Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Samuel Salzborn
S. Salzborn ()
Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
E-Mail: salzborn@tu-berlin.de
with the extreme right-wing parties, Europe serves as a most disparately contex-
tualized code, which needs deciphering for a comparative classification.
attention from the goals, methods, and content of right-wing parties by overem-
phasizing the (media-)strategic moment of self-staging. This is because for these
parties to succeed, the possibility of voter self-identification with them is crucial
in terms of mass-psychology, and works precisely because both party leadership
and base conceive of themselves as getting a raw deal. The successful right wing
parties are, simply put, parties of the average and the mediocre who perceive
themselves as outsiders because they consider themselves to be above average. To
this extent, the label “right-wing populist” makes it difficult to engage effectively
against these parties (cf. Gruber and Bale 2014). On the one hand, this is because
the label declaring it a specific thing that has become so common in the media-
democracy that it no longer serves as a point of distinction (“populism”). On the
other hand, it deflects the actually necessary, content-related question about right-
wing alignment, and instead works secretly with an undifferentiated notion of the
causes of success.
I therefore propose to reserve the category “right-wing populism” exclusively
for a description of strategies within right-wing extremism, as it is not useful to
differentiate clearly between meanings and does not carry a substantial meaning
as a category of comparison. In this sense, I agree with the approaches advocated
e.g., by Jan-Werner Müller (2016) or Yascha Mounk (2018), as long as populism
is understood as a strategy with right-wing extremist content. However, for com-
parative party research this category is simplistic and therefore not useful.
Every right-wing extremist party acts sometimes in a more, sometimes a less
populist way. Right-wing populism is about an inflammatory strategy of choos-
ing topics and their media launch, in which the staging and the cult of personal-
ity are central, with the goal of connecting to established (media)-strategies by
picking up current debates and escalating them in a polarizing and polemical
fashion. Here, a key point is the strategic orchestration of a staged antagonism of
the political elite and “the people” whose advocate the extreme right professes to
be. Extreme right-wing populists purport to be fighting the alleged establishment.
Regarding the USA and its new president, Donald Trump, a major representative
of the economic elite may even succeed in selling himself as an opponent of the
elite. Populist strategy takes up current debate topics and heats them up polemi-
cally and in a polarizing manner.
Right-wing populist strategies often avoid explicitly fascist and/or Nazi vocab-
ulary (exceptions to this include the right-wing populist strategies of the FPOe in
Austria and the AfD in Germany). However, in the ideological substance there is
no example that could show that right-wing populism is more than simply a stra-
tegic option of right-wing extremism. It thus seems a concept that cannot bear the
role of a separate political family.
Extreme Right-Wing Parties in and Against Europe … 109
4 Lines of Traditions
and Jäger 1999, p. 174, Herv. i. Orig.), and lastly, the theoretical framework for
the regular violent attacks on (supposed or actual) foreigners (cf. Benz 1998,
p. 35 ff.; Butterwegge 2000, p. 13 ff.). The range of variation in right-wing
extremism stretches from racist positions—based on biologistic differential mod-
els in the tradition of National Socialism (via völkisch-homogenizing notions,
which comprise a regionalist-ethnic segmented Europe headed by Volksgruppen
politics)— all the way to the notions of an ethno pluralism primarily based on
assumptions of cultural differences. This derives primarily from the spectrum of
the French Nouvelle Droite (cf. Müller 1994; Salzborn 2005; Terkessidis 1995).
Although the specific justification of the essentialistic difference varies in each
case, the models have similar concepts:
Common grounds shared by völkisch notions are fighting against the subject
and placing the collective ahead of the individual. Ethnic identity in right-wing
extremism does not function as a choice for individual identity, but rather as a
collective identity obligation—whereby the obligation encompasses an inter-
nally binding component and an externally segmenting component (cf. Luhmann
1998): the obligation to include, and the obligation to exclude.
The ideology of inequality aims internally to achieve ethnic homogeneity, and
externally to achieve ethnic separation. Under these premises, European right-
wing extremism can include centralistic, just as well as regionalistic, federal and
Reichistic movements (cf. Salzborn and Schiedel 2003). Here, the important point
for analysis is that right-wing extremism is always based on geopolitical and spa-
tial elements because Volk and Raum are thought of in the same context: not in a
democratic sense as demos, which lives (accidental, mutable and variable) as an
individual in the sovereign state, but as ethnos, which is fixed (essential, static
and homogenous) as a collective in an existentialistically understood (settle-
ment) region. Right-wing extremism can therefore be said to refer to the romantic
notion of a nation (Volksbegriff) and politicizes it because regional consequences
are to be drawn from the cultural separation of people into Völker and Volksgrup-
pen. Social and political conflicts are naturalized and placed in an ethnic origin
112 S. Salzborn
“random selection” strictly speaking does not signify a statistical procedure, but
rather describes an approach in which, based on the UN-classification of macro-
regions, three states (UK, France, Germany), have deliberately been selected for
the comparison, but all other cases have been included in the selection according
to the random principle or determined by lot.
