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Chapter 8

1
Hydrogeology

8.1. THE INTERNATIONAL Contact

ASSOCIATION OF Web site: http://www.iah.org.au
HYDROGEOLOGISTS Email: iah@iah.org.au

The International Association of Hydrogeologists

(IAH) is a professional association for those 8.2. AUSTRALASIAN
within disciplines related to groundwater, its HYDROGEOLOGY AUTHORITIES
occurrence, utilisation, testing and management.
State and national water authorities maintain
IAH is an international, scientific and educational
groundwater databases, and control water use
organisation and was established to foster
by a licensing system. All Australian states and
cooperation and information exchange related to
territories licence water bore drillers, and require
the study of groundwater. IAH is non-government
water bores to be constructed and decommissioned
and non-profit and has over 3800 members from
to a set of standards. These are described in The
135 countries. The Association is affiliated with
Minimum Construction Requirements for Water
the International Union of Geological Sciences
Bores in Australia, published by the Agriculture
(IUGS), and was founded during the 20th
and Resource Management Council of Australia
International Geological Congress in 1956.
and New Zealand (1997), and are available from
The Australian national chapter was founded in all state water authorities. The following agencies
1983 and is the largest national group. Activities are involved in water resource investigations and
are organised nationally and within each state management in Australia, Papua New Guinea and
or territory. Most state branches hold monthly New Zealand.
meetings. Conferences are held in Australia every National Water Commission
few years and seminars are held more frequently. 95 Northbourne Avenue
The national newsletter is published quarterly on Canberra ACT 2600
the web site. Phone: +61 2 6102 6000
Members are entitled to use ‘MIAH’ (Member of Fax: +61 2 6102 6006
the International Association of Hydrogeologists) Email: enquiries@nwc.gov.au
after their name. Anyone directly or indirectly Web site: http://www.nwc.gov.au
engaged in study, research, or management of
Geoscience Australia
water in its various forms related to hydrogeology
GPO Box 378
is eligible to become a member.
Canberra ACT 2601
1. Much of the new information in this chapter was Phone: +61 2 6249 9111
provided by The Queensland Department of Natural Fax: +61 2 6249 9999
Resources, with their permission, with minor revision Email: feedback@ga.gov.au
and addition for this fifth edition. Web site: http://www.ga.gov.au

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Bureau of Rural Sciences Perth Laboratory

GPO Box 858 Private Bag
Canberra ACT 2601 PO Wembley WA 6014
Phone: +61 2 6272 3933 Phone: +61 8 9333 6200
Fax: +61 2 6272 4747 Fax: +61 8 9333 6211
Email: info.pubs@brs.gov.au Email: enquiries@per.clw.csiro.au
Web site: http://www.daff.gov.au/brs Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/
perth/
Department of Environment,
Water Heritage and the Arts Sydney Laboratory
King Edward Terrace Locked Bag 2007
Parkes ACT 2600 Kirrawee NSW 2232
Phone: +61 2 6274 1111 Phone: +61 2 9710 6777
Web site: http://www.environment.gov.au Fax: +61 2 9710 6800
Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/
CSIRO Land and Water Division sydney/
(ten locations)
Townsville Laboratory
Adelaide Laboratory Private Mail Bag
Private Bag No 2 PO Aitkenvale Qld 4814
Glen Osmond SA 5064 Phone: +61 7 4753 8500
Phone: +61 8 8303 8400 Fax: +61 7 4753 8600
Fax: +61 8 8303 8590 Email: enquiries@tvl.clw.csiro.au
Email: enquiries@adl.clw.csiro.au Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/
Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/ townsville/
adelaide/ Wagga Wagga Laboratory
Brisbane Laboratory Locked Bag 588, Building 24
120 Meiers Road Wagga Wagga NSW 2678
Indooroopilly Qld 4068 Wodonga Laboratory
Phone: +61 7 3214 2700 PO Box 991
Fax: +61 7 3214 2855 Wodonga Vic 3689
Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/ Phone: +61 2 6058 2300
brisbane/ Fax: +61 2 6059 7531
Canberra Laboratory Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/
GPO Box 1666 wodonga/
Canberra ACT 2601 Western Australia Department of Water
Phone: +61 2 6246 5700 PO Box K822
Fax: +61 2 6246 5800 Perth WA 6842
Email: enquiries@cbr.clw.csiro.au Phone: +61 8 6364 7600
Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/ Fax: +61 8 6364 7601
canberra/ Email: Atrium.Reception@water.wa.gov.au
Griffith Laboratory Web site: http://www.water.wa.gov.au
Private Bag 3 Victorian Department of Sustainability
Griffith NSW 2680 and Environment
Phone: +61 2 6960 1500 Head Office
Fax: +61 2 6960 1600 8 Nicholson Street
Email: enquiries@grf.clw.csiro.au East Melbourne Vic 3002
Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au Phone: 136 186
Email: customer.service@dse.vic.gov.au
Melbourne Laboratory
Web site: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au
PO Box 56
Highett Vic 3190 Tasmanian Department of Primary
Phone: +61 3 9252 6000 Industries, Parks, Water and
Fax: +61 3 9252 6244 Environment
Web site: http://www.clw.csiro.au/division/ GPO Box 44
melbourne/ Hobart Tas 7001

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Phone: +61 3 6233 6753 8.3. APPROXIMATE WATER

Fax: +61 3 6233 6055 SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS FOR
Email: Water.Enquiries@dpipwe.tas.gov.au HOMES AND FARMS1
Web site: http://www.dpipwe.tas.gov.au

