Positive Psychology:

An Introduction UNIT 3 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND

INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Differences in Cultural Worldviews
3.3.1 Psychologies and Worldviews

3.4 Indian Psychology: Meaning, Definition and Scope

3.5 Positive Psychology and Indian Psychology
3.5.1 Concepts associated with Pleasure, Happiness, Well-being
and Flourishing

3.6 Purushārtha: Life Goals Worth Pursuing

3.7 Ānanda: Sustained Happiness and Well-being
3.8 Comparing the PP 1 and PP 2 with Indian Perspectives
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
3.12 Unit End Questions
3.13 References and Suggested Readings

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Discuss the relation between worldview, cultures and psychologies;
• Explain the meaning of Indian psychology;
• Describe the points of agreement and the basic differences between Western
and Indian perspectives;
• Explain what is unique about Indian perspective on the issues related to
positive psychology; and
• Appreciate the significance of different concepts of Indian psychology to
extend and expand the range and scope of positive psychology.

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Humanity’s quest to be happy and lead a meaningful and fulfilling life is not
new. It has been there ever since human beings developed capacity to reflect on
what life is and what is its meaning and purpose. In other words, when humans
50
Dr. Kiran Kumar K. Salagame, Former Professor of Psychology, Department of Studies in Psychology,
*

University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru.

evolved from pure instinctual ways of existence to conscious and purposeful Positive Psychology
ways of leading life, the quest for happiness, well-being, thriving, flourishing, and Indian
Psychology
and so on have gained prominence. There are significant differences across
cultures, within cultures and among individuals in the ways these have been
expressed. In parallel there are also attempts to understand the nature of pain,
suffering and sorrow and to find effective ways of overcoming them. So, this
is not a new issue or theme when viewed from a larger and global context.
Theoretical and empirical studies have been conducted in the field of positive
psychology also to understand the cross-national and cross-cultural differences
in the way happiness, well-being and flourishing are understood (Lomas, 2017;
Lomas, et al., 2021; Mathews, 2012; Oishi, Graham, Kesebir ,& Galinha,
2013).
In India also some such attempts have been made to examine the indigenous
concepts and perspectives on happiness and well-being (see Choudry &
Vinayachandra, 2015; Kumar, Archana, & Prakash, 2015; Salagame, 2003,
2004, 2006a, 2015; Singh, 2015; Singh & Misra, 2000; Srivastava & Misra,
2003). These are the focal issues studied in positive psychology and Indian
psychology.
In this Unit you will be introduced to Indian psychology briefly and how it
differs from modern scientific psychology. Subsequently, the Indian concepts
and perspectives on happiness and well-being will be discussed. You will
also learn how the two visions of contemporary positive psychology relate to
Indian perspectives, in what ways they agree and how they differ. In order
to understand and appreciate the contents of this Unit much better and fully,
you have to first study Unit 1 - Introduction to Positive Psychology in this
course. You can also refer to Unit 7 - Differences between Indian and Western
Psychology (Salagame, 2020, www.egyankosh.ac.in) in the BPCC 103
(Psychology of Individual Differences) core course of BA Hons Psychology
(BAPCH) in Semester II .

3.3 DIFFERENCES IN CULTURAL

WORLDVIEWS
Due to wide spread systematic research in the field of Cross-Cultural Psychology
our knowledge of within culture and between culture differences in human
behaviour has increased. It is realized that the idea of culture is not monolithic.
It is not necessary that cultural differences should exist only between certain
geo-political regions such as Asia or Africa or Americas or East or West.
They can be present even within a particular region and also within a nation
itself. We speak of ‘tribal people and their culture’ in our country and also
sub-cultural differences across the country from Kanya Kumari to Kashmir.
Similarly, in North America, Australia and New Zealand they speak about
‘indigenous people and their culture. With recognition of such diversity within
a particular country and across nations a new concept multiculturalism, has been
introduced. It refers to the view that within a dominant political culture there
are minority groups. They differ in their cultural, ethnic and racial background.
Such differences need to be acknowledged and given importance in research
and applied activities in our discipline.
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Positive Psychology: Another important outcome is the growing realization that cultural belief
An Introduction systems differ in their views about the nature of the universe and reality on the
one hand and on the nature of life, awareness and mind on the other. Together
such beliefs constitute the basis for shaping the ways of thinking (eidos) and the
ways of living (ethos) and guide people in their day-to-day activities. They
have been denoted in anthropology as:
“Cultural orientations” (Kluckhohn, 1950), “value orientations,”
“unconscious systems of meaning,” “unconscious canons of choice,”
“configurations,” “culture themes,” and “core culture” (Kluckhohn &
Strodtbeck, 1961/1973, pp. 1–2) (cited in Koltko-Rivera, 2004, p.4-6).
A well-known sociologist Pitrim Sorokin studied world cultures before World
War II and developed his famous theory of social-cultural dynamics in which
he spoke of “cultural mentality/outlook.” (Sorokin 1985) Several other thinkers
have employed different terminologies to refer to them:
“Philosophy of life” (Jung, 1942/ 1954), “world hypotheses” (Pepper,
1942/ 1970), “world outlook” (Maslow, 1970a, p. 39), “assumptive worlds”
(Frank, 1973), “visions of reality” (Messer, 1992, 2000), “self-and-world
construct system” (Kottler & Hazler, 2001, p. 361), and many others.”
(Cited in Koltko-Rivera,2004, p.4).
In recent years the term “worldview” (Naugle, 2002; Koltko-Rivera, 2004) has
been used more frequently in place of many of the above terms.

