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Chapter 9

Geophysics

9.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND The following tables2 summarise the physical
CONVERSION FACTORS1
Physical properties
The successful application of geophysics depends
on a knowledge of the physical properties of
the earth section being examined. Contrasting
properties of the host environment and the target
must be proposed in order that the appropriate
geophysical technique can be selected and
applied. The most commonly used properties
are density, magnetic susceptibility, electrical
conductivity, polarisability, radioactivity and
seismic velocity.
1. From Sharma, P V, 1986. Geophysical Methods in
Geology, second edition (Elsevier: New York).
2. If not stated otherwise, the following tables are taken
from: Telford, W M, Geldard, L P, Sheriff, R E, 1990.
Applied Geophysics, second edition (Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge), by permission.
properties of many of the more common rocks
and minerals. Values for particular rock units
are quite often obtainable from state and federal
geological survey offices. Also, measurements
can be made on rock samples collected from the
field of interest.
Conversion of SI units to CGS or
electromagnetic CGS units
The International System of Units, denoted as
SI (Système Internationale), was established in
1960 as a comprehensive electrical-mechanical-
thermodynamical system of units. It is an
extension of the MKSA (metre-kilogram-second-
ampere) system. A useful source of information
on units is ‘The Dictionary of Units’ by Frank
Tapson, which can be found on the Internet at
http://www.cleavebooks.co.uk/dictunit/

SI units Corresponding equivalent in

Quantity Name Symbol CGS or electromagnetic CGS
units
Mass kilogram kg 103 gm
Length metre m 102 cm
Time second s s
2 2
Acceleration metres/second m/s 10 gal = 102 cm/s2
2

2
Subunit for gravity gravity unit g.u. =µm/s 10-1 milligal (mgal)
Gravity gradient Eötvos Eö 10-9 gal/cm
3 3
Density kilogram/metre kg/m 10-3 g/cm3
Force newton N 105 dynes
1. 2

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SI units Corresponding
Quantity Name Symbol equivalent in CGS or
electromagnetic CGS
units
Pressure pascal Pa=N/m2 10 dynes/cm2 = 10-5 bar
Viscosity pascal sec Pa s 10 poise
Energy joule J 107 ergs = 0.24 cal
Power watt W=J/s 107 ergs
Heat flow watt/metre2 W/m2 23.9 µcal/cm2s
Conductivity (thermal) watt/metre °C W/m °C 2.39 × 10-3 cal/cm s °C
Heat production watt/metre A 2.39 × 10-7 cal/cm3 s
Current ampere A 10-1 e.m.u. (or ‘absolute
amp’)
Potential difference volt V 108 e.m.u.
Electric field volt/metre V/m 106 e.m.u.
Electric charge coulomb C=A s 10-1 e.m.u.
Capacitance farad F=C/V 10-9 e.m.u.
Resistance ohm Ω =V/A 109 e.m.u.
Resistivity ohm metre Ωm 1011 e.m.u.
Conductivity siemen/metre or S/m Ω 10-11 e.m.u.
mho/metre
Magnetic flux weber WB = Vs 108 maxwell
Magnetic flux density tesla T = Wb/m2 104 gauss (G)
(B-field)
Subunit for the B-field nanoTesla nT 1γ = 10-5 gauss (G)
Magnetising field (H-field) ampere/metre A/m 4π10-3 oersted (Oe)
Inductance henry H = Wb/A 109 e.m.u.
-7
Permeability henry metre µ0 = 4π 10 H/m 1 (for vacuum)
Susceptibility dimensionless k 4π e.m.u.
Magnetic pole strength ampere metre Am 10 e.m.u.
2 2
Magnetic moment ampere metre Am 103 e.m.u.
Magnetisation ampere/metre A/m 10-3 e.m.u.

Further physical constants are available from Markowitz, W, 1973. SI International System of Units, Geophys
Survey, 1:217-241.

Prefixes of the SI system

By using appropriate prefixes the SI unit can or for smaller measurements, a millimetre (a
be made bigger or smaller. For example the thousandth of a metre). The full range of prefixes
basic unit of length is metre. For large distances with their symbols and multiplying factors is
this becomes a kilometre (a thousand metres); given in the following table.

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yotta (Y) 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1024
zetta (Z) 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1021
exa (E) 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1018
peta (P) 1 000 000 000 000 000 = 1015
tera (T) 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012
giga (G) 1 000 000 000 = 109 (a thousand millions = a billion)
mega (M) 1 000 000 = 106 (a million)
3
kilo (k) 1 000 = 10 (a thousand)
2
hecto (h) 100 = 10
deca (da) 10 = 101
1 = 100
deci (d) 0.1 = 10-1
centi (c) 0.01 = 10-2
milli (m) 0.001 = 10-3 (a thousandth)
1
micro (µ) 0.000 001 = 10-6 (a millionth)
-9
nano (n) 0.000 000 001 = 10 (a thousand millionth)
pico (p) 0.000 000 000 001 = 10-12
femto (f) 0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10-15
atto (a) 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10-18
zepto (z) 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10-21
yocto (y) 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10-24

1. The symbol for micro (µ) is the Greek letter ‘mu’.

9.2. GRAVITY SURVEYING one metre accuracy are usually achieved using
METHODS AND TABLES
Gravity surveys
The method takes advantage of the different
rock densities to map both regional and
detailed structure and lithology. Gravimeters
measure the acceleration due to gravity at
station spacings, which may vary from a few
kilometres to a few metres depending on the
scale of the target sought. Corrections applied
to the basic instrument measurement include
those for tidal variation (earth and sun), latitude,
elevation and terrain. The final parameter is
usually the bouguer anomaly, which is a vertical
gravity acceleration expressed in µm/s2. The
older traditional units include milligals (mgals;
0.1 mgl = 1.0 µm/s2) and gravity units (gu;
1.0 g.u. = 1.0 µm/s2). Vertical elevation to ten
centimetre accuracy and horizontal position to
differential GPS. Conventional measurements
can be taken in an aircraft or on a ship, on land,
under water and in drill holes. There have been
significant recent developments in both airborne
gravity and airborne gravity gradiometry, which
measures the gradient of the gravity field rather
than the acceleration. The gradient is usually
measured in Eötvos (Eö), where 1 Eö = 10-9 gal/
cm or s-2. Airborne measurements may be made
from both fixed and rotary wing aircraft and
contract services are available for both.
Airborne gravity is usually more suitable for
long wavelength measurements in regional
surveys and gradient measurements are expected
to be more applicable in the shorter wavelength
applications used in mineral exploration. Both
airborne gravity and airborne gravity gradient
methods are advancing rapidly and are expected
to improve significantly in the next few years.

