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Teacher motivation

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Sthabir Khora Teacher Motivation: Role of Values and Social Support

Teacher Motivation
Role of Values and Social Support
STHABIR KHORA

Teacher motivation is important for enrolment, retention and minimum levels of

learning, which are the major problems of primary education in India today. The
present study is an exploration into the relation between social support to the teachers
at the local level and their motivation. Eighty-eight teachers from two blocks in Orissa
were interviewed. Two factors were found to be important — the values held by the
teachers before they come to the teaching profession and the social support they got
after they come to the teaching profession.

Mr. Sthabir Khora is Assistant Professor with the Centre for Studies in Sociology of
Education, School of Social Sciences, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.

INTRODUCTION: TEACHER MOTIVATION AND SCHOOLING

Motivation has been studied more with regard to work contexts. In her
study about teacher motivation, Evans (1998) surveyed the different
notions of motivation, and found that motivation can be considered as a
state of mind or attitude, cause or an activity. It can be an activity when
a teacher is supposed to be motivating his/her pupils. The important
theories of motivation that she found were:
• Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of needs, that is, deficiency needs
(physiological, safety, belongingness, love) and growth needs
(esteem and self-actualising);
• Aldefer’s theory of existence needs, relatedness needs, growth
needs;
• Herzberg’s two factory theory, that is, the satisfier factors or the
motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement
and the work itself) and the hygiene factors (salary and supervision);
and
• McClelland’s learned needs theory, that is, need for achievement,
power, affiliation, autonomy.
All the above motivation theories emphasise needs fulfilment.
Individuals may simultaneously try to fulfil more than one category of
needs. One can say that individuals are simultaneously satisfied and by
implication dissatisfaction to various degrees at any time. Motivation is
not a temporary phenomenon; it is a sustaining condition. Evans
defines a motivator as ‘the impetus that creates inclination towards an
activity’ (1998: 33).
34 Sthabir Khora

Teacher motivation is important for schooling, especially in the

context of ‘Education for All’. The major problems that affect primary
education in India are lack of full enrolment, retention and minimum
levels of learning. There are three categories of factors that are
important for these: factors at the school level, factors at the
community level, and the personal contingent factors such as the
illness of a pupil. Quality of schooling has been found to be an
important school-level factor for retaining children in the school (The
World Bank, 1997). It will be more so for the learning achievement of
the children. There can be two aspects of the quality of the school — the
physical infrastructure and the quality of the teacher. Quality of the
teacher manifests in teacher performance, which is also dependent on
teacher motivation. There are some studies, which point out the
importance of teacher motivation. Teacher motivation was found to be
responsible for intra-district variations of learning achievement among
the pupils in a state (Govinda and Varghese; cited from Sharma, 1998).
Schools, which were partially effective, found to have active and
motivated head teachers having high job satisfaction, active
community support, infrastructure facilities and assistant teachers
(Singh, 1998). There was no drop out in a particular school because of
the headmaster (Das, 1998). Teacher motivation can do many things.
Teachers can ask parent’s help regarding sending their children to the
school, can visit the houses of the chronically absent children, and can
make the time in school interesting. These are some of the ways
teachers can make a difference in the schools. How to motivate the
teachers to do all these remains a question largely unanswered.
Motivation of teachers, both male and female, if we exclude the
personal contingent factors — like someone coming from a family of
teachers or inspired by their teacher — depends to a large extent on the
kind of support they get. Support does not mean only material support
because no one thinks that the material support that primary teachers
get is great compared to the task involved. Symbolical support like
recognition plays a significant role in teacher motivation. Besides,
factors behind the motivation of male and female teachers may not be
the same. While the existing salary and nature of the work like more
holidays, vacation, and so on, may be the motivating factor for a female
teacher, this may not be so be for a male teacher. In Indian society, a
male is supposed to be the primary breadwinner for the family. All
these point out the influence of society on teacher motivation.
Social support for teacher can come from four broad areas: from
students, peers, community and parents; and the government (Lortie,
1975). The support from students involves active participation of the
students in the learning process and their feedback. In the context of
rural India, it may be far fetched to expect little children giving
intelligent feedback. Rather, it becomes the responsibility of the
teacher to make them actively engage in the learning process. Single
 Teacher Motivation: Role of Values and Social Support 35

