The Development and Application of Destressing

Techniques in the Mines of INCO Limited, Sudbury, Ontario.

By J. Denis P. O'Donnell Sr.

Laurentian University

SUDBURY. Ontario.

A thesis submitted to the School of Graduatr Studies in partial fulfilrnent of the

requirements for the Degree of Master of Science.

Apr. Yd. 1999

APPDEMCAoc

O Copyright by J. Denis P. O'Donnell Sr. 1999

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 iii
Acknowledgements

The destressing project. the research. and compilation of this thesis was carrird out

with the help and encouragement of a number of people. Sincerr thanks are due to al1 of

them. In particular. I wish to acknowledge: Doctors C. D. Martin and D.H. Rousell for their

guidance and suggestions for the manuscript: INCO Limited. C. Langille for his

encouragement and Cor sreking approval for the project as a thesis topic fiorn Mines

Technical Services management: M. Sylvestre for approvd of the project as a thesis. Thanks

are aiso extended to management at Stobie Mine particularly: J. Loring ( Manager): G . Elliott

(Mine Superintendent): H. Buksa and H. Parsons (Chief Mine Engineers): W. Quinn

(Grneral Foreman) for supplying the required support to kerp the project moving. Thanks

are also extended to: Colin McAnulty (Division supervisor): Micliarl Paventi (plamer): and

Chris Wereley (technical representative with Dyno Nobel): for their direct involvement in

the project. The author wishes also to acknowledge Chris Preston. research scientist with

Dyno Nobel and guest Professor of the Advanced Explosives course at Laurentian

University. for his encouragement and guidance at the on-set of the project.

In particular I wish to thank my wife. Susan O'Donnell. and my farnily for their

encouragement. and patience during my absence while taking courses and panicularly during

the writing of the thesis.

 iv
Table of Contents

Page

Abstract

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

List of Appendices

List of Figures

List of Tables xii

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Rockbursts in Underground Mining

2.1 Introduction

Factors Which Contribute to Rock bursting

2.1 .1 Lithostatic and Tectonic Stresses

2.1 .a Planar Discontinuities

2.2 Stored Strain Energy and Stress

2.3 Rock Strength

 v
2.4 StresdStrength an Indicator of Rock Mass

Insta bility 11

2.5 Evidence of Over Stressed Regions in a Mine

2.6 Rockburst Mitigation

2.6.1 Rockburst Research

2.6.2 Support

2.6.3 Controlling the Failure Process

2.6.J Changing Mining Methods

3.63 Destressing

2.8 Summary

Chapter 3 Destressing Case Histories 35

3.1 Introduction 35

3.1.1 Developrnent of Destressing at INCO Limited 35

3.2 A List of Destressing Techniques Developed by

the Author and Associates a t INCO Ltd. 39

3 2.1 Drift Destressing 39

3 2 . 2 Break Through Destresssing 39

3.2.3 Destressing in Stopes. 40

3.2.4 The Destressing Pillars on the Si11 CUI. JO

 vi
3.2.5 Destressing a VRM Extraction Horizon at 2 M m .