3.3.1 Psychologies and Worldviews

A worldview is ‘a way of describing the universe and life within it,’ both in terms
of 'what is’ and ‘what ought to be.’ From this a set of beliefs emerge that include:
(a) limiting statements and assumptions regarding ‘what exists’ and ‘what does
not’ (either in actuality, or in principle); (b) ‘what objects or experiences are
good or bad’; (c) and ‘what objectives, behaviors, and relationships are desirable
or undesirable’. Since, a worldview also determines (a) ‘what can be known
or done in the world’ and ‘how it can be known or done’ they provide the
epistemic and ontological foundations for other beliefs within a belief system
(Koltko-Rivera, 2004). Epistemology is that branch of philosophy which
studies how to develop valid knowledge about any phenomenon. Ontology is
that branch of philosophy which studies what things exist in the world. Since
modern psychology is rooted in what is called naturalist worldview, it rejects
the idea and belief in supernatural or spiritual reality. It also holds that only
empiricism is the best means of obtaining valid knowledge. It has no place for
a belief in the existence of soul or spirit. It does not recognize intuition and
revelation as possible ways of obtaining valid knowledge. Worldviews also give
rise to beliefs about ‘what goals can be sought in life’ and ‘what goals should
be pursued.’ They set the tone for conceptualizing the meaning and purpose of
life, and motivation and goals to be pursued. In this regard modern psychology
views life as a onetime affair, a duration between two events – birth and death.
It has not accepted the idea of the continuity of the life, the soul and the ideas
of reincarnation and liberation, which are part of the spiritual world view. In
other words, many aspects of human nature and personality that are associated
with the spiritual beliefs are rejected in toto. Therefore, cognitive psychology,
52
developmental psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and Positive Psychology
abnormal psychology which lay the foundation for our understanding of human and Indian
Psychology
behavior are limited in their scope.
It is argued that modern scientific psychology developed primarily in the
background of western cultural belief system or worldview, is incomplete
and inadequate to understand complete human nature. Its avowed aim of
studying mental functions and behaviour scientifically in order to develop
theories, principles and laws of universal application is increasingly doubted.
It is observed that generalizing them to people of other nations and cultures
has severe limitations because of important differences in cultural worldviews.
Hence, the claim that it can arrive at universally applicable laws and principles
is questioned and debated as universalism vs. contextualism (Bem and de Jong,
1999).
But in many Asian and Eastern cultural worldviews, the human possibilities
rejected in the naturalist worldview are accepted as valid. Not only that, even
within western societies where the naturalist worldview is very dominant, there
are minorities who subscribe to a spiritual worldview. As a result, we have new
fields of inquiry like parapsychology that emerged more than a century ago and
recently emerged new field transpersonal psychology. Recognition of cross-
cultural and multicultural differences has also led to the development of ‘cross-
cultural counselling’ and ‘multicultural counselling’ in our discipline. They
are very important in the present age because there is an increase in migration
of people from one country to another. Mostly people from Asia and Africa
are migrating to Arabian nations, Australia, Canada, European Union, New
Zealand, UK and the USA for economic opportunities and better quality of
living. This has implications for our understanding of the concepts of happiness
and for the development of positive psychology, because we are in the era of
globalization.
In addition to all such developments there is an increasing awareness and
appreciation of the fact that in all cultures there exists some understanding about
the nature of mind and its activities, however rudimentary they may be. They are
implicit in cultural belief systems and ways of life. Such cultural understandings
shape the behavior of people across societies and cultures. However, their explicit
formulations, articulation and systematization as laws, principles and theories
of human behavior vary in degree from one culture to another. They are referred
to as naïve theory, naïve psychology, ethno psychology, folk psychology, and
so on. In the background of all these developments, an alternative view has
been popularized by some leading thinkers and researchers under the banner of
Cultural Psychology (Shweder, 1991), Social Constructionism (Gergen et. al.,
1996), Indigenous Psychologies (Kim & Berry, 1993), Contextualism (Capaldi
and Proctor, 1999) and Folk Psychology (Thomas, 2001). They highlight the
importance of culture in the development of psychology. Modern scientific
psychology has so far treated other societies and cultures as “target” to verify the
laws, principles and theories developed in the west. But the above perspectives
emphasize on considering cultures as “sources” for generating new concepts,
models and theories (Sinha, 1994) that are relevant and useful to understand
the behavior of people in a specific culture and society. In this background
psychologists all over the globe have attempted to develop indigenous
53
Positive Psychology: psychologies. Attempts to develop Indian psychology can be understood in this
An Introduction broader and global context.