and double teacher schools make up the majority of the schools in India.
In this context, support from peers like newer teaching methods, and
positive comments are important. This may not come forth easily if the
number of teachers is not increased. Thus, in the Indian context,
support from the community and support from the government become
the two most important factors in teacher motivation. The present
study is an exploration into the dynamics of support to the teachers at
the local level and its impact on teacher motivation.

METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted among 88 primary teachers from three blocks
belonging to two districts of Orissa — Brahmagiri block in the Puri
district and Semiliguda and Narayanpatna blocks of Koraput district.
These two districts represent the two extremes in terms of educational
development. Puri has high literacy rate (63.3 per cent in 1991) and
Koraput has low literacy rate (24.64 per cent in 1991). Majority of the
population of Koraput is tribal (50.68 per cent in 1991), while there is
minimal tribal presence in Puri (less than one per cent). Initially, I
decided to take equal number of teachers from one of the blocks of the
each of the two districts. But in the case of Koraput, I was advised by
the school supervisors to select an area that administratively fell under
two blocks. This continuous area is very poor in communication and
close to the Andhra Pradesh border. The aim of the study was not
comparative, but to arrive at a representative sample of teachers of
Orissa to understand the social context of teacher motivation.
Teacher motivation is used in this study in the sense of the
willingness on the part of the teachers to do something for the children
and school which translates into many actions — bringing children to
the school, making the class attractive and doing something for the
well-being of the school itself. Emphasis is here on the acts, so far as
they pertain to education, which should emanate from teacher
motivation. The study assumes that these acts signify teacher
motivation. This was the guiding concept in this study. Motivation and
performance should go together (The World Bank, 1997). A person may
perform under duress, but teachers cannot be forced to teach, although
they may be forced to come to the school.
All the 88 teachers were interviewed with the help of an interview
schedule. They were visited while the school was going on. The
interviews were taken either in the school or in their homes according
to their convenience.

FINDINGS

State of Motivation Amongst Teachers

Out of the 88 teachers surveyed, only 38 teachers were found to be
motivated; the rest of the teachers are classified here as non-motivated
36 Sthabir Khora

teachers. This is more for classification than with any pejorative intention.
Table 1 shows the profile of the 38 teachers found to be motivated.
TABLE 1: Profile of the Motivated Teachers

Category Number of Percentage Total Percentage Percentage

Teachers to Total Number of to Total to Total of
Teachers Motivated Number of the
(88) Teachers Motivated Respective
(38) Teachers* Category**
Female Teachers 17 19.32 3 7.89 17.65
Male Teachers 71 80.68 35 92.11 49.30
Teachers having 32 36.36 11 28.95 34.38
the Qualification
Matric C.T.
(Certified
Teacher) or below
SC/ST/OBC 24 27.27 6 15.79 25
Teachers
Teachers having 27 30.68 7 18.42 25.93
spouses who do
paid work
Notes: * For example, female motivated teachers out of total motivated teachers.
** For example, female motivated teachers out of total female teachers.
The result of this study is different from other studies and general
thinking on primary education with regard to female and Scheduled
Caste (SC)/Scheduled Tribe (ST) teachers. Female and SC/ST teachers
are considered good for female and SC/ST enrolment; logically, this
may be true. Khora (2005) argues along such line. But this study shows
that motivation among them is not striking. There may be various
reasons for this. Women teachers might be saddled with domestic
responsibilities and SC/ST teachers may not have imbibed a culture of
professionalism. A study with adequate sample having a focus on this
aspect may pass a judgement on this.
The findings on training and qualification compare more favourably
with the thinking on primary education. Higher qualification like B.Ed.
and M.Ed. does not necessarily equip and motivate somebody towards
primary education more than others. A little more than one-third of the
total of motivated teaches in this study has qualification of Matric
Certified Teacher or below.
The main focus of this study is the role of social support. The study
found that the motivated teachers differ from the non-motivated teachers
in two respects — their value orientation and the social support they get.
Before I proceed to discuss my generalisations about these teachers,
which will look quantitative, a caveat is warranted. The study is
essentially qualitative, and the data was collected through in-depth
interviews. During the interviews many did not speak about particular
issues. I have not tried to interpret these non-responses. For example,
 Teacher Motivation: Role of Values and Social Support 37