3.2.6 Destressing Stopes at Mid Height.

3.2.7 Destressing of Drifts Driven in Stressed Pillars

3.2.8 Abutment Destressing

3.2.9 Hanging Wall Destressing in VRM Topsill.

3.3 Cautions and Controls with Destressing

3.4 Problems Destressing RockWith Widely

Spaced Joints

3.5 Destressing in Tabular Ore Zones in South Africa 55

3.6 Examples of Pillar Destressing

3.6.1 Galena Mine 1970

3-62 Campbell Mine 1980's

3.6.3 Macassa Mine 1987

3.6.4 Mt. Charlotte Mine 1995

3.6.5 Sigma Mine 1996

3.7 Analysing the Success of Destressing

3.8 Summary

Chapter 4 Destressing a Regional Pillar at Stobie Mine

41.1 Geological Setting

4.1 2 Stress Conditions At Stobie Mine

4.13 Rock Strengths

 vii
4.1.4 Joints

4-13 Mining Sequence

4.2 Mining Induced Seismicity

4.3 Numerical Modeling

4.3.1 Stages Modelled

4.3 .? Phases Evaluated

4.3 -3 Strength PararnetersIFailure Cntenon

4.3.4 Mode1 Indicating the Effect of the Destress Slot

4.3.1Summary of Modelling Results

4.4 Explosives and Blast Design

4.4.1 Configuration of Destress Holes

4.4.2 E~plosives

4.4.3 Timing of Holes and Kg of Explosives per Del-

4.5 Instrumentation

45.1 Stress Monitoring

45.2 Microseisrnic System

4.53 Blast Monitor

4.5.4 Observations Before and Afier the Blast

4.6 Interpretation of Results

Chapter 5 Summary and Conclusions

 viii

Appendices

Appendix A Time line of the Project 120

Appendix B Numerical Analysis

B. 1 Description of the Mining Phases Modelled

8.2 Surnmary of Key Findings

B.3 Conclusion

Appendix C Glossary of Terms

Appendix D Correspondence and Approvals 139

D. 1 Letter recomrnending to management to destrrss 25 pi llar 129

D.2 Lrtter to INCO reqursting approval of destressing as a thesis 130

References 131
 List of Figures

Figure Number Description

Exarnples of strain. pillar. and fault-slip rockbursts at Creighton Mine

Measured stress variations with depth

Extraction ratio and pillar stress

Discing of 150-mm core of granite

Spalling in the sidewall of a bored mise

Progressive developmrnt of the notch geometry in a tunnel at URL

Borehole breakout in a 28cm diameter raise bore pilot hole

Borehole breakout in 16.jcm diameter production holes on 55rn lrvel

Shear failure and sidewall spalling in highly stressed drifts in quartzite

Curved failure in drift corners

Progressive failure dur to spalling

Effect of total tidal force on rockbursts and falls of ground

Exarnples of cable lacing installation and hardware

Slender and squat pillars

General mangement of destress holes during the 60's

Photo of a blasted destress hole

Breakthrough destressing

Darnage caused by destressing a drift wall

Destress pattern 2070m mechanized cut & fil1 unit

Destress pattern used on 2 195m level extraction horizon

 X
List of Figures Continued

Figure Num ber Description

Abutment destressing

Hanging wall destressing in a VRM topsill

Types of failurr in different rock masses and stress regimes

Destressing pattern for drifts in rock with widely spaced joints

Instantaneous failure and gradua1 sloughing in pillars

Destressing pattern at the Galena Mine

Layout of destress holes ai the Campbell Mine

Layout of destress holes at the Macassa Minr

Preconditioning at the Mt. Charlotte Minr

Blasthole layout and charging design at Mt. Charlotte Mine

Longitudinal sections of the Sigma Mine

Destress pattern at the Sigma Mine

Geological map of the Sudbury Structure

Frood-Stobie Offset dike and Section of Stobie Mine

Long. Section of Frood-Stobie indicating 85% extraction ratio

Section of 25 pillar indicating mining

Rockbursts per year at Stobie Mine

Rockbursts and seismic events associated with 25 Pillar

Plot of numerical mode1 geometry from Surface to 730m Ievel

Plot of the destress slot area

 xi
List of Figures Continued

Figure Number Description

Plans indicating geometry of nurnerically modelled phases

Plot of (s, on a vertical grid through the 25 pillar

Plot of ai on a vertical grid through the 25 pillar

Safety factor plot on a vertical grid through the 25 p i l l a

Plan of 55Om level indicating stress change between phases 2 and 3

Plan of 55Om level indicating mining pnor to destress blast

Long. section of destress slot indicating attitude of destress holrs

Destress hole spacing and detonation sequence at Stobie Mine

Photos of the boosters with detonators and their installation

Photos of the destress drift prior to the blast

Plot of the wave form of the destress blast

Photos of the destress slot after the blast

Photos of the back of the destress slot after the blast

Plot of tnces captured of the 2.4 Mn rockburst

Plot of strain change captured by the stress ce11

Photo of a CSiRO hollow inclusion stress ce11

 xii

List of Tables

Table Number Description

Influence of q/o, Ratio on Stability

Data from significant pillar destrrssing projects

Formulae from stress measurements at Stobie Mine

Caiculated stresses in the 25 PiIlar area

Uniavial and triaxial compressive strengths of rocks near 35 pillar

Attitudes of joint sets on 420m to 550m Ievel

List of seismic rvents and rockbursts associated with 75 pillar

Propenies of RUS rmulsion manufactured by Dyno Nobel Ltd.

Changes in stresses caused by the drstress blast at Stobie

PPV and peak sound pressure Ievels of the drstress blast

List of runs and descriptions of phases modelled

 Abstract

Rockbursts are the result of the sudden release of stored strain energy derived £iom
the stresses induced by rnining at depth or to a high extraction ratio. Conml methods range
fiom modifiing geometries to altering the rock properties by destressing. The physical
expression of the release of stored strain energy includes dog-earing, core disking, slabbing,
pillar failure and bursting. A review of the histoncal development and a comprehensive list
of the various rnethods of destressing are outlined. Special interest is paid to destressing of
pillars, culminating in the description of the destressing of 25 Pillar, a regional pillar at
NCO's Stobie Mine (world's Iargest destress blast to date). The destress slot, which was
designed to promote failure in the core of the pillar, provides a dot dong which mining can
safely proceed. The nsk of bursting has been reduced for the possible extraction of 1.8
million tons of ore between the 550 and 520-m levels.

Resume
Les coupes de troit sont la consequence de soudaine liberation d'energie accumulée.
Cet energie denve des tensions provoquées par la profondeur ou un haut rapport d'extraction.
Les methodes de control vont de la modification de la geomeüie a l'alteration des proprietés
de terrain par des tires de relaxation. L'expression physique de cette liberation d'energie
inclus la formation d'elipse dans les trous forages et de disques carrotes, I'ecaillage, et les
coups de toit. La revue du developement historique et un appercu detaillé des methodes
utilisées pour modifiées les tenains sont exposés. Un interest special est donné aux methodes
utilisées pour les pilliers, suivi par la description du cas particulier du pillier # 25, un pillier
regional a la mine d'MC0 Stobie. La rainure de tires de relaxation qui a été dessiner dans
le but de promouvoir l'échec au noyau du pillier, represente le terrain au long duquel
l'opération de minage peut continuer avec securité. Le risk de coups de roche a été reduit
pour l'extraction de minerai entre les niveaux 550 et 520-m.
 Chapter 1 Introduction

Underground mining is subject to a number of risks that have safety and economic

ramifications in terms of threat to personnel. dismption of production and expensive

reconditioning costs. The cornmon physicai phenomena associated with these risks are an

unexpected in-rush of water. fire. methane explosions. falls of ground and rockbursts. Of

these physical phenomena. rockbursts are the most rlusive. difficult to prevent. and have the

potential to significantly impact the operational economics. eg.. die cost of rockbursts in the

Coeur d' Alene Mining district has been pegged at 8 to 18% of the total mining costs or $10

million per year (Bolstad 1990).