South Australian Department for Water Water requirements for dwellings

GPO Box 2834
Adelaide SA 5001 Purpose Requirement
Phone: +61 8 8463 6800
Per person, for all purposes 200 L/d
Fax: +61 8 8463 7900
Email: dfwfeedback@sa.gov.au Hand basin 5 L/usage
Web site: http://www.waterforgood.sa.gov.au/ Bath 50 - 150 L
Queensland Department of Environment Shower 40 - 250 L
and Resource Management Full flush toilet 12 L
GPO Box 2454
Dishwasher 20 - 90 L/load
Brisbane Qld 4001
Phone: 13 13 04 Average household 225 000 L/yr
Email: info@derm.qld.gov.au Washing machine 40 - 265 L/load
Web site: http://www.derm.qld.gov.au Hose, 12 mm 680 L/h
Northern Territory Department of Hose, 19 mm 1140 L/h
Natural Resources, Environment, Lawn sprinkler 650 L/h
the Arts and Sport
PO Box 496 Dripping tap 150 L/d
Palmerston NT 0831
Phone: +61 8 8999 3615 Livestock water use (litres per day)
Fax: +61 8 8999 9666
Email: des.yinfoo@nt.gov.au Average
Web site: http://www.nt.gov.au/nreta/water/ Type and peak
index/html (L/d)

New South Wales Department of Dairy cow, in milk 70 - 85

Environment, Climate Change and Dairy cow, dry 45 - 60
Water, NSW Office of Water Beef cattle 45 - 60
GPO Box 3889
Calves 22 - 30
Sydney NSW 2001
Phone: +61 2 8281 7777 Nursing ewes, dry feed 9 - 11.5
Fax: +61 2 8281 7799 Mature sheep, dry feed 7 - 8.5
Email: info@environment.nsw.gov.au
Mature sheep, irrigated pasture 3.5 - 4.5
Web site: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au
Fattening lambs, dry pasture 2.2 - 3
Institute of Geological and Nuclear
Fattening lambs, irrigated pasture 1.1 - 1.5
Sciences – New Zealand
PO Box 30368 Horses, working 55 - 60
Lower Hutt, New Zealand Horses, grazing 35 - 45
Phone: +64 4 570 1444
Brood sows 22 - 30
Fax: +64 4 570 4603
Email: available from web site Mature pigs 11 - 15
Web site: http://www.gns.cri.nz Laying hens 0.3 - 0.4
Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea Non-laying hens 0.18 - 0.23
Box 778 Turkeys 0.55 - 0.7
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
Phone: +67 5 321 2422 1. From Department of Natural Resources Water Facts
Fax: +67 5 321 1360 (Department of Natural Resources: Brisbane),
by permission.

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8.4. WINDMILL PUMPING CAPACITY1

Nominal diameter of pump cylinder (mm)

Mill 50 60 65 70 75
diameter Total Av Total Ave Total Ave Total Ave Total Ave
(m) head output head output head output head output head output
(m) (L/d) (m) (L/d) (m) (L/d) (m) (L/d) (m) (L/d)
1.8 18 4700 16 6000 13 7400 11 9000 10 10 700
2.4 33 5200 28 6600 23 8100 20 9800 17 11 700
3 60 5100 51 6400 43 7900 37 9600 32 11 400
3.6 72 5500 68 7000 58 8600 49 10 400 43 12 400
4.3 113 4700 95 6000 81 7400 69 8900 60 10 500

1. From DNR Water Facts W44, March 1995 (Department of Natural Resources: Brisbane), by permission.

8.5. VOLUMES CORRESPONDING TO STANDARD PIPE SIZES

Volume = pipe inner diameter in millimetres2 × 0.0007854 = volume in litres per metre length.

Internal Volume Internal Volume Internal Volume

diameter (L/m) diameter (L/m) diameter (L/m)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
10 0.08 120 11.3 320 80.4
15 0.18 130 13.3 330 85.6
20 0.31 140 15.4 340 90.8
25 0.49 150 17.7 350 96.2
30 0.71 160 20.1 360 102
35 0.96 170 22.7 370 108
40 1.26 180 25.4 380 113
45 1.59 190 28.4 390 119
50 1.96 200 31.4 400 126
55 2.38 210 34.6 410 132
60 2.83 220 38 420 139
65 3.32 230 41.6 430 145
70 3.85 240 45.2 440 152
75 4.42 250 49.1 450 159
80 5.03 260 53.1 460 166
85 5.67 270 57.3 470 173
90 6.36 280 61.6 480 181
95 7.09 290 66.1 490 189
100 7.85 300 70.7 500 196
110 9.5 310 75.5 600 283

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8.6. GRAPH SHOWING FLOW FROM VARIOUS DIAMETER PIPES1

1. From New South Wales Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission (after E Smith).

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8.7. FACTORS FOR CALCULATING VOLUME OF PARTIALLY FILLED

HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR TANKS1

Ratio a/d Per cent of Ratio a/d Per cent of Ratio a/d Per cent of
volume volume volume
0.01 0.169 0.35 31.192 0.7 74.768
0.05 1.869 0.4 37.353 0.75 80.449
0.1 5.204 0.45 43.644 0.8 85.763
0.15 9.405 0.5 50 0.85 90.595
0.2 14.237 0.55 56.356 0.9 94.796
0.25 19.551 0.6 62.647 0.95 98.131
0.3 25.232 0.65 68.808 1 100

1. From Department of Natural Resources, Queensland, Driller’s Note Book, Table 9, by permission.

8.8. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR UNITS OF PRESSURE1

psi atms Feet Inches kg/ Metres Inches mm of bar kPa

head head cm2 head of mercury (exact
of of of water mercury conversion
water water factor)
1 0.068 2.3108 27.73 0.0703 0.7043 2.036 51.754 0.0689 6.894 757
14.696 1 33.959 407.51 1.0332 10.351 29.291 760.57 1.0132 101.325
0.4327 0.0294 1 12 0.0304 0.3048 0.8811 22.396 0.0298 2.983 6959
0.0361 0.0024 0.0833 1 0.0025 0.0254 0.0734 1.8644 0.0025 0.248 641 32
14.223 0.9678 32.867 394.41 1 10.018 28.959 736.11 0.9807 98.0665
1.4223 0.0966 3.2808 39.371 0.0998 1 2.8907 73.479 0.0979 9.789 0284
0.4912 0.0334 1.135 13.62 0.0345 0.3459 1 25.419 0.0339 3.386 3837
0.0193 0.0013 0.0446 0.5358 0.0014 0.0136 0.0393 1 0.0013 0.133 2219
14.504 0.9869 33.515 402.19 1.0197 10.216 29.53 750.63 1 100
0.145 0.0099 0.3352 4.0219 0.0102 0.1022 0.2953 7.5063 0.01 1