3.4 INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING,

DEFINITION AND SCOPE
In the past four decades the term ‘Indian Psychology’ has gained greater currency
nationally. The “Pondicherry Manifesto of Indian Psychology,” was signed by
160 delegates who attended a conference held at Puducherry, India in October
2002. The manifesto emphasizes the need and importance of developing the
psychological perspectives that is relevant for Indian cultural context. (http://
www.ipi.org.in/texts/yaiap/pondicherrymanifesto.php). In the literature the
term is used with different connotations. The most important meaning of this
term is related to the psychological insights embedded in the three ancient
traditions of our country viz., Vaidika, Jaina and Bouddha (Sinha, 1958, 1960,
1963). It is also referred to as ‘Indian psychological thought’ (Rao, 1962).
Terms like Yoga Psychology, Jaina Psychology and Buddhist Psychology
represent ‘psychology with an Indian identity.’ The term is also used to refer
to , ‘a system of psychology created by Indian psychologists’ who adhere to
a particular vision of a great thinker or visionary. The best example of it is what
is called “Integral Psychology of Sri Aurobindo.” Yet another connotation of
the term represents ‘psychology of Indian people.’ This is exemplified in the
works of Sudhir Kakkar a psychoanalyst trained under Eric Erickson who has
written on the Indian Psyche from Psychoanalytic point of view (Salagame,
2011). The contemporary thrust on developing Indian Psychology has progressed
from these different connotations, each of which suggest an approach (See
Cornelissen, Misra, & Varma, 2011a, b, 2014; Misra, 2011; Misra & Mohanty,
2000; Paranjpe, 1984, 1998; Rao & Marwaha, 2005; Rao, Paranjpe, & Dalal,
2008; Rao & Paranjpe, 2016). There are entries in cross-cultural encyclopaedias
published at international level (Misra & Paranjpe, 2012; Salagame, 2013a,
2019). There are several journal articles which discuss about Indian psychology
in relation to global developments towards indigenization of psychology and
the development of indigenous psychology (see Salagame, 2011 for a review
of them).
Considering the fact that Indian sages and saints observed and understood
behavior both from the empirical stand point (vyāvahārika) and spiritual or
transcendental (pāramārthika) it is possible to define Indian psychology keeping
both in view as below.
“Indian psychology is that body of knowledge related to consciousness, mental
functions and behavior embedded in the wisdom traditions of India gained
by the seer, by sages, saints, and thinkers from transcendental and empirical
perspectives, as distinguished from the knowledge of modern psychology,
which is primarily rooted in empiricism.” (Salagame, 2019, pp.2).
Therefore, Indian psychological thought is broader and holistic in its vision of
reality or worldview. Often Indian Psychology is portrayed only as religious and
spiritual. But it should be noted that Indian sages wrote books both on Kāma
Sūtra and Yoga Sūtra. Thus, the scope of what we now call Indian Psychology
is very vast which ranges from the ordinary biological needs and desires to
54
the spiritual aspirations (Salagame, 2013a). In this background and context Positive Psychology
Indian civilization has sought to determine the meaning and purpose of life in and Indian
Psychology
general and of human existence in particular. Most importantly, the emphasis
on the human potential to transcend the ordinary limits of day-to-day awareness
and realize one’s ‘true nature and identity’ which is not limited to bio-psycho-
social aspects sets the tone for a different psychology altogether. All aspects of
human behavior, cognition, affect and conation, have been discussed from this
vantage point. Hence, even positive psychology has to be approached in this
background.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. What does cultural belief systems include?
2. Explain naturalist worldview.
3. What is universalism vs. contextualism?
4. Indian psychological thought includes mainly three ancient traditions
of ___________, ________________, and ________________.