The cause o f rarthquakes associated with major faults. such as the San Andreas. is

the sudden release of stored strain enerpy (Scholz. 1990). Slip does not proceed smoothly

and uniformly dong the rntire fault surtàce. Instead. it is local and abrupt. A rockburst is an

instantaneous. violent failure of rock whereby fragments of rock are ejrcted into mine

openings (Hedley 1992). Rockbursts are also associated with the release of stored strain

energy and generally occur at great depths. However. rockbursts c m also occur at shallow

depths. in pillars under high mining-induced stresses. and in shallow areas of high tectonic

stress.

The classic rnethods of rockburst aileviation are proper mining sequences: reasonablr

opening dimensions. geometries and mining rates: stringent filling practices: the use of

destressing or preconditioning. md the installation of enhanced support to control the

damage. Of these methods destressing and support are the o d y ones that c m be used by the

excavation personnel. While the role of support has been extensively investigated as a
mitigative measure to control rockbursts. destressing has not (Camiro 1995).

Destressing is a ground control technique. whereby explosives are used to release the

stored strain energy in a controlled manner by.(l) creating or estending a Fracture zone

around openings or ( 2 ) fracturing pillars that are likely to burst. A successhl destressing

program reduces the potential occurrence of a rockburst and also reducés the need for costly

support such as cable k i n g .

This thesis is arranged in five chapters. Chapter 2 introduces the topic of rockbursts

as a mining hazard that must be rnanaged. highlights the indicators for increased rockburst

potential and summarises rockburst mitigation measures comrnonly used in mines. Chapter

3 is a summary of case studies where destressing. particularly pillars. bas been used as a

mitigation tool against rockbursting. Chapter 4 describes the application of destressing to a

regional pillar at Stobie Mine. Sudbury. To the author's knowledge. this application of

destress blasting. is the largest undenaken by the international mining industry. Finally

Chapterj summarizes the main findings fiom this research topic.

Several appendices are included to accommodate data and figures from numerical

modelling and detailed descriptions of various destressing techniques developed at M C 0

Lirnited since 1962. with special ernphasis on applications developed by the author and his

associates at INCO since 1980.

Chapter 2 Rockbursts in Underground Mining

2.1 Introduction: Factors which contribute to rock bursting.

Kaiser (1988) proposed that rock mass failures are of iwo types: falls of ground (non-

violent. gradua1 failures) and rockbursts (violent. instantaneous. brinle failures). Hedley

(1991)suggested there are three types of rockbursts: (1) strain bursts. ( 2 ) pillar bursts and

(3) fault slip bursts (Fig. 2.1).

Complex mechmisms produce rockbursts. According to Hedley (1 987) the major

causes ofrockbursts are: (1) surface instabilitirs at or near a working face characterised by

spalling at the free face: ( 2 ) propagation of shear fractures in the rock mass ahead of the

stope face: (3) sudden collapse of over stressed pillars: and (4) slip dong Faults or bedding

planes. Rockbursts are always associated with rrgions of over-stressed rock. Factors which

lead to over stressing include: high hydrostatic and tectonic stresses. high extraction ratio and

planar discontinuities. These are described in the following sections.

2.1.1 Lithostatic and Tectonic Stresses.

Ground stresses are caused by geological and artificial phenornena. The most comrnon

environment where a rock will be subject to high in-situ stress is at depth. Where the in-situ

stress is caused by lithostatic and the locked in stresses of tectonic ongin (Franklin &

Dusseault 1989). A mine opening dismpts the local stress field and a new set of stresses is

induced in the surrounding rock. A knowledge of the magnitudes and directions of the in-situ

and induced stresses is essentiai for the design of mine openings, because if the strength of

the rock is exceeded the resulting instability may have serious consequences on the

behaviour of the excavations.

 Lithostatic (vertical) stress is due to the mass of the overly ing rock colurnn (column

length x rock density) and has a range of 0.026MPalm to 0.0324MPdm (Fig. 2.2). Brown

and Hoek (1 978) use 0.027MPa /mas the average fiorn rnining and civil engineering projects

around the world. Accordingly the vertical stress at the 550m level at Stobie is 15MPa. In

the Sudbury area the maximum principal tectonic stress is horizontal and in a NE-SW

direction (Cochrane 1991). The ratio of the horizontal to vertical stress decreases with depth

from 5 at surface to 1 -7 at the 550111 level (Fig. 2.7b).

Most mining methods require the leaving of pillars between stopes to reduce closure

and to afford stability to adjacent openings. In some mines. pillars can be placed in Iow grade

ore where as in others. the pillars are within the ore body and may be permanent or

trmporary. In some cases the pillars have been designed for recovery at the final phase of

mining. As rnining proceeds. the extraction ratio (mined material/original volume) x 100

increases (Fig. 2.3). At 25% extraction the stress acting on a pillar is 1.33 times the stress

acting on the orebody plane. Reference to the plane of the orebody is significant because

generally the stress acting on a pillar is a vector component of the vertical and the tectonic

stresses perpendicular to the plane of the orebody. At Stobie Mine the hangingwall (HW)

contact (70°.3 15') best represents the plane of the orebody. Assuming that the pillar stress

is caused by the gravitational and tectonic forces (Galbraith 1992), the average pillar stress

at Stobie Mine at the 550m level. with a 75% extraction ratio is 4 times the stress normal to

the orebody plane, rquivalent to the stress at the 2.200m level of the rockburst-prone

Creighton Mine (Fig. 4.3b). Pillas in a mine with a high extraction ratio usually fail. This

failure can be a violent pillar burst or gradua1 sloughing and spalling.