1. Calculated from the exact conversion factors shown in the kPa column, from AS/NZS 1376:1996.

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8.9. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR PUMPING TEST UNITS1

Discharge rate
L/s m3/d m3/s Imp gal/d US gal/d ft3/d
1 L/s 1.000 86.40 1.000 × 10-3 1.901 × 104 2.282 × 104 3.051 × 103
3 -4 3 3
1 m /h 0.2777 24.00 2.777 × 10 5.279 × 10 6.340 × 10 8.476 × 102
1 m3/d 1.157 × 10-2 1000 1.157 × 10-5 2.200 × 102 2.642 × 102 35.32
3 4 7
1 Imp gal/d 1.000 × 10 8.640 × 10 1.000 1.901 × 10 2.282 × 107 3.051 × 103
1 US gal/d 5.262 × 10-5 4.546 × 10-3 5.262 × 10-8 1.000 1.201 0.1605
3 -5 -3 -8
1 ft /d 4.381 × 10 3.785 × 10 4.381 × 10 0.8327 1.000 0.1337
1 0.3277 2.832 × 10-2 3.277 × 10-7 6.229 7.481 1.000

Hydraulic conductivity
m/d m/s cm/h Imp US Imp gal/ US gal/
gal/d-ft2 gal/d-ft2 min-ft2 min-ft2
1 m/d 1.000 1.157 × 10-5 4.167 20.44 24.54 1.419 × 10-2 1.704 × 10-2
1 m/d 8.640 × 104 1.000 3.600 × 105 1.766 × 106 2.121 × 106 1.226 × 103 1.472 × 103
-6 -3
1 cm/h 0.2400 2.777 × 10 1.000 4.905 5.890 3.406 × 10 4.089 × 10-3
1 Imp gal/
4.893 × 10-2 5.663 × 10-7 0.2039 1.000 1.201 6.944 × 10-4 8.339 × 10-4
d-ft2
1 US gal/
4.075 × 10-2 4.716 × 10-7 0.1698 0.8327 1.000 5.783 × 10-4 6.944 × 10-4
d-ft2
1 Imp gal/
70.46 8.155 × 10-2 2.936 × 102 1.440 × 103 1.729 × 103 1.000 1.201
min-ft2
1 US gal/
58.67 6.791 × 10-2 2.445 × 102 1.195 × 103 1.440 × 103 0.8326 1.000
min-ft2

Transmissivity
m2/d m2/s Imp US Imp US
gal/d-ft gal/d-ft gal/min-ft gal/min-ft
1 m2/d 1.000 1.157 × 10-5 67.05 80.52 4.656 × 10-2 5.592 × 10-2
1 m2/s 8.64 × 104 1.000 5.793 × 106 6.957 × 106 4.023 × 103 4.831 × 103
-2 -7 -4
1 Imp gal/d-ft 1.491 × 10 1.726 × 10 1.000 1.201 6.944 × 10 8.339 × 10-4
1 US gal/day-ft 1.242 × 10-2 1.437 × 10-7 0.8326 1.000 5.783 × 10-4 6.944 × 10-4
1 Imp gal/min-ft 21.48 2.486 × 10-4 1.440 × 103 1.729 × 103 1.000 1.201
-4 3
1 US gal/min-ft 17.88 2.070 × 10 1.199 × 10 1.440 × 103 0.8326 1.000

Length
m cm ft in
2
1m 1.000 1.000 × 10 3.281 39.37
1 cm 1.000 × 10-2 1.000 3.281 × 10-2 0.3937
1 ft 0.3048 30.48 1.000 12.00
1 in 2.540 × 10-2 2.540 8.333 × 10-2 1.000

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Length reciprocals
m-1 cm-1 ft-1 in-1
1 m-1 1.000 1.000 × 10-2 0.3048 2.540 × 10-2
1 cm-1 1.0 × 102 1.000 3.48 2.540
-1
1 ft 3.281 3.281 × 10-2 1.000 8.333 × 10-2
1 m-1 39.37 0.3937 12.00 1.000

Area Area reciprocals

2 2
m f m-2 f-2
1 m2 1.000 10.76 1 m-2 1.000 9.290 × 10-2
2 -2 -2
1 ft 9.290 × 10 1.000 1 ft 10.76 1.000

Volume
m3 L Imp gal US gal ft3
3 3 2 2
1m 1.000 1.000 × 10 2.200 × 10 2.642 × 10 35.32
-3
1L 1.000 × 10 1.000 0.2200 0.2642 3.532 × 10-2
-3
1 Imp gal 4.546 × 10 4.546 1.000 1.200 0.1605
-3
1 US gal 3.785 × 10 3.785 0.8326 1.000 0.1337
3 -2
1 ft 2.832 × 10 28.32 6.229 7.481 1.000

Time
d h min s
1d 1.000 24.00 1.440 × 103 8.640 × 104
1h 4.167 × 10-2 1.000 60.00 3.600 × 103
1 min 6.944 × 10-4 1.667 × 10-2 1.000 60.00
-5
1s 1.157 × 10 2.777 × 10-4 1.667 × 10-2 1.000

Time reciprocals
d-1 h-1 min-1 s-1
1 d-1 1.000 4.167 × 10-2 6.944 × 10-4 1.157 × 10-5
-1 -2
1h 24.00 1.000 1.667 × 10 2.777 × 10-4
1 min-1 1.440 × 103 60.00 1.000 1.667 × 10-2
-1 4 3
1s 8.640 × 10 3.600 × 10 60.00 1.000

1. From Kruseman, G P and De Ribber, N A, 1991. Analysis and evaluation of pumping test data, Bulletin 11,
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement.