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TABLE 9.2.1
Densities of sediments and sedimentary rocks.

Rock type Range (wet) Average (wet) Range (dry) Average (dry)
g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3
Alluvium 1.96 - 2.0 1.98 1.5 - 1.6 1.54
Clays 1.63 - 2.6 2.21 1.3 - 2.4 1.7
Glacial drift – 1.8 – –
Gravels 1.7 - 2.4 2 1.4 - 2.2 1.95
Loess 1.4 - 1.93 1.64 0.75 - 1.6 1.2
Sand 1.7 - 2.3 2 1.4 - 1.8 1.6
Sand and clays 1.7 - 2.5 2.1 – –
Silt 1.8 - 2.2 1.93 1.2 - 1.8 1.43
Soils 1.2 - 2.4 1.92 1.0 - 2.0 1.46
Sandstones 1.61 - 2.76 2.35 1.6 - 2.68 2.24
Shales 1.77 - 3.2 2.4 1.56 - 3.2 2.1
Limestones 1.93 - 2.90 2.55 1.74 - 2.76 2.11
Dolomite 2.28 - 2.90 2.7 2.04 - 2.54 2.3

TABLE 9.2.2
Densities of igneous rocks.

Rock type Range Average Rock type Range Average

g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3
Rhyolite glass 2.20 - 2.28 2.24 Quartz diorite 2.62-2.96 2.79
Obsidian 2.2 - 2.4 2.3 Diorite 2.72-2.99 2.85
Vitrophyre 2.36 - 2.53 2.44 Lavas 2.80-3.00 2.9
Rhyolite 2.35 - 2.70 2.52 Diabase 2.50-3.2 2.91
Dacite 2.35 - 2.8 2.58 Essexite 2.69-3.14 2.91
Phonolite 2.45 - 2.71 2.59 Norite 2.70-3.24 2.92
Trachyte 2.42 - 2.8 2.6 Basalt 2.70-3.30 2.99
Andesite 2.4 - 2.8 2.61 Gabbro 2.70-3.50 3.03
Nepheline syenite 2.53 - 2.7 2.61 Hornblende-gabbro 2.98-3.18 3.08
Granite 2.50 - 2.81 2.64 Peridotite 2.78-3.37 3.15
Granodiorite 2.67 - 2.79 2.73 Pyroxenite 2.93-3.34 3.17
Porphyry 2.60 - 2.89 2.74 Acid igneous 2.30-3.11 2.61
(average)
Syenite 2.60 - 2.95 2.77 Basic igneous 2.09-3.17 2.79
(average)
Anorthosite 2.64 - 2.94 2.78

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TABLE 9.2.3
Densities of metamorphic rocks.

Rock type Range g/ Average g/ Rock type Range g/cm3 Average g/

cm3 cm3 cm3
Quartzite 2.5 - 2.7 2.6 Serpentinite 2.4 - 3.10 2.78
Schists 2.39 - 2.9 2.64 Slate 2.7 - 2.9 2.79
Graywacke 2.6 - 2.7 2.65 Gneiss 2.59 - 3.0 2.8
Granulite 2.52 - 2.73 2.65 Chloritic slate 2.75 - 2.98 2.87
Phyllite 2.68 - 2.8 2.74 Amphibolite 2.90 - 3.04 2.96
Marble 2.6 - 2.9 2.75 Eclogite 3.2 - 3.54 3.37
Quartzitic slate 2.63 - 2.91 2.77 Metamorphic (average) 2.4 - 3.1 2.74

TABLE 9.2.4
Densities of non-metallic minerals and miscellaneous materials.

Type Range Average Type Range Average

g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3
Snow – 0.125 Gypsum 2.2 - 2.6 2.35
Petroleum 0.6 - 0.9 – Bauxite 2.3 - 2.55 2.45
Ice 0.88 - 0.92 – Kaolinite 2.2 - 2.63 2.53
Sea water 1.01 - 1.05 – Orthoclase 2.5 - 2.6 –
Peat – 1.05 Quartz 2.5 - 2.7 2.65
Asphalt 1.1 - 1.2 – Calcite 2.6 - 2.7 –
Lignite 1.1 - 1.25 1.19 Talc 2.7 - 2.8 2.71
Soft coal 1.2 - 1.5 1.32 Anhydrite 2.9 - 3.0 2.93
Anthracite 1.34 - 1.8 1.5 Biotite 2.7 - 3.2 2.92
Brick – 1.5 Magnesite 2.9 - 3.12 3.03
Carnallite 1.6 - 1.7 – Fluorite 3.01 - 3.25 3.14
Sulfur 1.9 - 2.1 – Epidote 3.25 - 3.5 –
Chalk 1.53 - 2.6 2.01 Diamond – 3.52
Graphite 1.9 - 2.3 2.15 Corundum 3.9 - 4.1 4
Rock salt 2.1 - 2.6 2.22 Barite 4.3 - 4.7 4.47
Zircon 4.0 - 4.9 4.57

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TABLE 9.2.5
Densities of minerals.

Mineral Range Average Mineral Range Average

g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3
Copper – 8.7 Sulfides, arsenates
Silver – 10.5 Sphalerite 3.5 - 4.0 3.75
Gold 15.7 - 19.4 – Covellite – 3.8
Oxides, carbonates Malachite 3.9 - 4.03 4
Limonite 3.5 - 4.0 3.78 Chalcopyrite 4.1 - 4.3 4.2
Siderite 3.7 - 3.9 3.83 Stannite 4.3 - 4.52 4.4
Rutile 4.18 - 4.3 4.25 Stibnite 4.5 - 4.6 4.6
Manganite 4.2 - 4.4 4.32 Pyrrhotite 4.5 - 4.8 4.65
Chromite 4.3 - 4.6 4.36 Molybdenite 4.4 - 4.8 4.7
Ilmenite 4.3 - 5.0 4.67 Marcasite 4.7 - 4.9 4.85
Pyrolusite 4.7 - 5.0 4.82 Pyrite 4.9 - 5.2 5
Magnetite 4.9 - 5.2 5.12 Bornite 4.9 - 5.4 5.1
Franklinite 5.0 - 5.22 5.12 Millerite 5.3 - 5.65 5.4
Hematite 4.9 - 5.3 5.18 Chalcocite 5.5 - 5.8 5.65
Cuprite 5.7 - 6.15 5.92 Cobaltite 5.8 - 6.3 6.1
Cassiterite 6.5 - 7.1 6.92 Arsenopyrite 5.9 - 6.2 6.1
Wolframite 7.1 - 7.5 7.32 Smaltite 6.4 - 6.6 6.5
Uraninite 8.0 - 9.97 9.17 Bismuthinite 6.5 - 6.7 6.57
Argentite 7.2 - 7.36 7.25
Niccolite 7.3 - 7.67 7.5
Galena 7.4 - 7.6 7.5
Cinnabar 8.0 - 8.2 8.1