 LONG. SECTION CROSS SECTION
-
O
SCALE
- -
10m
--

DRIFT ON 2195m L N E L

CROSS SECTION OF 2070m LEVEL

FEB. 22 1980
C-1 1 25 CROSS SECTION

-
O
SCALE
10m

FLOOR HEAVE -
TRqCK DISPLACED

c - 4
- 1585m LEVEL
LONG. SECTION

-
ROCK OISPLACE0 8Y ROCK8URST
O
SCALE
1 Om

Fic. 2.1 Exarnples of the types of bunts ai Creighton mine. a) a strain burst

in a drift at the 2195m level, b) pilla burst in a rib between two cut and fil1 stopes on the si11

cut and c) a fault-slip burst at the 1585m level caused by slip dong the 6 Shafi shear induced

by driving the development drift.

 Fic. 2.2 Measured stress variations with depth. a) Vertical stress component can

usually be predicted from weight of overburden. b) Ratio of horizontal to vertical stress is

about 1.5 at depths below 1 Km, but rapidly increases to values greater than 5 in the 100 m

nearest to surface. (Datafiom Herget 1986)

 FIG.2.3 (a) Extraction ratio = mined materidonginal volume x l O0 = 75%. (b) Pillar

stress to extraction ratio using vibutary area.

 Areas with high tectonic stress and areas in close proximity to faults are two other

environments in which mine openings are subject to high stress. The stress associated with

the movement of the North American plate accounts for the high horizontal stresses

measured in the Canadian Shield (Cochrane 1991).

2.1.2 Planar Discontinuities

Planar discontinuities such as dykes and faults enhance rockburst activity as

indicated by mine seismic networks (Ryder 1988). Stress magnitudes and orientations are

significantly dfected by geological structures in the Underground Research Laboratory at

Pinawa. Manitoba (Martin and Chandler 1993).. For rxarnple stress magnitudes mrasured

above and below a fracture zone ranged from -1 to +43 MPa and stress orientations rotated

as much as 90" when this fracture zone was crossed.

2.2 Stored Strain Energy and Stress

Strain rnergy is a function of the stress state and the elastic conditions (Young's

modulus and Poisson's ratio) of the rock mas. The stress distribution around an underground

opening cm be determined using comrnercially available sobvare such as MAP3D or

EXAMINE 3D. These programs provide the stress distribution in klimensions for irregular

shaped geometries.

To determine the snalli energy. the Young's modulus of the rock mass must be known.

This parameter is seldom known with any confidence and hence elastic strain eneqy is not

widely used in evaluating burst potential in mines. Pnctitioners instead rely mainiy on the

identification of regions in the mine where mining induced stresses exceed stress magnitudes

that have k e n empincally determined as cntical for a particular mine or rnining camp. A value
of a,= 125 MPa has been used for Creighton and other Sudbury Basin mines as a stress level

at which bursting is highly likely (P. H. Oliver. retired iNCO Rock Mechanics supervisor.

persona1 communication 1986). Particular attention should be paid to areas that the mode1

indicates are in tension or have a reduction in confinement in close p r o x i m i ~a zone of high

stress. Based on cornparisons of numerical mode1 results with field evidence. the author has

considers any areas. with o,2 70 MPa and o;ranging fiom a negative value (tension) to half

the far field conîinement value. having a hi& potential of bursting.

2.3 Rock Strength

A rock mass is made up of intact blocks separated by discontinuities. The rock mass

strength is rmpirically determined using Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Tunnelling Quality

Index (Q) values. while intact rock strengths or unimial compressive strengths (03 c m be

deterrnined in the lab from intact fracture-free specimens. The fiequency and orientation of

joints. significantly reduces the rock mass strength rock relative to oc.The presence of

geological structures influence stress magnitudes and orientations. Rousell (1 984) indicares

numerous joint sets exist in the rocks of the Sudbury Basin. with as many as 7 joint sets at a

given station. P. H. Oliver (personal communication 1988) recommended the use of a rock

mass strength of 62MPa for the strongly jointed rocks of the Sudbury Basin with a a, of

155MPa.

2.4 StresdStrength an Indicator of Rock Mass Instability

Rock must be subjected to stress greater than its compressive strength to fail
violently. However. the overail far field in-situ stress regime need not be greater than the

strength of the rock to cause failure because the geomeû-y of openings induce local zones of

stress concentration which may locally exceed the breaking stren-gth. Martin et al. (1998)

have indicated that brittle failure occurs at approximately a stress level of 115 of the (03of

a rock.

Hoek and Brown (1980) and Stacey and Page (1986) suggestrd that the ratio o,/q

might be used to mess ground conditions in underground mines. Based on observations in

South Afncan mines. they proposed the classification in Table 2.4.

Table 2.1 Influence of o,/o,Ratio on Stability (Stacey and Page 1986).

q/q 1 Description of Condition

I

< 0.2 No particular problerns.

0.2-0.4 Spalling from the surface paralle1 to o,.Heavirr support required.

