and engine oil. As a result of the cumulative or insidious
characteristics of these chemicals they are responsible for major skin problems among workers.
SECONDARY SENSITIZERS are the causes of allergic contact dermatitis. Most sensitizers do
not produce a skin reaction on the first contact and the period of exposure before skin
reactions occur may last a life time or any few days. The actions of the allergens depend very
much on its ability to change some properties of the outer layer of the skin. Sensitizing
chemicals are delayed and cell medicated, usually do not have irritant effects after first
exposure
PHYSICAL FACTORS
Physical factors such as heat, cold, ultraviolet light from sunlight and ionization

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radiation are capable of damaging skin. High temperature causes perspiration and softening of
the outer layer of the skin, resulting in heat rash, common among workers working outdoors in
humid weather, bakeries and steel rolling mills. Burns can result from exposure to radiation
sources, molten metal’s and glass, electric shock. Exposure to low temperature can cause
frostbite among workers in cold rooms. Frequent handling of frozen food can permanently
damage blood vessels.
Prolong exposure to ultraviolet light can cause skin cancer.
MECHANICALFACTORS
Friction or pressure can produce some types of mechanical trauma. This may result in burn,
abrasion or more commonly callosities produced by repetitive type of hand motions, for
example vibration from a road digging machine. Other groups are carpenters, floor sweepers,
farm workers and cobblers.
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Biological agents can cause skin diseases. Bacteria, viruses, fungi attack the skin and sometimes
produce systemic diseases of occupational origin. Those who are at risk are animal breeders,
farm workers, bakers, carpenters, furniture makers, carpenters, laboratory workers, irritant
contact dermatitis can be caused when the body touches plant leaves, stems, barks, seeds. For
example, skin rashes occur when the body is in contact with guinea grass, iroko wood, seas of
devil beans. Eczema is a disease due to contact with cement common among construction
workers:
Features of Dermatitis
1. Acute contact dermatitis
2. Acne-like skin disease
3. Pigment changes
4. Burns and ulcerations
5. Skin tumour
FACTORS INFLUENCING DERMATITIS
1. Pre-existing skin condition
2. Cut or scratches
3. The chemical nature of a substance

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4. Quantity and concentration of the substance
5. Duration of exposure
6. Frequency of exposure
7. Personal factor
8. Environmental factors
PREVENTION OF DERMATITIS
1. Proper pre-selection of workers
2. Personal hygiene
3. The use of PPEs
4. Periodic inspection
5. Periodic medical examination

OCCUPATIONAL CANCER
Cancer is a condition which describes an uncontrolled growth of cell, which by size, shape, and
relation to surrounding structures can displace, erode and later alter the functions of healthy
organs. Percival Potts in 1775 established an association between scrotal cancer and chimney
sweeps.
The sites mostly affected are skin, lungs, bladder and blood cells.
LUNG CANCER
This is an occupational cancer of workers engaged in mining or handling of materials, nickel,
chromium, asbestos and iron ore. It is due to inhalation of dust, hydrocarbon, fume, cigarette
substance, tobacco smoke.
CANCER OF THE BLADDER
Cancer of the bladder occurs among workers engaged in the manufacturing of dyes,
pharmaceuticals, rubber and plastic. It is caused by aromatic amines used as intermediate
amines used for manufacturing of substances. Cancer of the bladder was first noted in man in
aniline industry in 1895.
CANCER OF THE LIVER
It is common on workers exposed to benzidine, vinyl chloride and arsenic insecticides
LEUKEMIA