not all mentioned whether they came from normal, well-off or poor
economic background. In such cases, I have not included the
non-responses in the total number of responses. The main aim of the
study was to know the social support to teachers at the local level, which
was dealt with by almost all teachers. But unlike in a
questionnaire-based study, the teachers were not forced to say either yes
or no. For example, a teacher said that he came to teaching in course of
time meaning he did not have any definite plan to join teaching. It is
difficult to interpret this response as a clear ‘yes’ or ‘no’. On the other
hand, our prior categorisation of responses like that of a quantitative
study will not elicit such responses. Salary is considered by some
teachers as totally inadequate while some others consider it as all right,
though objectively it is the same amount. These different perceptions
will have different impacts on teacher motivation. It is a de-motivating
factor for those who consider it as inadequate.

Signs of Teacher Motivation

The study found the following acts as signs of teacher motivation.

Giving Extra Time for the School Outside School Hours

Teachers spending time for the school outside school hours can be
considered as an important indicator of teacher motivation. People
carry out their ideal role only when they are motivated. Otherwise
people carry out their assigned role only partially. Following excerpts
show the purposes for which teachers spent extra time for the school:
(for) teaching low level students...
During scholarships, examinations...
If the course is not finished...
Checking answer papers in the school is difficult. So I bring them
home and check them.
These are different from the officially prescribed non-academic
duties like Censuses and election duty. This can be considered as a good
indicator of how a teacher is motivated.

Attract Children to the School

The school bell does not have much of a sanctity in a tribal area. Part of
a teacher’s informal duty is to persuade children to come to the school.
This requires patience, sympathy and ingenuity, and only a motivated
teacher can have these. A teacher said,
I use one technique to entice the children to the school. Everyday I
go to the school and then take the flute out of my bag and start
playing. Children come to the school listening that and I play for
10–15 minutes. This is the way I bring the children to the school.
Ingenuities like these cannot be prescribed by the state as the duty of
a teacher. But these ingenuities help schooling practically. These
ingenuities will emanate only if the teacher is motivated.
38 Sthabir Khora

Focus on the Social Aspect of the Classroom apart from the Curricular
Aspect
There are two important aspects of classroom management — the
curricular aspect and the school aspect. The teacher certainly has to
teach the syllabus. But he/she also has to keep the classroom
interesting. Distributing chocolates in the classroom, showing
dramatic skills or solving small brawls among children do not take the
class ahead in terms of the syllabus, but they are very necessary before
the teaching of the syllabus. The social aspects of the classroom need to
be looked after before the curricular aspects. Motivated teachers
harness the contextual cultural resources like singing, dancing,
playing, and so on, for education to the good effect.

Establish Warm Relation with the Pupils

It may partially be the case that children may come to the school
because they like the teacher. Therefore, a warm relation between the
teacher and the pupils, which transcend the formality of the school is
good. There can be many ways in which the relation between a teacher
and his/her pupils can manifest. A teacher can be a friend, senior (who
has more knowledge and more in age but yet a friend), or a
father/mother figure. A warm relation is better than a formal relation.