The limitation to only twelve cases can only be legitimized in terms of labor
economics, which means that an expansion of the classification is desirable. The
random selection (admittedly influenced by the prior selection of three cases)
yielded the following cases: for Northern Europe: the UK, Sweden, and Den-
mark; for Eastern Europe: Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary; for South-
ern Europe: Portugal, Italy, and Greece; and for Western Europe: Germany,
France, and Belgium. Because this is a macro-qualitative comparison, the short
description of the central right-wing extremist party or parties in each country
formed the starting point for the comparative analysis.
internal and external threats to the Danish nation.” (Meret 2011, p. 250). Like
the SD, the DF is anti-European but does not put forward a negative picture of
Israel: “The position against EU has thus continued to represent a platform from
where to promote the role as guardian of Danish national sovereignty and at the
same time to retain an anti-establishment profile that could be affected and weak-
ened by the party’s influential position in Danish politics.” (Meret 2010, p. 141).
The DF stands for the constitutional monarchy and the Folkekirken (Danish folk
churches), the “Danish cultural heritage” and the strengthening of “Being Dan-
ish,” even outside Denmark: Gud, konge og fedreland! (“God, King and Father-
land!”) is its mission statement. Former functionaries of the Fremskridtspartiet
(Progress Party) had a lasting impact on the foundation of the DF. They had on
occasion formulated their politics in the tradition of the Danish resistance to Nazi
Germany and see themselves in the tradition of the Danish social welfare state
agreement. The welfare state uses the concept of the folkenationalisme to con-
vey the image of a plebiscitary nationalism, which of course has ethno-national
implications and condenses in the idea of the folkehemmat. In spite of this, the
idea of the welfare state still reverts to traditions that were historically opposed
to National Socialism, such as the Danish social democracy of the 1920s and
’30s that decisively shaped these concepts (cf. Siim and Meret 2016, p. 109 ff.).
However, this reference to the tradition hardly plays a role in their actual political
composition.
A general difference with the extreme right between Northern, Western, and
Southern Europe on the one hand and Eastern Europe on the other is the role of
religion: an enlightened concept of politics and society is significantly further
away from the political culture of Eastern Europe, beyond party-political differ-
ence, than it is the case in other parts of Europe. The Eastern European socie-
ties are strongly influenced by a mystical and clerical form of Christianity, which
expresses itself in a reactionary gender and family image, an aggressive rejection
of homosexuality, a Christianized fear of Muslim immigration, and a religious
antisemitism, all of which dominates the political culture. Right-wing extrem-
ist parties are therefore in a strategically advantageous position on the one hand,
because important parts of their worldview are part of the entire political culture.
At the same time, however, they are also at a strategic disadvantage because, e.g.,
an anti-women policy is hardly a useful criterion for political distinction. In the
end, this means that right-wing extremist parties are, with a substantial number of
116 S. Salzborn
their positions, hardly different from the mainstream. They often find themselves
unable to profit from their positions in elections.
The Eastern European transformation of 1989/1990 changed the attitude of
the elites above all others: an opening towards the pro-European West was seen
as a guarantee of prosperous national economies. The success that right-wing
extremist parties in Eastern Europe now enjoy is mainly because the prevailing
anti-European, anti-American, and anti-Semitic sentiment, bound up with fear of
the consequences of globalization, has become increasingly more important. This
occurs because the socio-economic division within Eastern European societies
into pro-Western, pro-European and anti-Western, anti-European wings largely
goes hand-in-hand with the social-economic division of society.
Poland, with its brute-reactionary Catholicism, is surely the most striking
example of this development, which is expressed in the relationship between
the two parties Prawo i Sprawiedliwość (PiS; Law and Justice) and Liga Pols-
kich Rodzin (LPR; League of Polish Families). Both are Catholic and cleri-
cal, and position themselves as reactionaries in terms of family politics, as they
are against abortions, fight against homosexuality, and fight for the patriarchal,
nuclear family (cf. Fuchs 2010; Shibata 2013). While the attitude of PiS against
this background is about national sovereignty and they act with a certain distance
to the EU, the LPR holds the EU to be a Communist conspiracy and is explicitly
hostile to Europe (cf. Pankowski 2010). The LPR is firmly anti-Semitic and anti-
American, while the PiS seemingly tends towards a pro-American position. The
anti-Semitic conspiracy-delusion in the LPR reaches so far that the pro-fascist
party assumes that not only “Jews” are behind anti-Polish developments, but also
“freemasons.” The comparison of PiS and LPR shows that the national context is
central if you want to classify political parties (cf. Moroska and Zuba 2010). A
Catholic-clerical positioning of the two parties would be unthinkable—at least to
this degree of radicalism—because it is supported by an anti-Enlightenment fun-
damentalism that to a large extent is linked to a radical hostility towards human
rights. Furthermore, in connection with the ethno-national positioning of the two
parties, they are linked to a noticeable distance or direct hostility towards Europe
(cf. Lange and Guerra 2010). The resulting nationalist-Catholic picture of Poland
makes it clear that both parties can without a doubt be classified as right-wing
extremist. In the Polish context, however, clerical-Catholicism, with its patriar-
chal, anti-feminist and homophobic worldview, is not considered a part of a right-
wing extremist ideology. Instead, these beliefs are held by large sections of the
society, which shows how widely fragments of right-wing extremist ideology
are anchored in Polish society even though at the same time, these recall an anti-
German position during the Nazi occupation of Poland.