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This is cancer of the blood due to exposed to benzol, roentgen rays and radioactive substances.
Benzol is a dangerous chemical and is used as solvent in many industries. Leukemia may appear
long after long exposure has ceased
SKIN CANCER
This is due exposure to pitch tar, shale oil, radioactive materials and ultraviolet light from the
sun. There are several types of skin cancer depending on the site affected.
Scrotal cancer is observed among mule-spinners exposed to mineral oils in textile industry and
also occurs among worker4s exposed to pitch, with arsenic. Pitch warts are found on the faces
and arms of individuals who work with pitch and coal tar derivatives such as road workers.
Statistics shows that about 75% of all occupational cancer is skin cancer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OCCUPATIONAL CANCER
1. Appears after a prolong exposure
2. It can appear even after ceasation of exposure
3. The period between exposure and development of the disease may be as long as 10- 20
years.
4. The localization of tumors is remarkably constant in any one occupation
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF OCCUPATIONAL CANCER
1. MEDICAL examination
2. Elimination or control of industrial carcinogen such as substitution, exclusion of
carcinogen
3. Early diagnosis
4. Notification of cases
5. Environmental sanitation/ personal hygiene
6. Health education of workers
7. The use of personal protective devices
8. Inspection and Licensing of factories
9. Research
OCCUPATIONAL INJURIES AND ACCIDENTS
This is a common feature in most industries. In fact, some industries are known for accidents
e.g. coal and other mining industries, quarries, construction

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An accident can be defined as undesired event in which the action of reaction of an object,
substance or person results in personal injuries. Property damage or interruption in business
transition.
There is a relationship between accident, hazard and disease. Occupational hazards lead to
both occupational accidents and diseases.
Causes: The causes of accidents are several and may be grouped under two heading i.e. human
and environmental.
HUMAN FACTORS
i. Physical factor: the physical capability of the worker may not meet the job requiring.
These include his sight, hearing ability, height etc.
ii. Physiological Factors:
a. Sex: studies reveal that women are prone to accident than men in an occupational
environment
b. Age: Accidents occur mostly among the young and the aged workers but reduce in
the middle age.
c. Experience: accidents occur most among workers in the first six month of their
employment to about 50%, decrease to 23% in the next six month and subsequently
to 2%
d. Working hours: an increased in accident is found whenever daily or weekly activities
increase. It is less in the morning, and increases when fatigue sets in.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
There are mental factors responsible for accident causation. They are
a. Carelessness
b. Inattentiveness
c. Emotional stress
d. Frustration
e. Poor job satisfaction
f. Inexperience
g. Overconfidence
h. Ignorance

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 Temperature
 Noise
 Poor illumination
 Slippery floor
 Bad working tools
According to Oluwagbemi (2003), accidents are caused by two factors;
1. UNSAFE ACT: certain actions and activities of workers without consideration of health
and safety. These are refusal to use PPEs, personal worries, alcohol dependency,
recklessness, mental problems, fighting,
2. UNSAFE CONDITION: certain acts/ activities attributed to employees which predispose
workers to accident. They include insufficient office space, inadequate lighting,
dilapidated steps and stair cases, slippery floor, poor wiring, lack of personal protective
equipment, faulty electrical sockets.
ACCIDENT PREVENTION
i. Pre-accident strategies
ii. Post-accident strategies
iii. Collateral strategies
Pre-accident strategies: - The main aim of these strategies is to create safe and healthy working
environment with no harm to people and to eliminate all potential hazards right from the
conceptual design stage of working place. This can be divided into 2 i.e. safe place strategies
and safe person strategies.
Safe place strategies included
 Management commitment
 Safety policy
 Engineering control
 Job analysis
 Inspection of facilities
 Safety committee and training
Safe personal strategies: These are concentrating on the protection of every individual

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performing a job. Typical examples are personal hygiene, obedient behaviour in the face of
danger and provision and use of personal protection equipment.
Post-accident strategies: - These concern steps and action to be taken after an accident. The
main aim is to prevent the re-occurrence of a similar accident. These strategies include accident
investigation, analysis of data and keeping accident rewards. Accident investigation involves
gathering of factual information through conscientious examinations, all factors involved. This
included identifications of all factors responsible for the accident, which are unsafe conditions
and unsafe acts. Other includes identification of changes or deviation from the laid down
procedure.
Collateral strategies:-these are efforts to the health, safety and welfare of the workers which
are usually done after the occurrence of an accident. It has to do with the management of
injured workers. These include treatment, immunization, counselling and rehabilitation of
injured workers. The success of pro- strategies, post and collateral strategies depend mostly on
the cooperation, efforts and effective involvement of management and workers in safety
activities.
OCCUPATIONAL ASPHYXIATION
It occurs when there is insufficiency of oxygen, leading to suffocation. It is mostly common in
jobs where dangerous gases are produced. It is also common in jobs that involve inspection
sewers i.e. sewage system.
TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENT
I. Chemical Splashes
II. Electrical accident
III. Falls
IV. Caught in or caught between accident
EFFECTS OF OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENT
A. TO WORKERS
1. Pains and suffering of injury
2. Loss of job
3. Death
4. Permanent incapacitation