0.4-0.5 Heavy support required. Major Spalling.

0.5-0.67 Very dangerous and di fficult to keep open. Support heaw and costly.

>0.67 Impractical or rxtremeiy difficult to maintain open.

Martin et al. (1998) proposed that brittle failure occurs at a ratio of o,/o, = 0.33 and that

this simple index could also be useci to mess the burst potential of a pillar. They suggested that

if the stress in the pillar falls below one third of the cc(c& W 3 ) the burst potential in a pillar

is significantly reduced.

Using the average pillar stress of 100MPa at mid height of 25 pillar at Stobie Mine and

the average ocfor disseminated quartz diorite of 2 12MPa. then o& = 0.47. Burst potential
exists at mid height of 25 Pillar (375m)and it would increase towards 55Om level.

2.5 Evidence of Over Stressed Regions in a Mine

As rnining progresses. pillas and abutments are subject to increased stress. which may

lead to early gentle failure or later violent failure. Hence it is important to establish which

regions in a mine are overstressed and if possible. to determine by what mode the energy wdl

likely be released.

Stifiess is best understood by cornpiving a mine to the reactions of a stiffand a soi?

testing trame. When a rock specimen yields in a stiff testing framr. the testing frarne looses

its load with only small arnounts of yielding by the specimen. Al1 of the energy released from

the loading system is used in deforming the yielding rock sample. Thus the stiff testing t h m e

cannot drive the yielding sarnple to failure unless additional energy is supplied by pumping

more oil into the hydraulic system. When a rock specirnen yields in a sofi testing frame. the

testing frame tends to maintain its load over large amounts of deformation. More energy is

released from the loading system than can be used in deforming the yielding rock smple.

Thus the sofi testing framr drives the yielding sample to Failure without any additional

rnergy being supplied. This example is directly analogous to a pillar. abutment or fault

loaded between the footwall and hangingwall (Wiles et al. 1998).

The ability of an element in a mine to store energy is dependant on the geometry of

the element (e.g. pillar = widthheight) and the properties of the surrounding rocks. When

a stope panel is blasted. the reduction in confinement dong one or twrosides of a block of

rock is accompanied by a release of the stored strain energy as the block expands. This

process of energy release is M e r driven by the expansion and energy release of adjoining
blocks. This aggregate of energy releasing blocks is the loading system. The loading system

has properties that define the t p e of failure, which will occur. It is the enerw of the loading

system. which dictates the behaviour subsequent to initial failure. whether yielding is

induced by over stressing, loss of confinement. reduction OF the clamping forces on a fault.

creep. fatigue. asperity shearing. large hcnire Formation or even blasting (Wiles et al. 1998).

Equally important is the stiffness of the loading system. which is the slope of the Ioad versus

the displacement. The total energy released by the loading system. c m be calculated by

intrgrating the load through the displacement denvrd by a boundary element nurnencal

mode1 (Wiles et al. 1998).

Releases of stored d n energy by slip dong faults causes earthquakes. Failure releases

energy and this released energy c m produce additional Mure. which in tem releases additional

energy. Tlius failure and releasc: of stored strain energy once initiated c m be self-propagating.

Failure and cnergy relerises occur on scales. ranging fiom earthquakes dong plate margins. to

failure in mine oprnings ( fiom spalling to rockbursts).

Diamond drill core. of any diameter. rxtracted h m regions of high stress oRen

fractures into thin discs (Fig. 7.4). This discing is the result of high stresses perpendicular to

the borehole a.-+&: the higher the stress the t h i ~ ethe

r discs. Various attempts have been made

to relate the direction and magnitude of the principal stresses with the concavity and thickness

of the discs (Dyke 1989; Song and Haimson 1997).

 FIG.2.5 Spalling in the sidewall of a bored raise in massive rock. The direction of the

major principal stress is shown. Spalling initiates at points of maximum compressive stress

concentration which occur at right angles to the major principal stress direction (fiom Hoek et

ai. 1995).
 Damage or breakout inthe wall of a borehole is cornmonly referred to as "dog earing"

or -'eggingW.Borehole-breakout simulation tests (Maloney and Kaiser 1989) indicate the

following: (1) failure of the borehole wall is due to shearîng in bands parallel to

(perpendicular to O , ) (Fig. 2.5); (2) spalling occurs at the intersection of shear surfaces and

extensional zones: (3) block failure follows as fngments slough into the borehole. The extent

of the borehole elongation increases with increase in the stress parallel to the hole avis and with

the increase in magnitude of the difference between the stresses in the plane perpendicular to

the hole a i s (Fig. 2.5). Because the breakout is formed in a direction perpendicular to a,.

observation and documentation of this featwe provides an inexpensive means of determiring

variations in the near field stress direction. Because rock hilure is scale invariant (Tschalenko

& Ambraseys 1WO), borehole breakout occurs in holes of al1 siws. Martin and Young ( 1993).

Lee and Hamison ( 1993)and Martin ( 1997) document the formation of borehoie breakout type

notches in a 3.511 diameter t m e l driven in massive uniform. granite using perimeter lim

drilling and mechanical breaking of the rock stub (Fig. 2.6). Boreholr breakout. occuned within

a few hours d e r drilling a raise bore pilot hole (d = 28cm) at Creighton Mine (Fig. 2.7) The

formation of borehole breakouts in production holes (dia = 16.5cm)in the 25 pillar at Stobie

mine signalled the advent of failure and the need for destressing (Fig. 2.8).