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8.10. CIRCULAR ORIFICE METER DISCHARGE TABLE1

Clear
Observation Reference
Tube Scale 10 NB
150 NB
Orifice Barrel Pet Cock

10 NB Central Orifice
Pet Cock Reference Plate
Point

From Bore Orifice Meter

1.2 m to nearest bend tee or valve 610mm Rubber

Gasket

Pipe
Support
Ground Level

Formula Orifice meter plate diameter (mm) c

0.5
Q = 0.0115774ch 25 3.68
where: 51 15.2
Q = discharge in litres per second 76 35.1
c = discharge coefficient 102 69.3
h = height in millimetres of water in tube 114 94.2

Plate diameter
Tube
height 25 mm 51 mm 76 mm 102 mm 114 mm
3 3 3 3
mm L/s m /d L/s m /d L/s m /d L/s m /d L/s m3/d
100 0.426 37 1.759 152 4.062 351 8.021 693 10.903 942
200 0.602 52 2.488 215 5.745 496 11.343 980 15.419 1332
300 0.738 64 3.047 263 7.036 608 13.892 1200 18.884 1632
400 0.852 74 3.519 304 8.125 702 16.042 1386 21.806 1884
500 0.952 82 3.934 340 9.084 785 17.935 1550 24.379 2106
600 1.043 90 4.309 372 9.951 860 19.647 1697 26.706 2307
700 1.127 97 4.655 402 10.748 929 21.221 1834 28.846 2492
800 1.205 104 4.976 430 11.495 993 22.686 1960 30.838 2664
900 1.278 110 5.278 456 12.187 1053 24.062 2079 32.708 2826
1000 1.347 116 5.563 481 12.847 1110 25.364 2191 34.478 2979
1100 1.413 122 5.835 504 13.474 1164 26.602 2298 36.16 3124
1200 1.475 127 6.094 527 14.073 1216 27.785 2401 37.768 3263
1300 1.536 133 6.343 548 14.648 1266 28.92 2499 39.311 3396
1400 1.594 138 6.583 569 15.2 1313 30.011 2593 40.794 3525
1500 1.65 143 6.814 589 15.734 1359 31.065 2684 42.226 3648
1600 1.704 147 7.037 608 16.25 1404 32.083 2772 43.611 3768
1700 1.756 152 7.254 627 16.75 1447 33.071 2857 44.953 3884
L/s = litres per second
m3/d = cubic metres per day
For use with 152 mm outer diameter aluminium orifice meter.
Tables based on water temperature of 16°C.
1. Source: Queensland Department of Natural Resources.

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8.11. RECTANGULAR AND V-NOTCH WEIR BOARD DISCHARGE TABLE1

300 mm
Reference
Point 150 mm 610 mm or 305 mm
Reference
Point

150 mm
90

150 mm
V Notch

Weir Board

V-Notch Regtangular
2.48 1.5 Q = discharge in litres per second
0.17556H 0.20955 (L - 0.2H) H
Q= Q= H = depth in millimetres of water over weir
3600 3600
L = width in millimetres of weir crest

Weir board discharge tables

Depth V-Notch 305 mm board 610 mm board 914 mm board
mm L/s m3/d L/s m3/d L/s m3/d L/s m3/d
10 0.015 1
20 0.052 7
30 0.225 19 2.858 247 5.773 499 8.658 751
40 0.458 40 4.371 378 8.859 765 13.347 1153
50 0.797 69 6.067 524 12.34 1.066 18.612 1608
60 1.253 108 7.921 684 16.167 1397 24.412 2109
70 1.836 159 9.913 857 20.304 1754 30.695 2652
80 2.557 221 12.029 1039 24.724 2136 37.419 3233
90 3.425 296 14.254 1232 29.402 2540 44.55 3849
100 4.448 384 16.578 1432 34.32 2965 52.062 4498
110 5.633 487 18.991 1641 39.46 3409 59.929 5178
120 6.99 604 21.486 1856 44.808 3871 68.131 5886
130 8.525 737 24.054 2078 50.352 4350 76.649 6623
140 10.245 885 26.69 2306 56.079 4845 85.469 7384
150 29.386 2539 61.98 5355 94.574 8171
160 32.137 2777 68.044 5879 103.951 8981
170 34.939 3019 74.264 6416 113.59 9814
180 37.785 3265 80.631 6967 123.477 10 668
190 40.673 3514 87.138 7529 133.604 11 543

1. Source: Queensland Department of Natural Resources.

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8.12. PRESSURE CORRESPONDING TO HEAD OF WATER1

Head (m) Pressure (kPa) Head (m) Pressure (kPa) Head (m) Pressure (kPa)
1 9.796 30 293.88 180 1763.3
2 19.592 40 391.84 200 1959.2
3 29.388 50 489.8 250 2449
4 39.184 60 587.76 300 2938.8
5 48.98 70 685.72 350 3428.6
6 58.776 80 738.68 400 3918.4
7 68.572 90 881.64 450 4408.2
8 78.368 100 979.6 500 4898
9 88.164 120 1175.5 1000 9796
10 97.96 140 1371.4
20 195.92 160 1567.4

1. Calculated for water at maximum density (4° or 39.2°F), when P in psi = 0.4334 H in feet, and P in kilopascals
= 9.796 H in metres. At 20°C and one atmosphere, one foot head of water = 0.432749 psi and one metre head of
water = 9 .78904 kPa.