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5. Loss of income
B. TO EMPLOYERS
i. Payment of wages of work not done
ii. Medical expenses and payment of compensation
iii. Replacement/ repair of damaged machine
iv. Temporary halt of production
v. Increased training expenses
vi. Reduction in the quality of work
PREVENTION OF OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENTS
1. Training and supervision of workers
2. Health and safety education
3. Provision and enforcement of the use of PPE
4. Control of environmental condition such as lighting, ventilation, noise, temperature
5. Enforcement of occupational /industrial laws
6. Proper design of tools
7. Medical examinations
8. Pre-accident and post- accident strategies
9. Regular inspection of factories
10. Proper record keeping
CONSTRAINT OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
1. Low level of industrialization
2. Corruption
3. Lack of trained personnel
4. Illiteracy
5. Ignorance
6. Customs and traditions
7. Attitude of workers to safety rules
8. Non utilization of PPE
9. LOW level of public enlightenment
10. Poor funding of occupational health services

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11. Lack of cooperation among occupational health team
12. Lack of industrial legislation
13. Poor enforcement of industrial legislation
14. Political interference
15. Lack of political will
VENTILATION
Ventilation aims at ensuring continued removal of polluted air and odour from occupied
premises and the preservation of a pure dust-free atmosphere of proper temperature and
humidity with sufficient movement of air.
It is therefore required that all factories and workplaces should be adequately ventilated to
achieve the desired effect.
OCCUPATIONAL/ INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATIONS IN NIGERIA
Occupational Health Legislations are those laws promulgated to safeguard the health of both
employers of labour and employees.
AIMS OF OCCUPATIONAL LEGISLATION
1. Protecting the health and safety of persons at work
2. Safe guarding persons other than those at work
3. Supervising the emission, of obnoxious offensive substances from prescribed classes of
premises where trade is carried out
4. Ensuring that previously existing health, safety and welfare regulations are progressively
replaced by an up to date system of regulations and approved codes of practice, Specific
occupational legislation
1. WORKMAN COMPENSATION ORDINANCE 1941
This was the first occupational law enacted by colonial masters. It made provision for the
payment of compensation to occupational injured persons. It was by workman compensation
degree of 1987
2. FACTORY ACT OF 1955
This law was made in 1955, updated in 1956. It defined a factory as a place where ten or more
people are employed in manual work. It makes provisions for general cleanliness,
overcrowding, ventilation, lighting, protective clothing, appliance, \meals and sanitary

31
accommodation, drinking water, first aid facilities, cloakroom, notification of accident and
industrial diseases.
3. FACTORY ACT OF 1958
It is an amendment of factory act of 1955. It defines a factory as a place where 10 or
more people are employed in manual work in making, altering, repairing, ornamenting,
finishing, clearing, washing or demolishing any article or adapting any article for sale. It
is divided into four sections i.e. safety, health, welfare and miscellaneous. On safety
issue the act made provision for guiding of transmission machinery and all part of
electric generators and motors. It also requires adequate and sufficient training for
machine operator and periodic inspection of plant and machineries. Other aspect of this
act concerns precaution to be taken during firer outbreak and explosion, provision of
safe means of access to every workplace, labeling of cranes indicating safe working
loads and employment of reliable lifts.
On health, the Act makes provisions for cleanness of the working environment, allocation of
space to man and machines, ventilation, lighting, drainage of floors, sanitary conveniences and
control of dust and fumes. Other areas cover by the act under this section is prohibition of
eating and drinking in the workplace where injurious or poisonous substances are the used,
provision of protective clothing and protection of the eyes of workers carrying out jobs such as
welding, fitting, chipping and scalding.
The section on welfare of the workers in the act includes provisions of drinking water, washing
facilities, clothing accommodation first aid in the factory. Also of the factory, made obligatory
are displaying of abstract of the act on a board located at a prominent place in the factory,
keeping of log-book in the factory and notification of appropriate authority of accidents or
diseases which occurs
In the factory, the act imposes duties on every worker in respect of the use and maintenance of
personal protective equipment. The last section of the act under miscellaneous explains the
duties and power bestowed on the factory inspector.
FACTORIES (SANITARY ACCOMODATION) REGULATION,1957
The regulations made provisions for a separate sanitary accommodation for both sexes. There
must be one toilet to 20 females and one toilet to 25 male. The conveniences must be kept