9.3. MAGNETIC SURVEY METHODS proportion. It may be oriented in any direction,

AND TABLES
Survey methods
The physical property used is magnetic
susceptibility. This is the ratio of the magnetic
moment per unit volume to the magnetic field
strength and, therefore, is dimensionless. The
values are positive for paramagnetic materials
and negative for diamagnetic materials.
Most magnetic rocks present an overwhelming
proportion of induced magnetism, which is due
to the influence of the present day geomagnetic
field. Remanent magnetism is the result of a
previous geomagnetic field that is ‘frozen’ into
the rock. Remanent magnetism is usually present
in all magnetic anomalies to a small degree, but
in some cases it is present in a much greater
not necessarily that of the present inducing field
and can have the effect of reducing or reversing
the polarity of an anomaly.
Regional applications of the magnetic method
are often used for the definition of structure
and lithology. Detailed applications may have
the same purpose plus the possible definition of
discrete magnetic mineral bodies, eg magnetite,
pyrrhotite, mineral sands. Usually the total
magnetic intensity of the earth’s magnetic field is
measured and presented in units of nanoTeslas.
Corrections for diurnal and secular variation are
made to the data.
Measurements can be obtained from fixed
wing or helicopter airborne platforms; vehicle
or pedestrian modes on the ground; and using a
probe for drill hole data. GPS is normally used

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for positioning. Local anomalies are usually from a mathematical description of the earth’s
enhanced by subtracting the International main magnetic field, which is available at http://
Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF), derived www.ngdc.noaa.gov/IAGA/vmod/igrf.html

TABLE 9.3.1
Magnetic susceptibilities of various rocks.

Type Range × 10-5 Average × 10-5 Type Range × 10-5 Average× 10-5
Sedimentary Igneous
Dolomite 0 - 60 8 Granite 0 - 3200 160
Limestones 2 - 220 20 Rhyolite 20 - 2400 –
Sandstones 0 - 1320 25 Dolerite 80 - 2400 1100
Shales 4 - 1180 40 Augite-syenite 2200 - 2900 –
Average var. 0 - 3180 60 Olivine-diabase – 1600
sed. (48)
Metamorphic Diabase 60 - 10 300 3600
Amphibolite – 50 Porphyry 20 - 1300 4000
Schist 25 - 240 95 Igneous
Phyllite – 100 Gabbro 60 - 5800 4800
Gneiss 8 - 1590 – Basalts 20 - 11 500 4800
Quartzite – 280 Diorite 40 - 8000 5600
Serpentinite 200 - 1110 – Pyroxenite – 8400
Slate 0 - 2400 400 Peridotite 6100 - 12 400 10 300
Average var. 0 - 4600 280 Andesite – 10 700
met. (61)
Average acid 2 - 5200 520
igneous
Average basic 35 - 7730 2070
igneous

TABLE 9.3.2
Magnetic susceptibilities of various minerals.

Type Range × 10-5 Average × 10-5 Type Range × 10-5 Average × 10-5
Graphite -6 Siderite 80 - 250
Quartz -1 Pyrite 3 - 330 100
Rock salt -1 Limonite 175
Anhydrite, -1 Arsenopyrite 190
gypsum
Calcite 0.5 - -1 Hematite 40 - 3000 440
Coal 2 Chromite 190 - 7500 480
Clays 16 Franklinite 29 000
Chalcopyrite 25 Pyrrhotite 100 - 500 000 100 000
Sphalerite 48 Ilmenite 20 000 - 250 000 150 000
Cassiterite 72 Magnetite 100 000 - 1 000 000 500 000

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9.4. ELECTROMAGNETIC,
RESISTIVITY AND INDUCED
POLARISATION SURVEY
METHODS AND TABLES
Electromagnetic methods
Electromagnetic (EM) methods use the
physical property of conductivity (this is the
inverse of resistivity). Equipment is available
that utilises either time-domain or frequency-
domain principles. In both cases a particular
parameter, or parameters, of the secondary
electromagnetic field is measured, from which
information regarding the conductivity of rock
types and structure is derived. Conductivity is
usually measured in siemen/metre. Systems
are available for airborne, ground and drill
hole applications. Initially developed to find
highly conductive massive sulfide deposits, the
EM method can now be applied to many other
problems in mineral exploration, geotechnical,
environmental and hydrogeological situations.
Resistivity and induced polarisation
methods
The electrical method generally referred to as
resistivity also uses the physical property of
conductivity, but by convention the units used
are the inverse of conductivity units, ie ohm.
metres. Induced polarisation is an over-voltage
phenomenon (a secondary effect) and may be
measured in units of milliseconds, percentage
frequency effect, or milliradians depending on
the type of equipment being used. In most cases
measurements are made by transmitting current
through two grounded (transmitting) electrodes
and measuring a voltage between two additional
grounded (receiving) electrodes. These electrodes
can be arranged in various configurations, in line
TABLE 9.4.1
Resistivities of minerals.
Mineral Formula
Argentite Ag2S
Bismuthinite Bi2S2
Covellite CuS
Chalcocite Cu2S
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
Bornite Cu5FeS4
Marcasite FeS2
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or over a grid, to optimise depth penetration
and detection of specific targets. The resistivity/
IP method can be applied on the ground and in
drill holes. Magneto-metric resistivity (MMR) is
a variation where the received signal is detected
by magnetometers which measure the magnetic
component of the secondary field.
Resistivity/IP was originally developed as a tool
for detecting disseminated sulfide mineralisation
but it also provides information for lithology and
structure and is often used in engineering and
groundwater applications.
Magnetic permeabilities
Magnetic permeability is the measure of the
ability of a material to support the formation of
a magnetic field within itself. In other words it
is the degree of magnetisation that a material
obtains in response to an applied magnetic
field. It is usually represented by μ measured in
henry per metre (H/m). The effect of magnetic
permeability on electrical measurements is
very slight except in the case of concentrated
magnetite, pyrrhotite and titanomagnetite. See
Table 9.4.7.
Dielectric constants of rocks and
minerals
The dielectric constant is a measure of the
electrical polarisation resulting in an applied
electric field. This polarisation may be molecular,
electronic or ionic. The dielectric constant
varies inversely with frequency. Most of the
values given in Table 9.4.8 have been made at
frequencies of 100 kHz or higher. The dielectric
constant and conductivity of rock material are
important considerations in ground penetrating
radar surveys.
Resistivity range Ωm Resistivity average Ωm
2 × 10-3 to 104 1.7 × 10-3
18 to 570 –
3 × 10-7 to 8 × 10-5 2 × 10-5
3 × 10-5 to 0.6 10-4
1.2 × 10-5 to 0.3 4 × 10-3
-5
2.5 × 10 to 0.5 3 × 10-3
10-3 to 3.5 5 × 10-2
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Mineral Formula Resistivity range Ωm Resistivity average Ωm

