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Crocodile (reptile)
I. INTRODUCTION

Crocodile (reptile), large meat-eating reptile with long, strong jaws and a powerful, muscular tail. Crocodiles are air-breathing land animals but are
well adapted for life in water, where they hunt, mate, and keep cool. Some crocodiles may reach more than 6 m (20 ft) in length and weigh more than
1,000 kg (2,200 lbs). Crocodiles live in tropical and subtropical regions and are found on all continents except for Europe and Antarctica.

The term crocodilian refers to all members of the order Crocodylia, which includes alligators, caimans, and gavials as well as crocodiles. Crocodilians
have backbones and belong to a group of animals known as archosaurs. Crocodilians are more closely related to birds and the extinct dinosaurs than
to lizards and turtles. Crocodilians have a more advanced physiology than other living reptiles and are also capable of complex behaviors such as
caring for their young.

II. CROCODILIANS

Crocodilians are often called “living fossils” because they have changed very little in their appearance and habits for tens of millions of years.

A. Evolution of Crocodilians

Modern crocodilians are survivors from a much more varied group of archosaurs that lived during the Mesozoic Era, often called the Age of Reptiles.
During the Triassic Period, two groups of archosaurs appeared, one related to crocodiles and another related to dinosaurs and birds. The crocodile-
related archosaurs were the dominant land animals during much of the Triassic Period while dinosaurs remained fairly small in size. Many of these
close relatives of crocodiles were highly active animals that walked erect on four limbs instead of sprawling, with some forms that moved bipedally on
two hind legs. The direct ancestors of modern crocodilians were lightly built, fast-moving predators that lived on land and ran on four long legs.

After a mass extinction at the end of the Triassic Period about 200 million years ago, dinosaurs became the dominant land animals. Only the
ancestors of true crocodilians survived out of the many types of crocodile-like archosaurs that once existed. During the Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods many unusual types of crocodilians evolved. Some resembled modern crocodilians and lived an amphibious lifestyle around water; a few
grew to enormous size, reaching up to 12 m (40 ft) in length. Other crocodilians became marine animals, evolving paddles for limbs and flattened
tails with a fin on the end. A number of types of crocodilians lived entirely on land, including one group that ate plants and could chew food the way
mammals do.

Crocodilians survived another great mass extinction 65 million years ago—the event that wiped out the dinosaurs, flying reptiles (see Pterosaurs),
and giant marine reptiles at the end of the Cretaceous Period. During the Cenozoic Era that followed, mammals became the dominant animals on
Earth. Crocodilians remained highly successful predators in tropical regions, living in rivers, lakes, and swamps, and along coasts—habitats where
they are still found today. Some extinct Cenozoic crocodilians grew to enormous size, rivaling the giants from the Mesozoic Era.

B. Characteristics of Crocodilians

Modern crocodilians are well-adapted as predators, with few natural enemies. They are amphibious, spending much of their time in water, where
they swim with rhythmic strokes of the tail. The powerful tail is sometimes used to capture prey, sweeping it from shallow to deeper water, where it
can be devoured more easily. As the crocodilian floats almost completely submerged, its protruding nostrils and eyes and a portion of its back are the
only parts visible as it stalks its prey. On land, crocodilians move quickly in a belly crawl but can also gallop and walk mammal-like on all four legs.

Bony plates, called osteoderms, form a kind of armor in their thick skin. Their teeth, about 30 to 40 in each jaw, are set into sockets in the jawbones
and interlock when the mouth is closed. In crocodiles, the fourth tooth on each side of the lower jaw protrudes when the mouth is closed; in
alligators, these teeth are not visible. The jaws of crocodilians are powerful enough in closing to crush the bones of small animals, but so weak in
opening that they can be held together by hand.

Crocodilians are physiologically the most advanced of all living reptiles. In some ways their internal anatomy resembles that of birds, including a
four-chambered heart. Their blood also contains a special type of hemoglobin that can carry more oxygen than in other animals, allowing them to
remain under water for long periods without breathing. They also have very active immune systems that quickly heal wounds exposed to bacteria-
rich waters. Some individuals are thought to live up to 100 years.

Crocodilians have well-developed senses. Their hearing is comparable to that of birds and mammals, and functions well both in air and under water.
Their eyesight is also keen; their eyes have a special retinal layer that reflects light to improve vision at night. Sense organs in scales on their heads
and around their jaws have special pressure sensors that detect vibrations in water, allowing them to locate prey in total darkness. Some crocodilians
also have pressure sensors along their bodies.

Crocodilians are cold-blooded like other modern reptiles, and their body temperature depends on the environment. They often bask in the sun out of
water to raise their body temperature. Because of their large size, however, some crocodilians are also at risk of overheating and may enter water or
gape their jaws to cool off. Crocodilians bury themselves in mud to estivate or hibernate. In warm regions they are dormant during droughts; in
colder regions, during winter.