Take an Interest in the Well-being of the School

The school is not a mechanical summation of teachers, pupils and
building(s). It is a social institution within a community. A motivated
teacher will treat the school as an institution located in the community.
Only then will the school be able to harness the synergistic energy of
the community, the teacher and the student. Broadly speaking,
motivated teachers employ the following resources to make up for the
deficiencies of the school: community human resources; community
material resources; and community cultural resources/practices.
When the synergistic action of the above resources happens, neither
the teacher nor the community has to wait for some government order
to improve education. One teacher recounted his experience:
I was almost four years in a school with just two children in a border
area. Once the tehsildar (a revenue officer) came and threatened the
villagers that whoever do not send their child will be fined. Next day,
50 students came to the school. But after six days the situation again
came back to the original position.
Contrast this with another instance where the solution did not come
from a government functionary but from the community. A teacher
said,
When I was in Malgangiri, in that Koya (a tribe) dominated area, the
headman used to fine 25 paise to those villagers who were not
sending their children to school.
 Teacher Motivation: Role of Values and Social Support 39

This is not to say that the community has omnibus capability. What
is important is that a lot of nagging problems can be solved at the local
level by the synergistic actions of the teacher and the community.

Motivated Teachers Transcend the Strict Definition of Duty

Sometimes teachers cross the legal mandate to perform their duty. In fact,
it will be difficult for them to do some significant service to education by
staying strictly within the legal mandate. It will be difficult for the state to
prescribe that bringing children to the school is the duty of teachers, to
play flute to bring children, to fish, sell and use money for the school (as
happened in one school in this study). Local conditions vary widely, and
motivated teachers fight with them in varied and ingenuous ways. That is
why teacher motivation should be a factor to be reckoned with.

Factors Behind Teacher Motivation

Value Orientation
The following findings of the study point out that value orientation is the
prime mover of teacher motivation and performance. Seventeen out of 48
non-motivated teachers, who explicitly spoke about the issue, stated
values (held by them) as their reason to join teaching; but 12 out of 24
motivated teachers ascribe values as their reason to join teaching. Apart
from values the other reasons were ‘the attraction of children’ and
‘practicality’. Practicality means the requirement of a source of
livelihood. The proportion of teachers ascribing values is more amongst
motivated teachers (half) than non-motivated teachers (one-third). The
non-motivated teachers merely say, but they do not perform. The
motivated teachers say and they also perform because they are classified
here as motivated teachers on the basis of their performance. Thus, their
stated value orientation and their performance in combine suggest value
orientation as one of the prime factors behind their performance. Value
is one of the reasons because many non-motivated teachers have also
stated it as the reason to join the teaching profession. Not all motivated
teachers state this as the reason to join the teaching profession; many
ascribe the attraction of children and practicality as the other reasons.
The values for which many join teaching are honesty, simplicity and
altruism. Speaking the truth is one of the signs of honesty. There was
no motivated teacher who denied that there is any dropout in his/her
school. On the other hand, there were as many as 21 non-motivated
teachers (out of the 32 spoke about the issue) who said that there was
no case of dropout in their schools. Dropout is a widespread
phenomenon in rural area, and it is impossible to find a school without
this ubiquitous phenomenon. In this context, an honest teacher is most
likely to confess the problem than conceal it.
Significantly, more proportion of motivated teachers view
privatisation as well as the experience in the last five years (the
40 Sthabir Khora

pressure to perform, to be regular on the job, and so on) positively than

non-motivated teachers. Eight out of 44 non-motivated teachers, who
spoke about the issue explicitly, opined that privatisation would be
bad for them as well as for education. But a significant proportion of
motivated teachers do not think so. To cross-check this, the teachers
were asked to give their opinion about the last five years. Nineteen out
of 30 motivated teachers held a positive view about the last five years
when all these changes were taking place. Only three out of 34
non-motivated teachers held a positive view about the changes in the
last five years. It may be mentioned here that more accountability by
giving the power to the community is happening in the last five years.
Why do the motivated teachers view privatisation and the
experience they have had in the last five years positively? Stricter
accountability could be one of the good aspects of privatisation. An
honest teacher who performs will welcome a system, which recognises
performance. These teachers do not believe in a system which permits
cheating as they would not benefit in such a system. Motivated teachers
view privatisation and the experience about the last five years
positively because of embedded values like honesty and job as a duty.

