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Laser Fundamentals
 The light emitted from a laser is monochromatic, that is,
it is of one color/wavelength. In contrast, ordinary white
light is a combination of many colors (or wavelengths)
of light.
 Lasers emit light that is highly directional, that is, laser
light is emitted as a relatively narrow beam in a specific
LASERS direction. Ordinary light, such as from a light bulb, is
emitted in many directions away from the source.
 The light from a laser is said to be coherent, which
means that the wavelengths of the laser light are in
phase in space and time. Ordinary light can be a mixture
of many wavelengths.

These three properties of laser light are what can make it

more hazardous than ordinary light. Laser light can
deposit a lot of energy within a small area.
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Incandescent vs. Laser Light Interaction of radiation with matter

1. Many wavelengths 1. Monochromatic

2. Multidirectional 2. Directional
3. Incoherent 3. Coherent
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Absorption: Absorption of a photon of frequency f takes
place when the energy difference E2 – E1 of the allowed
energy states of the atomic system equals the energy hf of
the photon. Then the photon disappears and the atomic
system moves to upper energy state E2 (see figure).
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Stimulated Emission: When a photon (stimulating photon) of
suitable frequency interacts with an excited atomic system, it
comes down to ground state before its life time. Such an
emission of radiation is called stimulated emission. In
stimulated emission, both the stimulating photon and the
stimulated photon are of same frequency, same phase and
are in same state of polarization, they are emitted in the
same direction. In other words, these two photons are
coherent.
Thus we get
amplified radiation
by stimulated
emission
(see figure).
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Spontaneous Emission: The average life time of the atomic
system in the excited state is of the order of 10–8 s. After
the life time of the atomic system in the excited state, it
comes back to the state of lower energy on its own accord
by emitting a photon of energy hf = E2– E1 (see figure).
In an ordinary light source the radiation of light from
different atoms is not coherent. The radiations are emitted
in different directions in random manner. Such type of
emission of radiation is called spontaneous emission.
population inversion
An incident photon can cause atomic energy transitions either
upward (stimulated absorption) or downward (stimulated
emission).
The two processes are equally probable.
When light is incident on a collection of atoms, a net absorption
of energy usually occurs because when the system is in thermal
equilibrium, many more atoms are in the ground state than in
excited states.
If the situation can be inverted so that more atoms are in an
excited state than in the ground state, however, a net emission
of photons can result. Such a condition is called population
inversion.
This is a non equilibrium condition and is facilitated by the
presence of “metastable states”.
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population inversion
if E 2 > E1
Figure a : This is the normal thermal equilibrium condition in
which the population of the atoms in upper energy state is
less than that in lower energy state i.e. n(E2) < n(E1)
Figure b : This condition is called population inversion [n(E2) > n(E1)]
which is a non equilibrium condition
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Metastable state
 A metastable state is an excited energy state of an atomic
system from which spontaneous transitions to lower
states is forbidden (not allowed by quantum mechanical
selection rules).
 The average life time of the atomic system in the
metastable state is of the order of 10–3 s which is much
longer than that in an ordinary excited state.
 Stimulated transitions from the metastable state are
allowed.
 An excited atomic system goes to metastable state
(usually a lower energy state) due to transfer of its extra
energy by collision with another atomic system (non
radiative transition).
 Thus it is possible to have “population inversion” of
atomic systems in a metastable state relative to a lower
energy state.

The conditions of stimulated emission for buildup of photons in a

system for laser light emission.
Condition#1: The system must be in a state of population
inversion: there must be more atoms in an excited state
than in the ground state. That must be true because the
number of photons emitted must be greater than the
number absorbed.

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Common Components of all Lasers

Condition#2: The excited state of the system must be a
1. Active Medium
metastable state, meaning that its lifetime must be long The active medium may be (a) solid crystals such as ruby or Nd:YAG, (b)
(10-3 s )compared with the usually short lifetimes of excited liquid dyes, (c) gases like CO2 or Helium/Neon, (d) semiconductors such
as GaAs.
states, which are typically 10-8 s. In this case, the population Active mediums contain atoms whose electrons may be excited to a
inversion can be established and stimulated emission is metastable energy level by an energy source.
likely to occur before spontaneous emission. The atomic systems in the active medium may have energy levels
including a ground state (E1), an excited state (E3) and a metastable
state (E2).
Condition#3: The emitted photons must be confined in the
system long enough to enable them to stimulate further
emission from other excited atoms. That is achieved by
using reflecting mirrors at the ends of the system (Resonant
Cavity). One end is made totally reflecting, and the other is
partially reflecting. A fraction of the light intensity passes
through the partially reflecting end, forming the beam of
laser light 14

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Does the intensity of light from a laser fall off as 1/r2?

Common Components of all Lasers
2. Excitation Mechanism
Excitation mechanisms pump energy into the active medium by one or
more of three basic methods; (i) optical (ii) electrical (iii) chemical.
3. High Reflectance Mirror
A mirror which reflects essentially 100% of the laser light.
4. Partially Transmissive Mirror
A mirror which reflects less than 100% of the laser light and transmits the
remainder.

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Why is stimulated emission is so important in the operation of laser?

• Stimulated emission causes atoms to emit photons along a specific axis,
rather than in the random directions of spontaneously emitted photons.
• The photons that are emitted through stimulation can be made to
accumulate over time in the resonant cavity.
• The fraction allowed to escape constitutes the intense, collimated, and
coherent laser beam.
• If this process relied solely on spontaneous emission, the emitted
photons would not exit the laser tube in the same direction. Neither
would they be coherent with one another.

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Mention the characteristics of a laser beam. [2]

Explain the following terms with reference to lasers:

(a) spontaneous emission [2]
(b) stimulated emission [2]
(c) metastable state [2]
(d) population inversion [2]
(e) pumping [1]
(f) active medium [2]
(g) resonant cavity. [1]

Explain the principle of a laser. [5]

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