8.13. RECOMMENDED WELL DIAMETERS FOR VARIOUS PUMPING RATES1

Well yield (m3/day) Pump bowl size (mm OD) Optimum casing size (mm ID)
<545 102 152 ID
409 - 954 127 203 ID
818 - 1910 152 254 ID
1640 - 3820 203 305 ID
2730 - 5450 254 356 OD
4360 - 9810 305 406 OD
6540 - 16 400 356 508 OD
10 900 - 20 700 406 610 OD
16 400 - 32 700 508 762 OD

1. Source: Sterrett, R, 2007. Groundwater and Wells, third edition (Johnson Screens: New Brighton, Minnesota),
reprinted by permission of Johnson Screens / a Weatherford Company.

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8.14. APPROXIMATE AIRLIFT CAPACITIES FOR AIRLIFT PUMPING1

Borehole Air pipe Pumping submergence % Air compressor

size tube OD delivery
mm mm 10% 20% 40% 60% 80% cfm L/s
m3/d m3/d m3/d m3/d m3/d
75 18 13.5 81 216 351 486 270 127
100 25 27 151 405 675 945 470 221
125 32 40 270 756 1240 1730 740 348
150 38 65 432 1215 2000 2800 1100 517
200 50 135 810 2430 3890 5400 1900 893
250 62 270 1620 4320 7020 9720 3000 1410
300 100 405 2430 6480 10 530 14 580 4000 1880

1. Source: Sterrett, R, 2007. Groundwater and Wells, third edition (Johnson Screens: New Brighton, Minnesota),
reprinted by permission of Johnson Screens / a Weatherford Company.

8.15. NOTES ON WATER SAMPLING
A water analysis is essential before water is used
for stock, domestic or irrigation purposes. The
chemical and biological characteristics of the
water can affect crops, animals or humans.
Correct sampling of groundwater is a specialist
field. The accuracy of the final analysis is
dependent on the sample being taken correctly
from the bore, knowledge of the water source,
the correct use of preservatives, and the elapsed
time until the sample is analysed.
These notes outline the reasons for
groundwater sampling (see Table 8.15.1), some
of the methods of sampling and equipment
used (see Table 8.15.2) and types of bottles and
preservation methods (see Table 8.15.3).
If a serious groundwater sampling program is
to be undertaken, it is essential to liaise with a
hydrogeologist and the laboratory analysing the
samples.
Before a representative sample can be taken
from a bore, the stale water must be removed.
Generally three times the volume of water in the
bore should be pumped out. The pump rate, the
type of pump, the standing water level and the
date should be recorded. Some parameters such
as pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen need to
be measured in the field.
Sensitive parameters, such as heavy metals and
pesticides need special bottles and preservatives.
Bottles should be cleaned prior to sampling and
filled to the top with no air gap. They should
be labelled with the date and the details of the
source (bore, well, tap, etc) and the sampler.
For the most reliable results, the time between
the sampling and the analysis should be kept
to a minimum. Bacteriological samples need to
be collected in sterile containers, supplied by
the laboratory. These should be cooled and sent
immediately for analysis.
A standard chemical analysis usually shows
major ions, electrical conductivity, pH and a
range of other parameters. Generally, a water
sample taken from a drill hole during drilling
will be suitable only for analysis of major ions,
as other parameters, such as dissolved gases and
pH, will be disturbed.
There are numerous laboratories and
consultants that can arrange or do the
groundwater sampling and analysis.

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TABLE 8.15.1
Reasons for determining water quality parameters1.

Parameter Reason for sampling

The coliform group of organisms is the primary bacterial indicator
recommended for testing for the presence of faecal pollution. Although
coliforms may be derived from non-faecal sources (eg soil, vegetation) the
fact that they are present in large numbers in the faeces of humans and other
Bacteria warm blooded animals means they can be detected even after considerable
dilution. The presence of faecal coliforms, in particular Eschericha coli,
provides definite evidence of faecal pollution, hence points to possible
presence of pathogenic organisms. Iron bacteria are a serious problem in
some areas, causing damage to bore casing and pumps.
These are all major ions, which are general water quality indicators. Generally
Ca, Mg, K, Na (positively
dissolved in concentrations of milligrams per litre (mg/L), the major ions are
charged) H/CO3/SO4
present in water bodies as a result of weathering. Fluctuations over time can
(negatively charged)
occur as a result of land clearing, irrigation and climatic cycles.
Conductivity is the measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an
electric current. This ability depends on the presence of ions; on their total
concentration, mobility and valence; and the temperature at measurement.
Conductivity
Conductivity is an indicator of other parameters and is used mainly to give a
quick indication of total dissolved ions (TDI), which for many waters may be
useful as an estimator for total dissolved solids (TDS).
Metals that are present in trace amounts (ng/L or µg/L). Some of the metals
Cu, Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr, Zn,
can be toxic to humans and stock in larger concentrations or different
Fe, Mn, Al, Se, Hg and
oxidation states. The metals are present as a result of weathering or discharge
As
from industry and their ability to stay in solution is affected by pH and DO.
Can be an indicator of leakage from industrial or mineral processes, especially
Cyanide CN
gold mining.
Oxygen has a key role in many important chemical reactions. Can indicate
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
corrosive conditions.
Indicators of the presence of radionuclides and are useful to determine
Gross and ß radiation
whether testing for specific radionuclides is required.
Organochlorides, organo-phosphates, herbicides and fungicides are a few
Pesticides examples. The presence in water limits or prohibits use for stock or domestic
purposes.
pH or hydrogen ion activity is an indicator of relative alkalinity or
acidification. pH has a direct influence on the chemistry of the water body,
pH
altering the composition of some elements and making the water encrusting
or corrosive.
Silica High levels of silica cause encrustation when water is boiled.
It is used in conjunction with pressure and salinity to calculate DO per cent
Temperature
from DO mg/L. It can be used as an indicator of aquifer conditions.
TDS are those solids ‘in solution’ that pass through a filter of standard pore
Total dissolved solids size and will include dissolved salts, silica and colloidal material. TDS = Silica
(TDS) + Total Anions + Total Cations – (HCO3 × 0.5083), all parameters expressed
in mg/L.
Total N and total P give nutrient status. In groundwater, they tend to be in the
Unfiltered nutrients ionic forms NO3 and PO4. High levels of NO3 (>10 mg/L as N) can be toxic,
especially to newborn babies. Nutrients promote the growth of algae.