Another indicator of high stress mapinides is the slabbing and spalling From the roof

and walls of underground excavations (Hoek et al 1995). Exarnples of slabbing include the

following: (1) shear failure in the corner of a drift (Fig. 2.9~1);(2) sidewall spdling (Fig. 2.9b);

(3) curved slabbing due to shear failure in corners (Figs. 2.10% 3.1Ob): and (4) progressive

levels of failure due to spdling (Figs. 3.1 la, 2.1 I b).

 Lu et al. (1 989) compare and interpret the brinle failures observed in the excavating of

three. 10k long headrace tunnels for the Tianshengqiao hydro povier station in SE China to

mechuiisms of failure obsemed in tests of rock specimens at different confining pressures. The

three mechanisms of failure observed were failure by brittle splitting, tensile failure associated

with the shear process and failure by pure shear fracture. These mechanisms occurred at low.

moderate and high confining pressures. respectively. The location of the failure in a drift

c o h e d this. The splitting mechanism ofa rockbwst vas hcturing of high-strength materiai

under low confining stress. The slabbing on the sidewdls occurred in areas of intermediate

confinement. The shear failures. in corners of drifts rvere in tightly confined zones. with high.

induced stress and high confining pressures. The strain rnergy released due to spalling is less

than the energy releaxd due to bursting.

2.6 Rockburst Mitigation

As previously mentioned. the classic methods of rockburst alleviation are proper

mining sequencrs: reasonable dimensions. geometrirs and mining rates: and stringent filling

practices. These are strategic methods. The "tactical" methods (Morrison and MacDonald

1989) are the use of destressing or preconditioning and the installation of enhanced support

to control the damage.

Hedley (1992. p 725) in the Rockburst Handbook for Ontario Hardrock Mines.

reconfirms the validity of the conclusions reached by the Rockburst comminee 10 years

prior. "The prediction of the time of occurrence of a rockburst is of little actual value to a

mine operator and it wodd be far more usefd to delineate areas predisposed to bursting and

to apply means to inhibit and control the burst".

 FIG.2.6 Progressive development of the notch geometry in the roof and floor of the

Underground Research Laboratory test tunnel over a five-month period fiom Martin (1 997).
 FIG.2.7 Borehole breakout that occurred within a few hours of drilling a raise bore pilot

hole (dia. = 28cm) at Creighton Mine. The tricone bit jamrned with debis fiom the breakout.
 FIG.2.8 The formation of borehole breakouts in production holes (dia = 16.5cm)in the

25 pillar at Stobie mine signalled the advent of failure and the need for destressing.
 Frc. 2.9. a) Shear failure surfaces in the corner of an underground excavation in highly

stressed quartzite. b) Severe sidewall spalling in an excavation in quartzite in a deep level

South African gold mine (both after Hoek & Brown 1980).
 FE. 2.10. a) Stanrock Mine, Eiiiot Lake, Ontario. Note curved sidewall of service way.
b) Lac-nor Mine Elliot Lake, showing a pillar face fomiing the curved sidewall of a stope (both

&er Momson 1976).

Fie. 2.11 a) & b) Progressive levels of failure due to spalling (Hoek et al. 1995).
 Momson (1976) considered the pre-rnining stress distribution. the structure and

properties of the rock mass. and the support and geometry of the excavations. as the major

variables contributing to rock failure. graduai or sudden. He considered the pre-mining stress

distribution and rock mass properties as facts that had to be accrpted and concentrated his

rockburst control efforts on support and geometry. Today the practitioner attempts to alter

the distribution of the pre-mining stresses and modie the properties of the rock mass in and

about the excavations using destressing techniques. The following are a few specific

exampies. The methods of stress shdowing developed in South Africa. to suit the geornetry

of shallow-dipping. deep. tabular. goid veins include: over stoping (Leih 1990): driving "TM

shaped driRs (Jager et al 1990): over slotting: mining of over-reefs first: and rnining hanging

walls before footwalls (Cook et al. 1977).

Areas of hipher stress and associated risk of rockbiirsting in the Creighton 1 1 shah

transfer drifi. defined by discing of core in pre-development diamond drill holrs. were

subjected to additional destressing (Garrood 1982). These "structure" holes were drilled

solely for the purpose ofdefining the zones with high stress. Emphasis has been placed

recentiy on imaging systems such as Tomography (Fridel et al. 1996) at the Homestake

Mine. Successful identification of high stress zones would natiirally direct one to use

destressing techniques to reduce the risks of bursting, and increase the ground support to

accommodate any potential bursts.

Back analysis of bursting sites to define the conditions and causes of bursts have

entailed numerous new techniques. Over coring detailed stress risee (Whyatt et ai. 1993) and

first motion analysis confi~rmedfault slip mechanism (Jenkins et al. 1990) at the Lucky

Friday Mine. Wallace. Idaho.

 2.6.1 Research on Rockbursts

A Fault-slip event at the Falconbridge mine in 1984. resulted in four fatditirs (Bharti

& West 1984). The subsequent Stevenson Inquiry. recomended a Canadian Rockburst

Research Program. whose purpose was to investigate rockbursts in Canadian mines. The first

five years of the research program. directed by Dr. D. Hedley of CANMET. concentrated

from its onset on developing seisrnic systems to; (1) locate the rvents. (2) capture wave

forms and (3) determine source mechanisms. and culminated in the publication of the

'Rockburst Handbook for Ontario Hardrock Mines'. The handbook documents fundarnentals.

a historical review of bursting in Canadian Mines. and a list of destressing techniques used

by Canadian companies. During the subsequent five yrars (1 990-1 995) the Canadian

Rockburst Research Program. which was funded by the Industry through the Mining

Research Directorate ( M m ) and both the Federal and Provincial Governments. concentrated

its efforts on seismology. mine design. support. backfill and monitoring. The results are

contained in a six-volume set. bound in two tomes (Camiro. 1995). Drstressing was not

included in any of the research phases of the final 5 years.