Pyrite FeS2 2.9 × 10-5 to 1.5 3 × 10-1
Pyrrhotite FemSn 6.5 × 10-8 to 5 × 10-2 10-4
Cinnabar HgS – 2 × 107
-3 6
Molybdenite MoS2 10 to 10 10
-5 2
Galena PbS 3 × 10 to 3 × 10 2 × 10-3
Millerite NiS – 3 × 10-7
-3 3
Stannite Cu2FeSnS2 10 to 6 × 10 –
5 12
Stibnite Sb2S3 10 to 10 5 × 106
7
Sphalerite ZnS 1.5 to 10 102
Cobaltite CoAsS 3.5 × 10-4 to 10-1 –
Smaltite CoAs2 – 5 × 10-5
-5
Arsenopyrite FeAsS 2 × 10 to 15 103
Niccolite NiAs 10-7 to 10-3 2 × 10-5
-6 -5
Sylvanite AgAuTe4 4 × 10 to 2 × 10 –
2 3
Bauxite Al2O3.nH2O 2 × 10 to 6 × 10 –
Braunite Mn2O3 0.16 to 1.2 –
Cuprite Cu2O 10-3 to 300 30
Chromite FeCr2O4 1 to 106 –
Specularite Fe2O3 – 6 × 10-3
Hematite Fe2O3 3.5 × 10-3 to 107 –
3 7
Limonite 2Fe2O3.3H2O 10 to 10 –
Magnetite Fe3O4 5 × 10-5 to 5.7 × 103 –
-3
Ilmenite FeTiO3 10 to 50 –
Wolframite Fe,Mn,WO4 10 to 105 –
-2
Manganite MnO(OH) 10 to 0.3 –
-3
Pyrolusite MnO2 5 × 10 to 10 –
Quartz SiO2 4 × 1010 to 2 × 1014 –
Cassiterite SnO2 4 × 10-4 to 104 0.2
Rutile TiO2 30 to 1000 500
Uraninite (Pitchblende) UO2 1 to 200 –
Anhydrite CaSO4 – 109
Calcite CaCO3 – 2 × 1012
Fluorite CaF2 – 8 × 1013
Siderite Fe2(CO3)3 – 70
Rock salt NaCl 30 to 1013 –
11 12
Sylvite KCl 10 to 10 –
14
Diamond C 10 to 10 –
2 3
Serpentinite 2 × 10 to 3 × 10 –
2 6
Hornblende 2 × 10 to 10 –
2 14
Mica 9 × 10 to 10 –

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Mineral Formula Resistivity range Ωm Resistivity average Ωm

Biotite 2 × 102 to 106 –
11 12
Phlogopite 10 to 10 –
5
Bituminous coal 0.6 to 10 –
Coals (various) 10 to 1011 –
-3 5
Anthracite 10 to 10 –
Lignite 9 to 200 –
Fire clay – 30
Meteoric waters 30 to 103 –
3
Surface waters 0.1 to 3 × 10 –
(igneous rocks)
Surface waters 10 to 100 –
(sediments)
Soil waters – 100
Natural waters 0.5 to 150 9
(igneous rocks)
Natural waters 1 to 100 3
(sediments)
Sea water – 0.2
Saline waters, 3% – 0.15
Saline waters, 20% – 0.05

TABLE 9.4.2
Resistivities of various ores.

Ore Other minerals Gangue Resistivity Ωm

Pyrite 19% 2% (chalcopyrite) 80% 300
40% 20% 40% 130
60% 5% (ZnS) + 15% 20% 0.9
75% 10% (ZnS) + 5% 10% 0.14
95% 5% (ZnS) 1.0
95% 5% 7.0
Pyrrhotite 41% 59% 2.2 × 10-4
58% 42% 2.3 × 10-4
79% 21% 1.1 × 10-5
95% 18% 8.5 × 10-5
95% 5% 1.4 × 10-5
SbS2 in quartz 4 × 13-3 to 3 × 107
FeAsS 60% FeS 20% 20% SiO2 0.39
FeAsS 10-4 to 10-2
Cu5FeS4 3 × 10-3
Cu5FeS4 40% 60% SiO2 7 × 10-2

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Ore Other minerals Gangue Resistivity Ωm

(Fe,Mn)WO4 80% 2 × 104
(Fe,Mn)WO4 CoAsS 103 to 107
PbS massive 7 × 10-2
PbS near massive 0.8
PbS 50 - 80% 10-2 to 3
Fe2O3 0.1 to 300
Fe2O3 2.5 to 103
Iron Fe3O4 60% 45
Fe3O4 from contact met. 0.5 to 102
Diss. brown iron oxide 8 × 102 to 3 × 106
75% brown iron oxide 25% 2 × 104 to 8 × 105
Fe2O3 fine grained 2.5 × 103
Fe3O4 5 × 103 to 8 × 103
Fe3O4 in pegmatite 7 × 103 to 2 × 105
Zinc 30% 5% PbS, 15% FeS 50% 0.75
70% 3% chalco, 17% PbS, 20
10% FeS
80% 10% PbS, 10% FeS 1.7 × 103
80% 2% chalco, 1% PbS, 15% 1.3
2% FeS
90% 5% PbS 5% 130
Graphitic slate 0.13
Graphite, massive 10 to 10-3
-4

MoS2 2 × 102 to 4 × 103

MnO2, colloidal ore 1.6
Cu2S 3 × 10-2
CuFeS2 10-4 to 1
CuFeS2, 80% 10% FeS 10% 0.66
CuFeS2, 90% 2% FeS 8% SiO2 0.65
FeCr2O4 103
FeCr2O4, 95% 5% serp. 1.2 × 104

TABLE 9.4.3
Resistivities of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Rock type Resistivity range, Ωm

Granite 3 × 102 to 106
Granite porphyry 4.5 × 10 (wet) to 1.3 × 106 (dry)
3

Feldspar porphyry 4 × 103 (wet)