Social Support
Support from the superiors and the community becomes very
important for primary teachers in the Indian context where many
schools are single teacher schools. The support can be of two types —
material and moral. The proportion of motivated teachers getting
material and moral support from superiors, and the community is
consistently higher than the non-motivated teachers. The findings on
social support as a factor for teacher motivation are as follows:
• Motivated teachers are found to get invitation from villagers and
feel free to attend them. Twenty-four out of 38 motivated teachers,
who spoke about this issue, said that they got invitations, and
eight said that they attended upon invitation. Of the 38 (out of 47)
non-motivated teachers who received invitations, only three said
that they took up the invitation. There is a contrast between
getting an invitation and feeling free to attend them. A teacher is
likely to attend when the rapport between the teacher and the
community is good.
• Eleven out of 15 motivated teachers, who spoke explicitly about
the issue of community help, said that they got help from the
community. Only 12 out of 48 non-motivated teachers said so.
Twenty-three out of 48 non-motivated teachers said that they did
not receive any help from the community when they needed it; in
contrast only three motivated teachers said that they did not
receive any help. While 13 non-motivated teachers said that there
was no occasion to require help from the community, only one
motivated teacher said so.
 Teacher Motivation: Role of Values and Social Support 41

• Out of the 40 non-motivated teachers who spoke about the issue of

support from the superiors, only three said that they received
support, two said that they received punishment, 15 said that
they did not receive any support when needed; 20 said that there
was no situation to require support. Out of 17 motivated teachers
who spoke explicitly about this issue, nine said that they received
support when needed, two said that they received punishment,
five said that they did not receive any support, and only one said
that there was no situation to require support. Motivated teachers
are more likely to have experienced support from superiors.
• Out of the 44 non-motivated teachers who spoke explicitly about
the issue of symbolic reward like praise or certificate in contrast to
material reward like money or salary hike, only two mentioned
that they had any kind of symbolic rewards. But out of 27
motivated teachers, who spoke explicitly about this issue, 17
mentioned that they have got some kind of symbolic rewards. The
major source of symbolic reward was the superiors. Eleven
motivated teachers mentioned this. This can be in the form of
verbal praise, good remarks in the inspection note or some formal
certificate at the district level.
The teachers were asked from different angles to get the whole
picture. For example, getting an invitation for a social occasion by the
villagers is a symbolic reward for the teacher. So is a good remark on
the inspection note. The teachers can tell about this while talking about
their relation with the community and their superiors. But this can be
cross-checked when they are asked on what symbolic reward they have
got so far. When all these are put together it gives a whole picture of the
symbolic rewards they have received. Motivated teachers have
experienced more social support (material and symbolic) from the
superiors and the community.
Actions for education may result from motivation depending on the
social context, which has a role in sustaining it. Teacher action and
motivation is also influenced by the values teachers enter the teaching
profession with. The following diagram illustrates this.

Society / Culture Social Support

Value Orientation Teacher Motivation Teacher Action

of the Teacher

Value orientation can be considered as an intrinsic factor. The

importance of intrinsic factors in teacher motivation is rather well
recognised. A recent study summarises the importance of intrinsic
factors in teacher motivation in these words:
42 Sthabir Khora

Similar results to the French and Australian studies on teacher

motivation are reported in the background reports for Belgium
(French Community, Quebec, Canada), the Netherlands, the Slovak
Republic and the United Kingdom. The importance of intrinsic
reasons is consistently emphasized by the research; working with
children, intellectual fulfilment and making a contribution to society
are major factors in why people choose to become teachers.
(Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2005: 68)
Though interest in a particular subject like mathematics can be an
intrinsic factor in Western countries, we do not know from any study
whether this is the case in India. But intrinsic factors like ‘doing
something for children’ or ‘society’ as reasons for people joining the
teaching profession is applicable to Western countries as well as India.
Social support as a sustaining factor for teacher motivation is not
dealt with by many studies. But the importance of factors like the role
of the head teacher, good inter-personal relationship, and recognition
in sustaining teacher motivation is recognised by some studies (Evans,
1998 for a review). The importance of value orientation of teachers has
recently been recognised by the Government of India. The performance
standards for teachers that is being evolved by the Government of India
has four dimensions — cognitive, social, physical and organisational.
The social dimension has the following components:
1. the teacher values children, their cultural context, and relates
with them in a non-discriminatory manner;
2. promotes co-curricular activities, development of values and
enables the overall development of children;
3. promotes democratic processes; and
4. relates and works with colleagues and community (ADEPTS, 2007).
It can be seen that the above components principally emphasise the
value orientation of the teachers.