An analysis of bursting that occurred during the mid 1980's in the Copper Cliff

North Mine indicated abnormally low confinhg pressures as the cause of bursting (Momson

& Galbraith 1990). The lower confining pressure produced a lower rock strength than

expected.

The conditions that cause rockbursts are numerous and their interplay is cornplex. A

study by O'Donnell (1995) documented the influence of solar and lunar tides on the

frequency of rockbursts and falls -ofground at ten INCO Lirnited mines during the period of

1985 to 1994. A frequency of rockburst occurrence of 1.5 times the average was
 0.15 -
014 -
0.13 -
Olt -
0.11 -
01 -
009 -
O08 -
O07 -
006 -

TOT& Ti%L FORCE

-+AVERAGE NUMBER OF EVENTS PER DAY

26-40

- 41-50 51.60 61-70 71-10

TOTAL TiDAL FORCE
AVERAGE NUMBER OF FALLS FER DAY
81-00 91-1W 101-113

FIG. 2.12 a) Histogram of the fiequency of rockbursts and major seismic events recorded at
Creighton Mine between 1985 and 1994 versus total tidal force. b) Histogram of the fiequency of ground falls
recorded at al1 MC0 mines between 1985 and 1994 versus total tidal force (O'Donnell 1995).
observed on days with the lowest total tidal force. tnterestingly. the frequency of falls of

ground was highest when the total tidal force was the highest (Fig. 2

Blake et al. (1998) state that there have been few well instrumented field tests to

validate the mechanisms by which destressing reduces the rockburst potential. However. a

recent request for submissions on destressing resrarch has some possibility of advancing the

state of the art. conditional on the sponsorship fiom indus- and the availability o h suitable

venue for in situ tests.

2.6.2 Support

Standard support systems (e. g. mechanical bolts. grouted rebars. friction bolts and

welded wire) are inadequate in areas subject to heavy rockbursts. brcause the. cannot

accommodate the larger displacements. Accordingly speciality support systems such as cable

k i n g have been devised.

Cable lacing is a three-tiered support system consisting of grouted bars. chain link

mesh and cables. The grouted smooth bars knoiçn as shepherd's crooks. or hairpins. (Fig.

2.13) are installed on a 1m x 1m to 2m .u 2m pattern. depending on the Irvel of risk. Chain

link mesh is fastened to the rock with tensioned cables that are interlaced through the pins

or shepherd's crooks (Hedley 1992). This robust support is commonly used in deep South

African gold mines and occasionally in Sudbury. Swan ( 1989) defines cable k i n g as the

final solution at Falconbridge Limited whereby rockfalls. rehabilitation and exposure of

employees is mitigated (Fig. 2.13b).

Other suppon systems include: (1) the Cone bolt. a grouted yielding tendon

developed by the Charnber of Mines Research Organisation (COMRO) (Ortlepp 1994); and

(2) shotcrete, which is used as a coupling element with rock bolts and meshing (Cook et al.
 I
I

HAlR PIN

SHEPHERD'S CROOK

14MM 8AR INSIDE OIAMETER OF EYE 37mm

LEGS 1.8 OR 2.4m

EXAMPLES OF A SHEPHERD'S CROOK

a) AND A HAlR PIN USE0 IN CABLE LACING

Fie. 2.13 a) Exarnples of support hardware used in cable lacing. b) Photc

cableilacing at Stratcona Mine (Davidge et al. 1988).

1977. Langille & Buss 19%). The energy absorbing capacity of mesh reinforced shotcrete

( 5 O m thick), is greater than 16mm rebar shepherd's crooks. The performance of steel-fibre

reinforced shotcrete is erntic (Stacey et al. 1995). .4t the Lucky Friday Mine. before dnlling

the next round. shotcrete is applied to the back and \vails which are reinforced with bolts and

chain link rnesh (Blake et al. 1998).

2.6.3 Controlling the Failure Process

If failure in a conf guration or sequence is inevitable. then attempts should be made

to control the timing and rate of failure. Controlled bilure may be achieved by one or more

of the following methods: designing slender pillars, allowing time in the mining sequence

for energy to be released. delaying entry. and installing soA support.

The geornetry of a pillar affects its strength and ability to store strain energy (Parker

1974). A slender pillar will fail under low stress conditions. A squat pillar with a height to

width ratio of 0.25 or less will devrlop conf nement in its core and will build up stress. Thus

regional or b o u n d q pillllars should be squat and pillars that are required to fail should be

slender (Fig. 2.1 4).

Some configurations are prone to bursting. Blasts in these areas c m be scheduled at

times when a natural luIl in activity would follow. during which time energy could safely

dissipate by bursting when no one is around. The blasting of footwall slots in the silling

process on the 2075111 level at Creighton had a high potential of inducing rockbursts. To

ailow the groound to release stress safely, the blasts were detonated at the end of the 4-1 2 shifi

on Fridays. giving till Monday rnorning for the ground to release the excess energy.