Albite 3 × 10 (wet) to 3.3 × 103 (dry)
2

Syenite 102 to 106

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Rock type Resistivity range, Ωm

Diorite 104 to 105
Diorite porphyry 1.9 × 103 (wet) to 2.8 × 104 (dry)
Porphyrite 10 to 5 × 104 (wet) to 3.3 × 103 (dry)
Carbonized porphyry 2.5 × 103 (wet) to 6 × 104 (dry)
Quartz porphyry 3 × 102 to 9 × 105
Quartz diorite 2 × 10 to 2 × 106 (wet) to 1.8 × 104 (dry)
4

Porphyry (various) 60 to 104

Dacite 2 × 104 (wet)
Andesite 4.5 × 10 (wet) to 1.7 × 102 (dry)
4

Diabase porphyry 103 (wet) to 1.7 × 102 (dry)

Diabase (various) 20 to 5 × 107
Lavas 102 to 5 × 104
Gabbro 103 to 106
Basalt 10 to 1.3 × 107 (dry)
Olivine norite 103 to 6 × 104 (wet)
Peridotite 3 × 103 (wet) to 6.5 × 103 (dry)
Hornfels 8 × 103 (wet) to 6 × 107 (dry)
Schists (calcareous and mica) 20 to 104
Tuffs 2 × 10 (wet) to 105 (dry)
3

Graphitic schists 10 to 102

Slates (various) 6 × 102 to 4 × 107
Gneiss (various) 6.8 × 104 (wet) to 3 × 106 (dry)
Marble 102 to 2.5 × 108 (dry)
Skarn 2.5 × 102 (wet) to 2.5 × 108 (dry)
Quartzites (various) 10 to 2 × 108

TABLE 9.4.4
Resistivities of metals and rocks.

Element Resistivity Resistivity Element Resistivity Resistivity

range Ω m average Ω m range Ω m average Ω m
Antimony – 4.5 × 10-7 Molybdenum – 5.7 × 10-8
-7
Arsenic – 2.2 × 10 Nickel – 7.8 × 10-8
Bismuth – 1.2 × 10-6 Platinum – 10-7
Copper – 1.7 × 10-8 Silver – 1.6 × 10-8
-8 7 16
Gold – 2.4 × 10 Sulfur 10 to 10 1014
Graphite 5 × 10-7 to 10 10-3 Tellurium 10-4 to 2 × 10-3 10-3
-7
Iron – 10 Tin – 1.1 × 10-7
Lead – 2.2 × 10-7 Uranium – 3 × 10-7
Mercury – 9.6 × 10-7 Zinc – 5.8 × 10-8

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TABLE 9.4.5
Resistivities of sediments.
Rock type Resistivity range Ωm
Consolidated shales 20 to 103
Argillites 10 to 102
Conglomerates 2 × 103 to 104
Sandstones 1 to 6.4 × 108
Limestones 50 to 107
Dolomite 3.5 × 102 to 5 × 103
Unconsolidated wet clay 20
Marls 3 to 70
Clays 1 to 100
Alluvium and sands 10 to 800
Oil sands 4 to 800

TABLE 9.4.6
Variation of rock resistivity with water content.

Rock % H 2O Resistivity Ω m Rock % H2 O Resistivity Ω m

Siltstone 0.54 1.5 × 104 Peridotite 0.1 3 × 103
Siltstone 0.38 5.6 × 108 Peridotite 0 1.8 × 107
5
Coarse grain ss 0.39 9.6 × 10 Pyrophyllite 0.76 6 × 106
Coarse grain ss 0.18 108 Pyrophyllite 0 1011
Medium grain ss 1.0 4.2 × 103 Granite 0.31 4.4 × 103
8
Medium grain ss 0.1 1.4 × 10 Granite 0.19 1.8 × 106
Graywacke ss 1.16 4.7 × 103 Granite 0 1010
4
Graywacke ss 0.45 5.8 × 10 Diorite 0.02 5.8 × 105
Arkosic ss 1.0 1.4 × 103 Diorite 0 6 × 106
Organic limestone 11 0.6 × 103 Basalt 0.095 4 × 104
3
Dolomite 1.3 6 × 10 Basalt 0 1.3 × 108
Dolomite 0.96 8 × 103 Olivine-pyroxenite 0.028 2 × 104
Olivine-pyroxenite 0 5.6 × 107

TABLE 9.4.7
Magnetic permeabilities (H/m).

Mineral Permeability Mineral Permeability

Magnetite 5 Rutile 1.0000035
Pyrrhotite 2.55 Calcite 0.999987
Ilmenite 1.55 Quartz 0.999985
Hematite 1.05 Hornblende 1.00015
Pyrite 1.0015

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TABLE 9.4.8
Dielectric constants of rocks and minerals.

Rock, mineral Dielectric constant Rock, mineral Dielectric constant

Galena 18 Gypsum 5 to 11.5
Sphalerite 7.9 to 69.7 Beryl 5.5 to 7.8
Corundum 11 to 13.2 Biotite 4.7 to 9.3
Cassiterite 23 Epidote 7.6 to 15.4
Hematite 25 Orthoclase 3 to 5.8
Rutile 31 to 170 Plagioclase felspar 5.4 to 7.1
Fluorite 6.2 to 6.8 Quartz 4.2 to 5
Calcite 7.8 to 8.5 Zircon 8.6 to 12
Apatite 7.4 to 11.7 Granite (dry) 4.8 to 18.9
Barite 7 to 12.2 Gabbro 8.5 to 40
Peridote 8.6 Diorite 6
Norite 61 Serpentine 6.6
Quartz porphyry 14 to 49.3 Gneiss 8.5
Diabase 10.5 to 34.5 Sandstone (dry to moist) 4.7 to 12
Trap 18.9 to 39.8 Packed sand (dry to moist) 2.9 to 105
Dacite 6.8 to 8.2 Soil (dry to moist) 3.9 to 29.4
Obsidian 5.8 to 10.4 Basalt 12
Sulfur 3.6 to 4.7 Clays (dry to moist) 7 to 43
Rock salt 5.6 Petroleum 2.07 to 2.14
Anthracite 5.6 to 6.3 Water (20°C) 80.36
Ice 3 to 4.3

9.5. RADIOMETRIC SURVEYS AND potassium, uranium and thorium. The principal
TABLES applications are in the search for uranium, heavy
mineral sands, alteration haloes and general
geological mapping. The effective penetration of
Survey methods
gamma radiation is generally less than ten metres
The method utilises the gamma radiation emitted of regolith material. Instrumentation is available
from the isotopes or daughter products of for airborne, ground and drill hole applications.

TABLE 9.5.1
Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes.