3.5 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN

PSYCHOLOGY
Jane Henry (2013) notes that “Psychology has only recently turned its gaze
to investigate happiness and well-being while spiritual traditions have been
scrutinizing this for millennia” (p. 411). Lomas, Case, Cratty and Vander
Weele (2021) have published a study entitled “A global theory of happiness.”
They have discussed the different perspectives on happiness prevalent across
the world starting from the ‘Indigenous perspectives in Australia’ dating
back to 26,000 BCE to contemporary ‘Scientific perspectives.’ In between
these two poles they include in their discussion ‘Egyptian, Mesopotamian,
Chinese, Vedantic, Judaic, Persian, Buddhist, Hellenistic, Christian, Islamic,
Renaissance, and Enlightenment perspectives.’ Their findings and conclusions
can be summarized as follows.
a) Happiness, broadly construed, is a mental phenomenon arising from the
experience of living well.
b) Living well involves pursuit of valued and desirable mental experiences;
c) Those mental experiences can be either pleasure or some kind of satisfaction
not associated with hedonism.
d) It is possible to contrast different forms of happiness.
e) Differential emphasis is laid on different forms of happiness based on how
true human well-being is understood in civilizations and what constitute
it.
The difference between contemporary positive psychology and the understanding
of happiness and well-being in Indian psychology can be understood with
reference to the above conclusions.

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Positive Psychology: 3.5.1 Concepts Associated with Pleasure, Happiness, Well-
An Introduction
Being and Flourishing
Indian psychology has many concepts associated with positive affective states
and traits. They are in Sanskrit but their variants can be found in all the other
languages of India which are too many. Here only the original concepts are
discussed. We can classify them into four broad categories: (1) those which
represent happiness in the ordinary states of consciousness; (2) those associated
with the sense of health and wellness; (3) those associated with development
and welfare; and (4) those associated with transcendental/spiritual state of
consciousness (Salagame, 2006b; 2013b,c).
1) The first category includes sukha (agreeableness), samtosha (happiness),
ullāsa (pleasantness), harsha (joy), shanti (peace), trpti (satisfaction), tushti
(contentment). These affect states are commonly related to our experiences
of day-to-day transaction with empirical reality. They are used in different
contexts. They are determined by bio-psycho-social aspects. In particular,
over the years in popular usage, the word sukha is associated with bhoga
which connotes material pleasures though in the ancient literature no such
specific association was made.
Among these many concepts trpti (satisfaction), and tushti (contentment)
are considered as the most important ones to remain happy and have a
sustained sense of well-being. Perennial dissatisfaction (atrpti) is compared
to a demon whose hunger is never satiated. A famous Indian saint of
Karnataka, Purandara Dasa says “wanting more and more (greed) and not
wanting to experience pain and wanting to have intense pleasure, is desiring
a wasteful life!”
2) The second category includes concepts related to sense of health and
well-being. They include physical and/or psychological health. They
are ārogyam (good health), nirāmaya (freedom from disease or illness),
swāsthyam (sound state of body/mind), shubha (to shine, be splendid, and
look beautiful or handsome; eminent, good, virtuous). As per the Sanskrit-
English dictionary of Apte (1988, p.85) the term ārogyam means good
health and is used to refer to both physical and mental health. The term
swāsthyam is used to represent well-being. It has two components: swa
in Sanskrit means “one’s own, belonging to oneself, often serving as a
reflexive pronoun; innate, natural, inherent, peculiar, inborn” (1988, p. 630);
stha means “standing, staying, abiding, being, existing” (p. 621). The two
components put together indicate a state of abiding in one’s self. Bhagavad
Gita uses the term sthitaprajna to refer to this in a cognitive sense.
Ayurveda defines swāsthya, as a condition of harmony in the functioning
of soma, psyche and spirit. Swāsthya here refers to that condition of well-
being in which the three dosha (body humours vāta, pitta and kapha), two
agni (digestive forces) and seven dhātu (bodily constituents) remain in
balance and harmony along with proper eliminative functions (malakriya)
and pleasantness (prasanna) of the sense organs (indriya), mind (manas),
and self (atma). To achieve such a state Āyurveda prescribes a holistic
lifestyle that gives due importance to diet, nutrition, exercise, psychological
56 attitudes and values, social interactions, and spiritual practices. Āyurveda
 has guided much of the Indian life style in terms of food habits, religious Positive Psychology
practices, customs, and daily habits. and Indian
Psychology
3) The terms abhivrddhi, abhyudaya, kalyāna, and mangala are also used
which mostly denote growth, development, auspicious, welfare, and so
on. These terms are used both with reference to individual and collective
welfare.
4) Two specific terms ānanda and sthitaprajna are discussed in the second
category. We find detailed discussions on the nature of these two concepts
in the Upanishads and Bhagavadgita respectively. Just like the word sukha
has been paired with material pleasures over the years, the word ānanda has
come to be associated with yoga and spirituality. This is reflected in the
conventional usage of the term ānanda as a suffix to designate renunciates
(sanyāsi). For example, in the Vedic tradition swami, sadhu, yogi, and
yati are given new names after they take up sanyāsa as Vivekananda,
Ramakrishnanada, Chinmayananda, Yatishwarananda, Sampurnanda, and
so on. However, in the Upanishads the word ānanda is used as a generic
term to denote the mental experience associated with happiness. The word
sthitaprajna is discussed at length in the 2nd Chapter of Bhagavadgita.
It says “one who is satisfied in one’s Self” (ātmanyevātmanā trptah
sthitaprajnastadochayte), i.e., Self-realized person remains satisfied in
one’s true nature and does not seek happiness outside.