IMPLICATIONS
Teachers are viewed in two ways — as executors of government policy and
as collaborators with the government to bring out change in education.
These have important bearings on teacher motivation. The massive focus
on training sees them as executors of policy who lack the right know-how.
It does not question their willingness. Anand (1996) points out that at any
given time, 50 per cent of the sections in primary schools were unattended
to by a teacher (disguised absenteeism). Regular school inspection and
distance from the block headquarters did not have any bearing on
absenteeism (Rao, 1999). The probability of teacher absenteeism increases
with more number of teachers posted (Rao, 1999). The efficacy of training
and supervision remains inconclusive internationally too (Pennycuick,
1993). It has been suggested that lengthy pre-service training could be
blind alleys (Pennycuick, 1993). All these point out the limitations of
viewing the teachers as executors of government policy.
 Teacher Motivation: Role of Values and Social Support 43

There is another way to see the teachers not in opposition but as

complementary to the above perspective of viewing teachers as
executors of policy. Teachers can be viewed as collaborators in the
process of educational change. The first step for such collaboration is
recruiting teachers with the right value orientation. Teacher education
and training hones the existing skills and impart new knowledge. The
values held by the teacher influence to what extent those knowledge
and skills will be effectively used.
Seeing teachers as deliverers of programmes and seeing them as
collaborators are not contradictory. The teacher’s value orientation
makes them suitable for collaboration. This study suggests that the
material and moral support of the community and the government has
an important role in sustaining motivation. Recognition and
appreciation is sometimes the most effective motivational factors
(Pushpanadham, cited from NCERT, 1998). One of the problems of the
educational administration is to check the moral problems of teaching
like absenteeism through administrative measures like supervision.
The first step to counter such problem is to recruit people with the
values conducive to teaching. This has already been emphasised by
many commissions (for example, National Commission on Teachers–I).
Recently, the task force of a state on education has again emphasised
that mere qualification does not make a good teacher, but the right
aptitude and attitude is very important (Government of Orissa, 2003).
Any profession is a moral project but the question of morality is
especially important for the teaching profession. Personality traits are
not instrumental, but constitutive of education (Carr, 2000). Nobody
expects from a salesperson truthfulness. But a teacher is expected to
have some value orientation. In India, so far the problems of education,
which have drawn the attention of writing, are dropouts, teacher
absenteeism, teacher training and educational administration, better
training for teachers — all these have received the attention of scholars
as well as the planners. But an important issue has not received
adequate attention — how to recruit a good teacher and how to sustain
teacher motivation. The present study tries to bring out the relation
between the values teachers come with, the material and moral support
they get from the community and government and their motivation. So
far we have been obsessed with knowledge and skills, Let’s now be
reasonably obsessed with values.

REFERENCES

ADEPTS : An MHRD-UNICEF initiative, June 2006–January 2007.

2007
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 44 Sthabir Khora

Carr, D. : Professionalism and Ethics in Teaching, London: Routledge.

2000
Das, P. : Case Study of A National Awardee Teacher: His Theory and
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Effectiveness in NCERT, New Delhi: National Council for
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Evans, L. : Teacher, Morale, Job Satisfaction and Motivation, London:
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Khora, S. : Continuing Low Literacy: The Case of Orissa, Economic
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK, Volume 69, Issue 1, January 2008

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