1. Source: Water Quality Sampling Guidelines, Department of Natural Resources, Queensland, 1999.

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TABLE 8.15.2
Sampling devices – advantages and disadvantages1.

Sampling Yield Advantages Disadvantages

equipment
N/A •• Can be constructed from variety •• Time consuming, non-continuous
of material compatible with flow
parameter of interest •• The person sampling the bore is
•• Can be different diameter and susceptible to exposure to any
length to suit the sampling contaminants in the sample
point •• It may be difficult to determine the
•• No external power source point within the water column that
required the sample represents
Bailer
•• Easy to clean or disposable •• Can be impractical to remove
•• Inexpensive and readily storage water in a deep bore with
available a bailer
•• Lower surface area to volume •• Aeration may result during transfer
ratio reduces outgassing of of sample from bailer to sample
volatile organics bottle
•• Bailer check valves may fail to
function properly
N/A •• Neither aeration nor outgassing •• Inefficient for collecting large
occurs as it does not come in samples
contact with atmosphere •• Syringes cannot be used for
•• Can be made of inert or any evacuating stagnant water
material •• The use of syringes is limited to
Syringe
•• Inexpensive, highly portable water with a low suspended solids
devices
and simple to operate content
•• Can be used in small diameter •• Some leakage may occur around the
wells plunger when syringes are used to
•• Sample can be collected at sample water containing high level
various intervals of suspended solids
Dependent •• Relatively portable •• Causes changes in carbon dioxide
upon capacity •• Readily available concentration and thus not suitable
of compressor for sampling for pH-sensitive
•• Inexpensive
and bore, parameters
and the •• Some are suitable for well
•• Because of degassing effect on
Air-lift submergence development – depends on
sample it is not an appropriate
sampler of the airpipe yield rate of device
method of sampling for detailed
chemical analysis
•• Aeration is impossible to avoid
unless elaborate precautions are
taken
Flow rate •• Highly portable •• Limited sampling depth (6 - 8 m)
high. •• Easily available •• Loss of dissolved gases and volatiles
Low head, •• Flow rate can be controlled due to vacuum effect
<8 m •• Potential of hydrocarbon
Suction-lift •• Inexpensive
contamination of samples due to
pumps •• Can be constructed in small
use of petrol or diesel for running
diameter
the pump
•• Use of centrifugal pumps results in
aeration and turbulence

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Sampling Yield Advantages Disadvantages

equipment
Flow rate 1 L/ •• Portable, small diameter •• Non-continuous flow
min head over •• Non-contact, gas driven pump •• Low flow rate
100 m that uses compressed air to •• Time consuming to purge bore
expand and contract flexible
Bladder
bladder
pump
•• Minimal effect on water
chemistry because of
non-contact and exclusion from
the atmosphere
15 - 30 L/min •• Constructed from various •• Conventional units are unable
9 - 90 m head materials to pump sediment laden water
•• Wide range of diameters without incurring damage to pump
•• Readily available •• Smallest diameter pump is
Submersibe relatively inexpensive
•• High pumping rates are
pump possible for evacuation of large •• Most of submersible pumps are too
volumes large for 50 mm diameter pumps
•• Provides a continuous sample •• Must be able to pump at low rate
over extended periods of time for sampling and a high rate for
purging
>5 L/min •• Simple construction, •• For use primarily in small
45 m head inexpensive diameter bores as large bores
(these •• Manual, gas or electric motor increase the possibility of tubing
are quite driven sway
Inertial optimistic •• Good for sediment clogged •• Works optimally with deep
pump figures) bores installation of tubing. This may
result in the bore not being
•• If dedicated, it avoids cross-
properly purged
contamination
•• Low flow capacity

1. Source: Based on Murray-Darling Basin Groundwater Quality Sampling Guidelines, Murray-Darling Basin,
Canberra, August, 1997 (originally from Jiwan and Gates, 1992).

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TABLE 8.15.3
276

Summary of bottle type, preservative required and holding times for water quality samples.

Parameters to be measured
Field Geologists’ Manual

FILTRATE Silica and Metals Bacteria Pesticides Gross and ß Other indicators
Filterable reactive major ions radiation cyanide = 1
P, oxides of N, selenium = 2
ammonia (filtered mercury = 3
nutrients) aluminium = 4
Sample 100 mL 1L 500 mL 125 mL 1L 1L 1=1L
volume 2, 3, 4 = 500 mL
Bottle type P(R) P(D) P(A) G (sterile) G(S) P(S) 1 = P(R); 2 = P(A);

CHAPTER 8 – hydrogeology
P (sterile) 3 = G(A); 4 = P(A)
Filtered Yes No No/Yes No No No No
Air space in 20 mm No 10 mm for acid 10 mm air No No No
bottle space
Additive None None 5 mL conc None None 5 mL conc 1 = 5 mL NaOH
HNO3 HNO3 2 = 5 mL HNO3
3 = 5 mL HNO3 then
5 mL potassium dichromate
4 = 5 mL HNO3
Cooling Refrigerate Not required None Refrigerate Refrigerate None 1 = refrigerate
requirement immediately, 2, 3, 4 = none
freeze within
12 hours
Store in dark No No No No Yes No 1 = yes; 2, 3, 4 = no
Delivery time 24 hours chilled 14 days 28 days 24 hours 7 days No limit 1 = 24 hours; 2 = 28 days
limit 28 days frozen 3 = 3 days; 4 = 28 days

Bottle types: P – polyethylene, G – glass.