C. Reproduction and Behavior

Crocodilians are egg-laying, or oviparous, reptiles, reaching reproductive maturity at about the age of ten. Males may bellow, rumble, or snort, and
defend a territory and stage special displays to court females. Rival males sometimes battle for females. Male crocodilians have a penis-like
reproductive organ. Mating occurs in water, with the larger male mounting the female. The eggs, 20 to 90 in number and about the size of goose
eggs, are buried in sand, mud, or vegetable debris, where they are left to hatch by the heat of the Sun or of vegetable decomposition. The sex of the
offspring is determined by the temperature at which the eggs are incubated, with temperatures above certain thresholds usually resulting in males
and lower temperatures in females.

Females of some species remain in the area to protect the nest, although many of the eggs may still be lost to predators. They may help the young
hatch from eggs and may carry them to the water in their mouths. The mother often protects the newly hatched young for a period of time,
sometimes even protecting the young of other adults. The parental behavior of crocodilians is unique among reptiles and points to their affinity with
birds. The only crocodilian that reportedly does not practice some form of parental care is the false gavial.

Crocodilians that congregate in large groups may establish a social hierarchy, with the largest male being dominant. Crocodiles in particular may
cooperate with other individuals when feeding, helping to a hold a carcass so others can tear off meat by rolling their bodies. Crocodiles may also
group together to corner schools of fish in rivers.

III. THE CROCODILE

Some members of the crocodile family are the largest living reptiles. Crocodiles usually can be recognized by their long triangular snouts,
intermediate between the long, narrow snouts of gavials and the short, oval snouts of alligators and caimans. Large crocodiles are generally more
aggressive than other types of crocodilians. Although crocodiles commonly eat fish, they can also attack and kill large animals, usually from ambush
at the water’s edge or while an animal is swimming. Every year a few dozen humans are killed and eaten by crocodiles around the world.

The Indo-Pacific, or saltwater, crocodile, possibly the largest living reptile, is known to grow to a length of about 7 m (about 23 ft) and to weigh more
than 1,000 kg (more than 2,000 lbs); there are unconfirmed reports of individuals up to 9 m (up to 30 ft) in length. This species inhabits the coastal
waters of India, southern China, and Malaysia. A smaller species, the swamp crocodile, or mugger, is found in inland waters of India.

The Nile crocodile of Africa was revered by certain ancient Egyptian sects, and mummies of crocodiles have been discovered in Egyptian tombs. In
modern times this species has been hunted so extensively that few individuals remain in the lower Nile, but they are still abundant in the upper Nile
and southward in Africa to the Cape of Good Hope.

In the Americas there are four species of crocodiles. The Cuban crocodile, which has a relatively short snout and reaches about 3.5 m (about 11.5 ft) in
length, is restricted to Cuba and the Isla de la Juventud. Morelet’s crocodile, comparable in size to the Cuban crocodile, occurs along the Gulf Coastal
Plain and Yucatán Peninsula of southern Mexico, Belize, and Northern Guatemala. The Orinoco crocodile inhabits drainages of the Orinoco River
system and grows to about 6 m (about 20 ft). The American crocodile, the largest crocodile in the Americas, reaches lengths of about 7 m (about 23
ft) and inhabits a broad range from southern Florida southward, including Cuba and other Caribbean islands, southern Mexico, Central America, and
northern South America.

IV. CONSERVATION ISSUES

Crocodile eggs are used for food in some parts of the world. The skin is highly valued for leather, and the extract from the musk glands is used in the
manufacture of perfumes. Due to overhunting, poaching, and habitat loss, most crocodiles are considered endangered species. People also sometimes
kill crocodiles and other crocodilians out of fear. The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species lists a number
of crocodile species as critically endangered, including the Orinoco, Philippines, Cuban, and Siamese crocodiles. Other critically endangered
crocodilians include the Chinese alligator and the Indian gavial. These species are also listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which restricts trade in endangered species of animals.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service announced in 2007 that it had reclassified the American crocodile as threatened rather than endangered under
federal law, thanks to successful efforts to restore populations in southern Florida. The American crocodile is still classified as endangered under
Florida state law and in other countries.

Crocodiles and other crocodilians have been successfully bred and raised in captivity in many parts of the world, often on so-called farms or ranches.
Such facilities can supply skins, meat, and other products, and can also serve a conservation purpose. Some endangered species of crocodilians have
been bred in captivity by conservationists to be reintroduced into the wild.

Scientific classification: Crocodiles belong to the genera Crocodylus and Ostaeolamus of the family Crocodylidae, order Crocodylia. The Indo-
Pacific crocodile is classified as Crocodylus porosus, the swamp crocodile as Crocodylus palustris, the Nile crocodile as Crocodylus niloticus, the
Cuban crocodile as Crocodylus rhombifer, the Morelet’s crocodile as Crocodylus moreletii, the Orinoco crocodile as Crocodylus intermedius, and the
American crocodile as Crocodylus acutus. The false gavial is Tomistoma schlegelii.

"Crocodile (reptile)," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2009

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