Element Isotope Abundance Half-life Type of Energy

% (years) radiation (MeV)
Potassium 19 K40 0.012 1.3 × 109 β, K-cap + γ1 1.46
48 16
Calcium 20 Ca 0.18 >2 × 10 β 0.12
50
Vanadium 23V 0.24 6 × 1015 β, K-cap + γ1 0.17, 1.59
Rubidium 37 Rb87 27.8 4.7 × 1010 β 0.27
115 14
Indium 49 In 95.72 6 × 10 β 0.6
138
Lanthanum 57La 0.089 1.1 × 1011 β, K-cap + γ1 0.54, 0.81, 1.43
Cerium 58 Ce142 11.1 – α 1.5

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Element Isotope Abundance Half-life Type of Energy

% (years) radiation (MeV)
Neodymium 60 Nd144 23.8 5 × 1015 α 1.8
147
Samarium 62Sm 14.97 1011 α 2.32
Samarium Sm148
62 11.2 1.2 × 1013 α 2.14
149 14
Samarium 62 Sm 13.8 ~ 4 × 10 α 1.84
152
Gadolinium 64Gd 0.2 1.1 × 1014 α 2.24
Lutecium 71 Lu176 2.6 3 × 1010 β, γ 0.088, 0.20, 0.31
174 15
Hafnium 72 Hf 0.16 2 × 10 α 2.5
187
Rhenium 75Re 62.9 7 × 1010 β ' 0.008
190 11
Platinum 78 Pt 0.013 6 × 10 α 3.11
192
Platinum 78Pt 0.78 ~1015 α 2.6
204
Lead 82 Pb 1.48 – α –
Thorium2 90Th
232
100 1.39 × 1010 α, β, γ 0.03 - 2.62
Uranium2 92 U235 0.72 7.1 × 108 α, β, γ 0.02 - 0.9
2 38 9
Uranium 92 U2 99.3 4.5 × 10 α, β, γ 0.4 - 2.5

1. K-electron capture followed by γ-ray emission.

2. Each of these undergoes a long series of disintegrations ultimately yielding lead isotopes 208, 207, 206
respectively. During these disintegrations numerous γ -rays are emitted, in addition to the α-and β-particles.

TABLE 9.5.2
Natural radioactive series of thorium and uranium.

Element Isotope Half-life Decay Radiation γ-ray No of

constant energies γ-rays
sec-1 (MeV)
Thorium series
232
Thorium 90Th 1.4 × 1010yr 1.58 × 10-18 α, SF1, γ 0.059 –
228 -9
Radium 88 Ra 6.7 yr 3.3 × 10 β, γ 0.03 –
228 -4
Actinium 89 Ac 6.1 yr 3.1 × 10 β, γ 0.06 - 0.97 ( 10
228 -8
Thorium 90Th 1.91 yr 1.15 × 10 α, γ 0.085 - 0.214 5
224 -6
Radium 88 Ra 3.64 day 2.2 × 10 α, γ 0.24, 0.29 –
220
Radon 86Rn 51 sec 1.3 × 10-2 α, γ 0.54 –
Polonium 84 Po216 0.16 sec 4.3 α – –
212 -5
Lead 82 Pb 10.6 hr 1.8 × 10 β, γ 0.11 - 0.41 5
212
Bismuth 83Bi 60.6 min 1.9 × 10-4 β, α, γ 0.04 - 2.2 ( 10
212 -6 6
Polonium 84 Po 0.3 × 10 sec 2.3 × 10 α – –
208
Thallium 81Tl 3.1 min 3.7 × 10-3 β, γ 0.28 - 2.62 5
208
Lead 82Pb stable
Actinium series
235
Uranium 92U 7.1 × 108yr 3.1 × 10-17 α, SF1, γ 0.07 - 0.38 10
231 -6
Thorium 90 Th 25.6 hr 7.4 × 10 β, γ 0.08 - 0.31 ( 10

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Element Isotope Half-life Decay Radiation γ-ray No of

constant energies γ-rays
sec-1 (MeV)
Protactinium 91 Pa231 3.4 × 104yr 6.5 × 10-13 α, γ 0.29 - 0.36 ( 10
237 -9
Actinium 89 Ac 21.6 yr 10 β, α, γ 0.09 - 0.19 9
227 -7
Thorium 90 Th 18.2 day 4.35 × 10 α, γ 0.05 - 0.33 ( 10
223 -4
Francium 87Fr 22 min 5.2 × 10 β, α, γ 0.05 - 0.31 4
223 -7
Radium 88 Ra 11.7 day 6.76 × 10 α, γ 0.03 - 0.45 ( 10
219
Radon 86 Rn 4 sec 0.17 α, γ 0.27, 0.4 –
219 -2
Astatine 85 At 54 sec 1.28 × 10 α, β – –
215 -3 2
Polonium 84 Po 1.8 × 10 sec 3.8 × 10 α, β – –
215 -4 3
Astatine 85 At 10 sec 6.9 × 10 α – –
215
Bismuth 83Bi 8 min 1.44 × 10-3 β – –
211 -3
Bismuth 83 Bi 2.15 min 5.35 × 10 α, β, γ 0.35 –
211
Polonium 84 Po 0.52 sec 1.32 α, 0.56, 0.88 –
211
Lead 82Pb 36 min 3.2 × 10-4 β, γ 0.065 - 0.83 –
207 -3
Thallium 81 Tl 4.8 min 2.4 × 10 β, γ 0.89 4
207
Lead 82 Pb Stable – – – –
Uranium series
238
Uranium 92U 4.5 × 109yr 4.9 × 10-18 α, SF1, γ 0.048 –
234 -7
Thorium 90 Th 24.1 day 3.3 × 10 β, γ 0.03 - 0.09 3
234 -5
Protactinium 91 Pa 6.7 hr 2.84 × 10 β, γ 0.044 - 1.85 ( 10
234 5 -14 1
Uranium 92U 2.48 × 10 yr 8.9 × 10 α, SF , γ 0.053, 0.118 –
230 4 -10
Thorium 90 Th 8 × 10 yr 2.75 × 10 α, γ 0.068 - 0.25 7
226 -11
Radium 88 Ra 1622 yr 1.35 × 10 α, γ 0.19 - 0.64 4
222
Radon 86Rn 3.82 day 2.07 × 10-6 α, γ 0.51 –
Polonium 84 Po218 3.05 min 3.8 × 10-3 α, β – –
218
Astatine 85 At 1.35 sec 0.51 α – –
218
Radon 86Rn 0.03 sec – α 0.61 –
214 -4
Bismuth 83 Bi 19.7 min 5.85 × 10 β, α, γ 0.45 - 2.43 ( 10
214 -4 3
Polonium 84 Po 1.64 × 10 s 4.2 × 10 α – –
214
Lead 82Pb 26.8 min 4.3 × 10-4 β, γ 0.05 - 0.35 ( 10
210 -9
Lead 82 Pb 21 yr 1.05 × 10 β, γ 0.047 –
210 -6
Bismuth 83 Bi 5 day 1.58 × 10 β – –
210
Polonium 84Po 138.4 day 5.7 × 10-8 α, γ 0.79 –
210 -3
Thallium 81 Tl 1.3 min 8.85 × 10 β, γ 0.3, 0.78, 1.1 –
206
Thallium 81 Tl 4.2 min – β – –
206
Lead 82Pb Stable –

1. SF = spontaneous fission.

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TABLE 9.5.3
Radioactive minerals.