Bottle preparation: (A) acid washed, (D) detergent washed, (S) solvent washed, (R) reverse osmosis water washed.
Cooling: Refrigerate 1°C to 4°C, Freeze -4°C or lower.
Source: Water Quality Sampling Guidelines, Department of Natural Resources, Queensland, 1999.
Reference: Murray-Darling Basin Groundwater Quality Sampling Guidelines, Murray-Darling Basin, Canberra, August, 1997.
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 CHAPTER 8 – hydrogeology

8.16. GUIDELINES FOR microbiological content of water is a specialised

CHARACTERISTICS OF
DRINKING WATER
The determination of drinking water quality is
a complex subject. This table shows values and
comments about common quality parameters
used in the determination of drinking water
suitability. Organic compounds (including
pesticides, fungicides and herbicides) are not
presented as they are numerous and sometimes
difficult to determine. The assessment of the
field and is not covered here. Water that has been
distributed by metallic pipes may contain higher
concentrations of metals such as zinc, copper,
chromium and cadmium.
The following information is given as a guide
only. For further information, refer to the full
text of the National Health and Medical Research
Council Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
2004 and subsequent amendments (http://
www.nhmrc.gov.au).

Guideline values
Characteristic Comments
Health Aesthetic*
Groundwater usually has low oxygen
Dissolved oxygen ** >85 per cent concentrations that can allow toxic trace
elements to enter or remain in solution
Extreme pH values may adversely affect health,
pH 6.5 - 8.5 and can allow toxic trace elements to enter or
remain in solution
Caused by calcium and magnesium salts.
Hardness as CaCO3 ** 200 Hard water is difficult to lather and can
cause encrustations
Total dissolved solids ** 500 500 - 1000 is acceptable based on taste
Aluminium (acid
# 0.2 <0.1 mg/L is desirable
soluble)
Presence may indicate sewage contamination or
Ammonia (as NH3) 0.5
agricultural activities
From natural sources and mining/industrial/
Arsenic 0.007
agricultural wastes
Barium 0.7 From natural sources
Boron 0.3 From natural sources or contamination
Cadmium 0.002 From industrial or agricultural contamination
Chloride ** 250 From natural sources or contamination
Chromium (as Cr (VI)) 0.05 From industrial/agricultural contamination
Copper 2 1 From natural sources
Cyanide 0.08 From industrial waste, some plants and bacteria
Fluoride 1.5 From natural sources
Iron # 0.3 From natural sources
Lead 0.01 From natural sources
Manganese 0.5 0.1 From natural sources. Contributes to hardness
Low concentrations from natural sources, from
Mercury 0.001
industrial processes and effluent
From natural sources, higher concentrations from
Molybdenum 0.05
mining and agriculture
Nickel 0.02 From natural sources
From natural sources and pollution from sewage
Nitrate (as nitrate) 50
and agricultural activities

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Guideline values
Characteristic Comments
Health Aesthetic*
Selenium 0.01 Generally low concentrations from natural sources
Sodium ** 180 From natural sources
Sulfate 500 250 From natural sources
Zinc # 3 Generally low concentrations from natural sources

* Aesthetic values are not listed if the chemical does not cause aesthetic problems, or if the value determined
from health considerations is lower.
** No health-based guideline value is considered necessary.
# Insufficient data to set a guideline value based on health considerations.
Note: All values except pH and dissolved oxygen in milligrams per litre (mg/L).
Source: Adapted from Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 1996. National Health and Medical Research Council
and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand.

8.17. RECOMMENDED STOCK Magnesium

WATER QUALITY
Good quality water is essential for successful
livestock production through the maintenance of
animal health and fertility. Contaminants in water
may produce residues in animal products and
create human health risks. Some of the common
parameters are given below. It is emphasised
that other water quality parameters can have
an effect on the suitability of water, and should
be taken into consideration when determining
whether water is suitable for livestock drinking.
Insufficient information is available to set a
guideline value for magnesium in livestock
drinking water.
Nitrate and nitrite
Nitrate concentrations less than 400 mg/L in
livestock drinking water should not be harmful
to animal health. Water containing more than
1500 mg/L nitrate is likely to be toxic to animals
and should be avoided.

Calcium
Stock should tolerate concentrations of calcium
in water up to 1000 mg/L, if calcium is the
dominant cation and dietary phosphorous levels
are adequate.
Sulfate
Adverse effects to stock are not expected if the
concentration of sulfate in drinking water does
not exceed 1000 mg/L. Levels of sulfate greater
than 2000 mg/L may cause chronic or acute
health problems in stock.

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Total dissolved solids (TDS)

The following table outlines the recommended concentrations of total dissolved solids in drinking
water for livestock.

Livestock Total dissolved solids (mg/L)

No adverse effects Animals may have initial Loss of production and a decline
on animals expected reluctance to drink or there may in animal condition and health
be some scouring, but stock would be expected. Stock may
should adapt without loss of tolerate these levels for short
production periods if introduced gradually
Beef cattle 0 - 4000 4000 - 5000 5000 - 10 000
Dairy cattle 0 - 2500 2500 - 4000 4000 - 7000
Sheep 0 - 5000 5000 - 10 000 10 000 - 13 0001
Horses 0 - 4000 4000 - 6000 6000 - 7000
Pigs 0 - 4000 4000 - 6000 6000 - 8000
Poultry 0 - 2000 2000 - 3000 3000 - 4000

1. Sheep on lush green feed may tolerate up to 13 000 mg/L total dissolved solids without any loss of condition or
production.

Heavy metals and metalloids

The guidelines in Table 8.17.2 are the metal
Stock tolerance to many metals in drinking water concentrations below which there is a minimal
is also dependent on dietary intake of the metal. risk of toxic effects.

TABLE 8.17.2
Recommended water quality guideline values (low risk) for
heavy metals and metalloids in livestock drinking water.

Metal or metalloid Guideline value Metal or metalloid Guideline value

(low risk) (mg/L) (low risk) (mg/L)
Aluminium 5 Fluoride 2
0.5 Iron Not sufficiently toxic
Arsenic 1
5 Lead 0.4
Beryllium ND Manganese Not sufficiently toxic
Boron 5 Mercury 0.002
Cadmium 0.01 Molybdenum 0.05
Chromium 1 Nickel 1
Cobalt 1 Selenium 0.02
0.5 (sheep) Uranium 0.2
1 (cattle) Vanadium ND
Copper
5 (pigs) Zinc 20
5 (poultry)

1. It may be tolerated if not provided as a food additive and natural levels in the diet are low.
ND Not determined, insufficient background data to calculate.