3.6 PURUSHĀRTHA: LIFE GOALS WORTH

PURSUING
Living well involves pursuit of valued and desirable experiences that can only
be possible if one makes a conscious choice. Therefore, conscious pursuit of
what one values and desires is termed as purushārtha. Thus purushartha refers
to the life goals worthy of human pursuit. It is what a particular person values
in life and desires to fulfill. There are individual differences in this. Purushartha
consists of four broad goals namely, dharma, artha, kāma and moksha. These
four classes of desirable goals are considered equally valid. However, it is very
much recognized that human beings pursue artha and kāma more, which are
materialistically oriented, and dharma and moksha less, which are spiritually
oriented.
In the Indian worldview a human being is understood as a composite of deha
(physical body), jiva (soul) and atman (Self). Though the Jaina and Buddhist
traditions differ from the Vedic tradition with regard to the independence of
atman from body and soul, all three of them are accepted as sharing a spiritual
worldview. From the spiritual perspective of India, souls undergo journey
taking many births and hence death of a person is not the end of this journey.
Therefore, human life is not a one-time affair. It is not a time duration or period
between two specific events – birth and death. This possibility has given rise to
fundamentally different views on the meaning of life and life lived well.
Second, not only humans are said to undergo many births and deaths, they also
have the capacity in them to consciously stop this cycle with effort and get
liberated or release from this. This is termed as moksha, mukti, kaivalya and
57
Positive Psychology: sāyujya in different traditions. Therefore, the goal of life and life well lived are
An Introduction defined keeping this highest humane possibility as the frame of reference. It is
not only human beings even animals can also attain liberation from the cycle of
birth and death, in the Indian worldview. Therefore, aspiring consciously to get
liberated is considered as the parama purushartha, the supreme goal of human
existence (Salagame, 2016).
In view of the above, a distinction is drawn between preyas and shreyas. Pursuit
of those desires which springs from right philosophic knowledge (vidya) and
help us to move forward in the attainment of the final goal of life is called
shreyas. All other actions which are not guided by such knowledge is called
preyas (Hiriyanna, 1975).