Mineral Occurrence
1. Potassium minerals
Orthoclase and microline felspars [KAlSi3O8] Main constituents in acid igneous
rocks and pegmatites
Muscovite [H2KAl(SiO4)3] Main constituents of acid igneous
rocks and pegmatites
Alunite [K2Al6(OH)12SO4] Alteration in acid volcanics
Sylvite, carnallite [KCl, MgCl2 . 6H2O] Saline deposits in sediments
2. Thorium minerals
Monazite [ThO2 + rare earth phosphate] Granites, pegmatites, gneiss
Thorianite [(Th,U)O2] Granites pegmatites, placers
Thorite, uranothorite [ThSiO4 + U] Granites, pegmatites, placers
3. Uranium minerals
Uraninite [Oxide of U, Pb, Ra + Th, rare earths] Granites, pegmatites and with vein
deposits of Ag, Pb, Cu, etc.
Carnotite [K2O . 2UO3 . V2O5 . 2H2O] Sandstones
Gummite [Uraninite alteration] Associated with uraninite

TABLE 9.5.4
Background radiation in rocks and waters.

Rock Ci/g K Th U Water Ci/g

(×10-12) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (radium) (×10-12)
Hornblende 1.2 Saratoga, NY 0.01 - 0.1
Granite 0.7 - 4.8 35 000 15 4.0 Bath, UK 0.14
Basalts 0.5 9000 2.0 0.6 Carlsbad, Czech 0.04 - 0.1
Olivine 0.33 St Lawrence River 0.00025
Ultramafics 10 0.2 0.05 Valdemorillo, Spain 0.02
Marble 1.9 Aix-les-Bains, France 0.002
Quartzite 5.0 Manitou, CO 0.003
Sandstones 2-4 Hot Springs, AR 0.0009
Slates 3-8 Atlantic Ocean 0.014 - 0.034
Dolomites 8.0 Indian Ocean 0.007
Chalk 0.4
Chondrites 850 0.08 0.02
Fe meteorite 0.015 0.04

Ci = curie; it is the activity that results in 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.

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9.6. SEISMIC SURVEY METHODS Velocity (Vp) m/s Rock type

AND DATA
330 Air
Survey methods 1400 - 1500 Water

Longitudinal velocity, sometimes referred to as 3000 - 4000 Ice

compressional velocity, is the physical property 300 - 1700 Alluvium, sand
utilised by the seismic method. Acoustic impe- 1500 - 2600 Glacial moraine
dance is the product of the rock velocity and
density. Seismic refraction surveys generally 2000 - 4500 Sandstones
have applications within the geotechnical field 2400 - 5000 Slates and shales
at depths of investigation ranging from 5 to
3500 - 6000 Limestones and dolomites
50 m; but with a suitably large energy source the
method can be used for crustal studies. Seismic 4000 - 5500 Rock salt
reflection surveys will supply structural and 5000 - 6200 Granites and gneisses
lithological information for depths ranging from
50 m to many kilometres depending on the field 5500 - 6300 Basalt
parameters. Various corrections are applied to 6400 - 6800 Gabbro
the data to refer it to a consistent datum plane. 7500 - 8100 Dunite
Surveys can be carried out on land surfaces and
on water. Drill hole applications are also available. 7800 - 8400 Peridotite

TABLE 9.6.1
Compressional seismic wave velocities1.
Velocity (m/s) Rock description
200 - 400 Soil, unconsolidated surface
deposits
400 - 1400 Unconsolidated clays, silts,
unsaturated sands, gravels
1400 - 1800 Saturated sands and gravels;
compact clays and silts;
completely weathered rocks
1800 - 2400 Consolidated sediments;
probably water saturated;
highly weathered/fractured
metamorphic and igneous
rocks; weathered and jointed
sandstones and shales
2400 - 3700 Shales, sandstones;
weathered and/or sheared
metamorphic and igneous
rocks and limestones
3700 - 4500 Slightly weathered and/
or fractured igneous rocks;
limestones; some very hard
sandstone and shale
4500 - 6000 Unweathered metamorphic
and igneous rocks; some
limestones and dolomite
9.7. DOWNHOLE SURVEY METHODS
All geophysical methods used on the surface
can be modified and applied in drill holes. They
can be used simply to measure the physical
properties of the rocks intersected in the drill
hole (geophysical logging) and this is often
done routinely in oil and gas, coal and uranium
exploration, where drill core is not necessarily
collected. They can also be used to search for
targets ‘off hole’, effectively expanding the search
radius of the drill hole.
In mineral exploration, common logging
tools are natural gamma, various electrical and
induction tools, induced polarisation, magnetic
susceptibility and density. Electromagnetic and
magnetometric (MMR) tools, resistivity and IP,
and downhole magnetics are routinely used to
search for ‘off hole’ targets.
Geotechnical drill hole logs will include
electrical, natural gamma, sonic and a number
of specialised variations to determine lithology,
rock boundaries and structure. Additional
methods may include borehole camera, caliper
and temperature logs.
The petroleum and coal industries routinely
log exploratory wells and drill holes as an aid
to lithological identification and cross-hole
correlation.