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Pesticides and other organic toxicants1
In the absence of adequate information on
pesticides derived specifically for livestock under
Australian and New Zealand conditions, it is
recommended that, as a conservative measure
the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 1996,
National Health and Medical Research Council
and Agriculture and Resource Management
Council of Australia and New Zealand be adopted
for livestock drinking water quality.
8.18. RECOMMENDED IRRIGATION
WATER QUALITY
Salinity is the term used when referring to the
presence of soluble salts in waters or in or on soils.
It is an important factor when considering the
suitability of waters and soils for growing crops.
However, the suitability of particular water for
irrigation depends also on factors such as toxicity
of specific metals, pH and other parameters. The
suitability of the water will also depend on the
salt tolerance of the crop, the climate, the soil
and the irrigation practice. It is recommended
that a specialist assess all of the above factors to
1. Source: Australian and New Zealand Guidelines
for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, July 1999,
Australian and New Zealand Environment and
Conservation Council, and Agriculture and
Resource Management Council of Australia and
New Zealand.
determine the suitability of a particular water for a
particular crop under a given set of circumstances.
The following information is a general guide
for determining suitability of waters for a variety
of crops on a variety of soils.
The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is
measured in microsiemens per centimetre (µS/
cm) or millisiemens per metre (mS/m) at a
specified temperature (usually reported at 25°C).
(1 mS/m = 10 µS/cm)
The salinity of soils is usually measured in
decisiemens per metre (dS/cm).
(1 dS/m = 1000 µS/cm)
The average root zone salinity (ECse) indicates
the salt content of the soil-water in the crop’s
root zone.
The average root zone leaching fraction (LF) is
the fraction of applied water that passes the root
zone.
Average root zone salinity (ECse) can then be
calculated from the following equation:
EC i
EC se =
2.2 LF
where:
ECse = average root zone salinity in dS/m
Eci = electrical conductivity of irrigation
water in dS/m
LF = average leaching fraction

Table 8.18.1
Soil type and average root zone leaching fraction.

Soil type Average root zone LF

Sand 0.6
Loam 0.33
Light clay 0.33
Heavy clay 0.2

TABLE 8.18.2
Soil and water salinity criteria based on plant salt tolerance groupings.

Plant salt tolerance Water or soil salinity rating Average root zone salinity
grouping or ECse (in dS/m)
Sensitive crops Very low <0.95
Moderately sensitive crops Low 0.95 - 1.9
Moderately tolerant crops Medium 1.9 - 4.5
Tolerant crops High 4.5 - 7.7
Very tolerant crops Very high 7.7 - 12.2
Generally too saline Extreme >12.2

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TABLE 8.18.3
Tolerance of plants to salinity in irrigation1.

Common name Scientific name Average ECi threshold for crops growing in
root zone
salinity
threshold Sand Loam Clay
(ECse)
Field crops
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor 6.8 9.4 5.3 3.1
Barley Hordeum vulgare 8.0 12.6 7.2 4.2
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum 7.7 12.1 6.9 4
Sugarbeet Beta vulgaris 7.0 11 6.3 3.7
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius 6.5 8.2 4.7 2.7
Wheat Triticum aestivum 6.0 9.4 5.3 3.1
Sunflower Helianthus annual app. 5.5 7.5 4.3 2.5
Oats Avena sativa 5.0 7 4 2.3
Soybean Glycine max 5.0 7 4 2.3
Rice Oryza sativa 3.0 4.8 2.7 1.6
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum 1.7 4.3 2.5 1.4
Fruits
Fig Ficus carica 4.2 5.3 3 1.8
Date Phoenix dactylifera 4.0 8.7 5 2.9
Olive Olea europaea 4.0 5.1 2.9 1.7
Peach Prunus persica 3.2 4.7 2.7 1.6
Rockmelon Cucumis melo 2.2 4.6 2.6 1.5
Orange Citrus sinensis 1.7 2.9 1.7 1
Grape Vitis spp. 1.5 3.3 1.9 1.1
Avocado Persea americana 1.3 2.3 1.3 0.8
Apple Malus sylvestris 1.0 2 1.2 0.7
Lemon Citrus limon 1.0 1.3 0.7 0.4
Strawberry Fragaria 1.0 1.6 0.9 0.5
Pastures
Rhodes grass Chloris gayana 7.0 12.8 7.3 4.2
Couch grass Cynodon dactylon 6.9 10.8 6.1 3.6
Kikuya grass Pennisetum 3.0 8 4.6 2.6
clandestinum
Sudan grass Sorghum sudanense 2.8 6.5 3.7 2.1
Clover Trifolium alexandrinum 2.0 3.8 2.2 1.3
Lucerne, Hunter Medicago sativa 2.0 4.7 2.7 1.6
river
Macroptilium 2.0 4.2 2.4 1.4
Siratro
atropurpureum
Paspalum Paspalum dilatatum 1.8 3.7 2.1 1.2

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Common name Scientific name Average ECi threshold for crops growing in
root zone
salinity
threshold Sand Loam Clay
(ECse)
Vegetables
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea 2.5 3.2 1.8 1.1
Cucumber Cucumis sativus 2.5 4.2 2.4 1.4
Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum 2.3 3.5 2 1.2
Potato Solanum tuberosum 1.7 3.2 1.8 1.1
Lettuce Latuca sativa 1.3 2.7 1.5 0.9
Onion Allium cepa 1.2 2.3 1.3 0.8
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris 1 1.9 1.1 0.6
Carrot Daucus carota 1 2.2 1.2 0.7

1. Source: Department of Natural Resources, Queensland.

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