3.7 ĀNANDA: SUSTAINED HAPPINESS AND

WELL-BEING
Indian psychological thought recognizes that man is animal and man is
human. But it also goes a step forward to posit that man is divine/spiritual
because it is developed and guided by a worldview that recognizes the reality
of both physical and spiritual dimensions of human existence. Within the
spiritual worldview of the Indian traditions - Vedic, Jaina, and Buddhist – it is
proclaimed that human beings have the potentiality to evolve to a higher level
and attain a Divine status. Such personas are called mahātma and mahāpurusha.
They are embodiments of virtues of altruism, compassion and wisdom and a
sense of universal brotherhood. Some of them are also persons of extraordinary
spiritual powers. They are also not afflicted with desire (kāma), anger (krodha),
greed or avarice (lobha), attractions and attachment (moha), pride (mada) and
jealousy (mātsarya). They are said to remain in a state of sustained equanimity
(sthitaprajna) and sustained happiness (ānanda). Such a state is described as
beyond the binary opposites or dualities (dwandwa) like pleasure and pain,
struggles and sorrows, deprivation and disadvantage and other experiences
which do not affect them.
Such a state is possible when one is grounded in a state of awareness, which
is beyond the limits of awareness of ordinary waking state. Hence, it is called
transcendental/spiritual. Upanishads term such a ground state/transcendent state
as turiya, which means fourth in Sanskrit distinguished from waking (jāgrt),
dream (swapna) and deep sleep (sushupti). Turiya is known to support the other
three states and it is ever present. Hence, being established in that state and
functioning is considered the ideal state of well-being and flourishing. This is
what Krishna tells Arjuna, when he says yogastha kuru karmān – discharge
your duty being established in Yoga, which is nothing but that transcendental
awareness. For one who is in that state, dukkha and sukha in the ordinary sense
are not of much consequence because they do not affect them. That is the essence
of Krishna’s instructions to Arjuna in the Second Chapter of Bhagavadgīta.
Accordingly, Indian tradition has approached the issues of happiness, quality
of life, well-being, flourishing and human welfare from a broader perspective
as compared to that of the west. All the positive emotion, positive motivational
and temperamental traits are discussed in terms of three gunas viz., sattva,
rajas, and tamas. The more a person develops sattva guna, the more such a
58
person experiences an overall sense of well-being. This is the essence of Indian Positive Psychology
view (Salagame, 2003, 2004, 2006a). and Indian
Psychology
3.8 COMPARING THE PP 1 AND PP 2 WITH
INDIAN PERSPECTIVES
You have already learned about the two visions of Positive Psychology (PP 1
and PP 2 by Martin Seligman and Paul Wong respectively) in Unit 1. Refer to the
Unit for a quick recap. Here we can note certain important differences between
PP 1 and PP 2 in the light of Indian thought. First, Seligman focused more on
positive experiences, positive traits, and the community and institutions that help
in the development of them. In this vision, the role of pain and suffering was
not recognized. Second, Wong focused on this neglected aspects in Seligman’s
vision. He emphasizes that the term positive psychology need not imply we
neglect the importance of what is seen as negatives of life. He has argued that
even our struggles of life and consequent pain and suffering also contribute for
human growth by providing meaning, if properly viewed, and thereby to our
sense of well-being. Therefore, PP1 and PP2 taken together provide us a better
picture which is not one sided about the meaning of well-being than considering
either of them. Wong, of course has extended the vision of PP1, but due to his
existential background and emphasis on meaning tend to focus more on this in
his views. In contrast to PP1 and PP2, the Indian thought approaches the subject
of well-being from a vantage point that goes beyond the binaries, as mentioned
in the previous section.
It is interesting and important to note that Abraham Maslow in his last work
Farther Reaches of Human Nature (published posthumously) did recognize
that human beings not only aspire to fulfill the need for self-actualization they
also have a need for self-transcendence. He termed them as “peakers” or
“transcenders.” He distinguished them from merely healthy self-actualizers.
Transcenders wish to remain in what U. A. Asrani described as “unitive
consciousness.” Healthy self-actualizers, on the other hand, undergo peak
experience or transcendent experience but engage themselves actively in society
actualizing their potentialities (Maslow, 1971). Neither PP1 nor PP2 recognize
transcendence as understood by Maslow or by Indian thinkers. The discussion
of Being values in Maslow’s theory and the idea of meaning as one of the
elements of well-being in PP1 and PP2 appear to be similar. In other words,
both PP1 and PP2 do not speak so much about the need for self-transcendence
in the Maslowian sense or what Indian rishis or yogis have envisioned. Thus,
Indian psychological thought is guided by a broader and deeper worldview. Our
discussion of issues related to positive psychology need to be approached within
that framework. This will help to expand the range and scope of contemporary
positive psychology discourse.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. What are the four different broad forms of happiness?
2. Name the broad goals of Purushārtha.
3. What is the fourth state of awareness?
4. What is the latest need added by Maslow in his hierarchy of need? 59
Positive Psychology:
An Introduction 3. 9 LET US SUM UP
Human quest for happiness, well-being and flourishing, which are the key
concepts of positive psychology, have been there from several thousands of
years. Ever since human beings became conscious and their actions were not
motivated by mere biological needs similar to animals, the problems related
to pleasure, happiness and satisfaction have been encountered and discussed
in all civilizations and cultures. It is found that these problems are related to
experiencing a mental phenomenon and that is possible by leading a life which
is considered desirable and valued. Answers and solutions proposed range
from experiencing only pleasure and avoiding pain which is called hedonism
to finding satisfaction and contentment in pursuit of activities that are not
necessarily seeking pleasure, which could even involve undergoing difficult
moments and challenges. Therefore, the range of mental phenomena related
to happiness is wide, that includes seeking pleasure at the one end to treating
struggles, sufferings and sorrow in life as pathway to achieve a sustained level
of well-being on the other end. Civilizations and cultures across the globe
recognize them and have differential thrust on what is essential and desirable
and what is ideal. This in turn is determined by the worldviews and what is
considered as true human nature and what constitute them. Nations and societies
differ in worldviews. Generally, there is dominant worldview in each nation
with some sections of the society who are minority in number who may have
a different worldview. Hence, between culture and within culture variations
in worldviews have been documented. Contemporarily, considering all the
civilizations from times immemorial to modern and postmodern period, two
predominant worldviews are often distinguished viz., material or naturalist and
spiritual. Positive psychology has developed within the framework of naturalist
worldview. Indian psychology has developed within the framework of spiritual
worldview.
The spiritual worldview upholds the possibility that human beings can
themselves evolve to the level of divinity. Therefore, Indian culture looks at
humans at three levels – human being as an animal, as unique human being
and as one who has the potential to reach divinity or godhead. Accordingly,
what is true and ideal state of happiness and well-being are also differentiated.
There are many concepts which are employed in the Indian context to identify
different levels of happiness and well-being. We can use them to extend and
expand the range and scope of positive psychology.