1. From Greenhalgh, S A and Whitely, R J, 1977. 9.8. AIRBORNE SURVEY METHODS

Effective application of seismic refraction method
to highway engineering projects, Australian Road Airborne magnetic and radiometric surveys are
Research, 7(1), March 1977. commonly used to define and delineate lithology

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and structures at an early stage in an exploration
or mapping program. A modern regional survey
may have a flight spacing of between 200 m and
500 m; detailed surveys may have a line spacing
as close as 40  m. Modern instrumentation
provides measurements on a virtually continual
basis along the line. With magnetics, the
total magnetic field intensity (TMI) is usually
recorded; however, vertical and horizontal fields
and gradients can be measured if required.
Radiometric surveying conventionally records
at least total count and the potassium, uranium
and thorium channels, but the trend is towards
recording the full radiometric spectrum.
Airborne electromagnetic surveying is usually
applied as a detailed survey in the search for
conductive bodies, but in some instances it
is used on a regional basis for structural and
lithological information. On a regional basis it
may also be used for salinity studies.
Airborne gravity measures the combined
accelerations due to gravity and the movements of
the aircraft. The aircraft motion is also measured
independently (usually by GPS) and the gravity
acceleration is derived from the difference.
Consequently, the sensitivity and resolution of
airborne gravity is linked to the accuracy of GPS.
Gravity gradient should be (ideally) independent
of the acceleration of the aircraft and ultimately
has the potential to achieve better short
wavelength resolution. Further developments in
both GPS and in airborne gravity gradiometers
are expected as the field is advancing rapidly.
Fixed wing or helicopter platforms are selected
depending on the purpose of the survey and the
local terrain conditions.
9.9. EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE
AND INTENSITY1
Vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected,
recorded and measured on seismometers. From
this data, the time, epicentre and focal depth of
the earthquake can be determined and estimates
can be made of the amount of energy that was
released.
The Richter (or Local) Magnitude Scale
When the earth quakes, the amplitude of the
wave recorded on the seismometer is measured
and then mathematically corrected to what
the amplitude would have been if it had been

Relationship bewteen Earth-

quake Magnitude and Energy
The volumes of the spheres are
roughly proportional to the amount of
energy released by earthquakes of the
magnitudes given, and illustrate the
exponential relationship between
magnitude and energy. At the same scale
the energy released by the San Francisco
earthquake of 1906 (Richter magnitude
8.3) would be represented by a sphere
with a radius of 21 metres.
Richter Magnitude 3
Richter Magnitude 2

Richter
Magnitude 1

1. After Richter, C F, 1958. Elementary Seismology

(Freeman: New York), in Kinemetrics, August 1972.

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recorded at a distance of 100 km from the
epicentre. The Richter magnitude derived
from these corrected seismometer recordings
indicates the amount of energy released as if
it had been recorded at this standard 100 km
distance. The Richter magnitude is known today
by seismologists as the local magnitude of the
earthquake and is designated ML. On the ML
scale the magnitude varies logarithmically with
the wave amplitude of the quake recorded by
the seismometer. Each whole number step of
magnitude represents an increase of ten times in
the measured wave amplitude of an earthquake
and an increase of about 31 times in the amount
of energy released. For example, the amplitude
of a 5.0 magnitude earthquake is about 100 times
as large as the amplitude of magnitude of a 3.0
earthquake. Above about magnitude 6.8 the ML
scale is said to saturate. This means that the ML
scale begins to systematically underestimate the
magnitude of earthquakes larger than about 6.8.
To overcome this problem other scales, usually
the moment magnitude scale, is used instead.
The moment magnitude (MW) is scaled to give
approximately the same magnitudes below 6.8
as the ML scale but is valid for earthquakes of any
magnitude, including very large ones.
A quake of magnitude 2.0 is the smallest
quake normally felt by humans, except under
very favourable circumstances. Earthquakes
with a magnitude of 7.0 or more are commonly
considered to be major. The moment magnitude
scale has no fixed maximum or minimum;
observations have placed the largest recorded
earthquakes in the world at about 9.5 and
the smallest at about -3. Earthquakes with
magnitudes smaller than 2.0 are called ‘micro-
earthquakes’. Magnitudes do not directly
estimate damage.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
This scale measures the intensity of an
earthquake’s effects in a given locality. It is
based on actual observations of earthquake
effects at specific places. The Modified Mercalli
Intensity values are traditionally given by Roman
numerals and range from I to XII. An earthquake
can have only one magnitude but can have many
intensities depending on a variety of factors such
as the distance from the epicentre and the local
soil conditions at a particular location.
I. Not felt except by very few under especially
favourable circumstances.
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II. Felt by only a few persons at rest, especially
on upper floors of buildings. Delicately
suspended objects may swing.
III. Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on
upper floors of buildings, but many people
do not recognise it as an earthquake.
Standing motor cars may rock slightly.
Vibration like passing of truck. Duration
can sometimes be estimated.
IV. During the day felt indoors by many,
outdoors by few. At night some awakened.
Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls
make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy
truck striking building. Standing motor
cars rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened.
Some dishes, windows, etc broken; a few
instances of cracked plaster; unstable
objects overturned. Disturbance of trees,
poles and other tall objects sometimes
noticed. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened and run
outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved; a
few instances of fallen plaster or damaged
chimneys. Damage slight.
VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage
negligible in buildings of good design and
construction; slight to moderate in well
built ordinary structures; considerable in
poorly built or badly designed structures;
some chimneys broken. Noticed by persons
driving motor cars.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed
structures; considerable in ordinary
substantial buildings, with partial collapse;
great in poorly built structures. Panel
walls thrown out of frame structures. Fall
of chimneys, factory stacks, columns,
monuments and walls. Heavy furniture
overturned. Sand and mud ejected in small
amounts. Changes in well water. Persons
driving motor cars disturbed.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed
structures; well-designed frame structures
thrown out of plumb; great in substantial
buildings with partial collapse. Buildings
shifted off foundations. Ground cracked
conspicuously. Underground pipes broken.
X. Some well built wooden structures
destroyed; most masonry and frame
structures destroyed with foundations;
ground badly cracked. Rails bent.
Landslides considerable from riverbanks
and steep slopes. Shifted sand and mud.
Water splashed (slopped) over banks.
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XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain Moment Modified Typical effects
standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad magnitude Mercalli near the
fissures in ground. Underground pipelines intensity epicentre
completely out of service. Earth slumps
2 I - II Usually detected
and land slips in soft ground. Rails bent
only by instruments
greatly.
XII. Damage total. Practically all works of 3 III Felt outdoors
construction are damaged greatly or 4 V Felt by most people,
destroyed. Waves seen on ground surface. slight damage
Lines of sight and level are distorted. 5 VI - VII Felt by all; many
Objects are thrown upward into the air. frightened and run
outdoors; damage
Comparison of magnitude and intensity minor to moderate
6 VII - VIII Everybody runs
It is difficult to compare magnitude and intensity
outdoors; damage
because intensity is linked with the particular moderate to major
ground and structural conditions of a given
7 IX - X Major damage
area, as well as distance from the earthquake
epicentre, while magnitude is a measure of the 8+ X - XII Total and major
energy released at the focus of the earthquake. damage

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