32
clean and disinfected at least once in a day.
Declaration of occupational diseases notice 1956.
The notice declares that the occupier of any factory who observes or suspects that any of his
employees has contracted, or is suffering from specified diseases must notify the nearest
inspector of factory forthwith
First aid boxes (prescribed standard) order 1957
The order imposed a legal obligation on every employer to provide at least a first aid box I the
factory. The box must contain sterilized dressing,cotton wool, waterproof and adhesive plaster,
antiseptic, cream, an eye drops, splints, tourniquets and roller bandages. Stipulate that laborers
should not work more than 10 hours in a day. They are also entitled to two hours break within
this time.
WORKMEN COMPESATION ACT,1990
The provisions under this law can be classified into three parts;
1. It provides compensation for individual who are temporarily incapacitated from
occupational injury.
2. It provides compensation for individual who are permanently incapacitated from
occupational injury.
3. It provides compensations for the dependants of workers who lost their lives as a result
of occupational injuries.
The shortcomings of the law lie on the fact that the dependents of workers who died
from occupational injuries would receive less compensation than the workers who are
permanently incapacitated.
Thus the saying that it is cheaper to kill than to maim; but this is true with all compensation as it
is very expensive to care for the disable worker.
Factories Act; 1990
The provisions under this Acts include;
 Creating a conducive working environment for workers through provision of sanitary
conditions and conveniences and supply of adequate ventilation and lighting, potable
water and a first aid box in every work place.

33
 Removal of dusts and fumes or any workplace contaminants through the use of exhaust
ventilation with the main aim of reducing exposure of workers to offensive or injurious
substances.
 The supply and use of appropriate personal protective equipment to protect workers
from ill effects of exposure to offensive and injurious agents.
 Securely guarded flywheels, prime movers or conveyor belts to save workers from
injury.
 Sealed containers of dangerous chemicals with a warning notice posted on the
container and the storage area.
 Training of all workers handling equipment and supervision by competent person.
 Operation of machines such as crane, pulling block and winch only by competent
person.
 Testing of boilers, streams, receiver, and lifting machines in order to ensure their safe
condition.
 Having adequate fire extinguisher and precaution and measures to prevent gassing or
explosions of any flammable dust or gas.
 Inspections are empowered to insects and prosecute defaulters.
LABOR ACT, 1990
This Act covers the care of teenagers from 12-16 who are engaged in manual or clerical labour.
It also covers apprentice, domestic servants and women. The Act also makes adequate
provision for break at work; holidays, sick leave and maternity leave for pregnant women. The
Act prohibits child labour and young persons are not allowed to work at night. Women are also
prohibited from working in mining unless when employed at the management level or when
undergoing an industrial training of short duration.
HOME HAZARD
Home hazard: Refers to dangers that may increase the risk of injury or even death at
home.
CAUSES HOME HAZARD
 Improper keeping of chemical e.g. kerosene, drugs, insecticide .etc
 Improper keeping of sharp / pointing objects e.g. razor, knife, needle, nail etc
 Poor environmental sanitation
 Improper use of electric devices e.g. heater, Iron, boiler, Electric kettle

34
 Slippery environment / Floor
 Poor lighting
 Poor housing etc.
PREVENTIONS OF HOME HAZARD
 Proper keeping of all chemical e.g. kerosene, drugs, insecticide .etc
 Proper keeping of sharp / pointing objects e.g. razor, knife, needle, nail etc
 Proper Environmental sanitation
 proper use of electric devices e.g. heater, Iron, boiler, Electric kettle
 Proper house construction e.t.c.
 Proper housing
 Poor lighting etc.

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