3.10 KEY WORDS

Multiculturalism refers to the view that within a dominant political culture
there are minority groups which differ in their cultural, ethnic and racial
background.
Worldviews refer to the ways of thinking (eidos) and the ways of living (ethos)
and guide people in their day-to-day activities.
Purushārtha refers to the conscious pursuit of what one values and desires in
life.

60 Ānanda refers to sustained happiness.

Parama purushartha refers to aspiring consciously to get liberated which is Positive Psychology
considered as the supreme goal of human existence. and Indian
Psychology
3.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Cultural belief systems include views about the nature of the universe and
reality on the one hand and on the nature of life, awareness and mind on the
other.
2. Naturalist worldview holds that only empiricism is the best means of
obtaining valid knowledge, and it rejects the idea and belief in supernatural
or spiritual reality.
3. Universalism focuses on finding universally applicable laws and principles,
and generalizing them to people of other nations and cultures; whereas
contextualism focuses on the specific context/cultural worldviews.
4. Vaidika, Jaina and Bouddha
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Happiness in the ordinary states of consciousness; those associated with
the sense of health and wellness; those associated with development
and welfare; and those associated with transcendental/spiritual state of
consciousness.
2. dharma, artha, kāma and moksha.
3. Shreyas refers to the pursuit of those desires which springs from right
philosophic knowledge (vidya) and help us to move forward in the
attainment of the final goal of life. All other actions which are not guided
by such knowledge is called preyas.
4. Turiya
5. Need for self-transcendence

3.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Explain the relationship between Indian psychology and Positive
psychology.
2. Explain purushartha.
3. Explain the concepts associated with pleasure, happiness, well-being and
flourishing.
4. Provide a comparative account of PP 1 and PP 2 with Indian perspectives.
FURTHER ACTIVITIES
• Read Chapter 2 of Bhagavadgita to understand more about the characteristics
of a sthitaprajna and how to regulate our emotions and remain in a balanced
state. 61
Positive Psychology: • Read Chapter 14 of Bhagavadgita to understand more about positive and
An Introduction negative emotions and traits.
• Read more about the concept of swāsthya in Ayurveda. You can refer to
any source available.

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