The decay time of a block of ground affected by a vertical retreat mined 0or
crown blast can be detemined by monitoring seismicity over a number of blasts. Once the

decay time has been defined, entry to a workplace or a portion of a mine c m be delayed. to

reduce the nsk of injury.

The installation of a stiff support element. shortly afier blasting a drift that is under

high stress. c m rupture the support. A case in point is the insrallation sequence used in drifts

at Creighton. Since the drifts are destressed. considerable deformation is expected in the drift

back and walls. Mechanical bolts are installed as the first pass of support. Rebars are only

installed a day to a week later. because if they are installed earlier. they will rupture at

approximatrly 0.3m from the collar. The installation of mechanical bolts has a second-.

safety feature in that they are quicker to install and thus the exposure time for the miner is

much less than for a rebar installation. Anempts have bren made to develop macro-delayed

resins for placement at the collars of rebar for use in conjunction with the qui& setting

cartridge at the toe of the hole (Laneille. persona1 communication. 1997).

2.6.4 Changing Mining Methods

The diminishing pillar. created as a cut and fil1 stope is mined. and the pillas in a

stope and pillar bulk mine attract stress and may burst. Some major initiatives that have been

implemented to reduce rockbursts are: (1) conversion from the cut and fil1 method to a

primary undercut and fil1 method at the Lucky Friday Mine (Noyes et al. 1988): (2) centre

out mining with reduced spans in VRM topsills at the Copper Cliff North Mine (O'Donnell

1991): and (3) designing and excavating a stress relief dot at Creighton Mine (Oliver et al..

1987 and MacDonald et al.. 1988). Changes of this nature bring out other questions: (1) c m

a consolidated fil1 be developed that wilI accommodate the mining method (Brackebusch

1988) and (2) will the support potential of the cernented-fil1 influence rockbursts. The fil1
 v u w/ / HEIGHT : WlOTH RATIO

PILLAR HEIGHT : WlDTH RATIO IS AROUNO 1:2 or 0.5

-
CENTER OF PILLAR
IS CONFINED
HENCE VERY STRONG
-
PlLtAR HEIGHT : WlDTH RATIO IS AROUNO 1:4 or 0.25

DEC1F4.ûWC

Fic. 2.14 Examples of slender and squat pillas (Parker 1971).a) Height: Width =

1 :1; The edges of the pillar fail in shear then tension cracks open up in the centre. b) H:W

= 1 :2; Gradual deterioration of the outer part of the pillar decreases confinement on the

centre and increases the load on the remaining central portion. c) H:W = 1:4; The roof

deflects a little and exerts an inward force on the pillar.

voids or gaps. in both the under cut and fil1 and VRM mining methods. generally preclude

the ability of the fil1 to develop resistance to closure that would re-induce wall stresses of a

magnitude. for bursting to develop. Bursting would be more likely to develop due to

relaxation and slip associated with reduced clarnping forces (Whyatt et al. 1989).

2.6.5 Destressing

There is considerable uncertainty conceming the mechanics of destressing. The main

reason for this uncertainty is that destressing was developed as a practitioner's tool. While

there have been several attempts to quantify the rffects of destressing through field

rxpenments. to the author's knowledge nonr of these experîments have shed any light on the

underlying iùndamentals of destressing. None the less there is a dearth of operational

experience that shows desvessing does reduce the rockburst hazard.

Numerous studies have been undertaken to simulate the effect of destressing by

numerical modelling. Attempts have been made to compare different destress hole locations

(Mitri et al 1988) and calibrate mode1 results with field observations. Design tools developed

in South f i c a to assess different stratrgies included: ( 1) Energy Rrlease Rate (Cook 1966);

and (2) Excess Shear Stress (Ryder 1988). Wiles et al. ( 1998) used numencal modelling to

correlate the occurrence of bursting to an rnergy release density. The Local Energy Release

Density was equated to the area under the loading system stiffness curve divided by the

sample volume. Reasonabie correlation has been indicated in his preliminary srudies.

Destressing techniques have been developed. by the author and associates at INCO's

Creighton mine to accommodate various mining methods ( O ' D o ~ e i i 1992). They

essentially use explosives to create and extend Fracture zones or promote pillars to fail.

Before studying the techniques and their development, some of the notions that have been
put fonvard as to why destressing works. are reviewed.

Oliver et al. (1987) States that stability requires the establishment and maintenance

of a skin of hiled material around al1 openings. and recognising this is the key to minimising

the rockburst hazard in development openings at depth. This skin of failed material is

produced by destressing.

Rorke and Brurnrner (1988) suggested destressing serves to release strain energy in

highly stressed rock whereas preconditioning serves to fracture and weaken large areas of

unstressed rocks. to prevent the dangerous acc~imulationsof strain energy as mining

progresses. Thry described the desired results of preconditioning of deep tabulu gold vrin

in South Afiica. as reduction in horizontal clmping forces thus rncouraging the occurrence

of stable shear movements dong fracture planes.

O'Domeii (1 988) stated that destressing in primary development drifts destresses

and preconditions the rock. The face holes. generally drilled twice the lrngth of the round.

push the stresses ahead of the excavation. where as the shoulder (corner) holes fracture the

ground pnor to blasting even the cut. As the excavation is formed. the stress concentration

at the shoulder induces failure in the weakenrd rock initiating the progressive failure that

promotes wall closure. slippage dong joints and release of energy as the excavation

progresses to the desired state of low potential energy. synonymous with Iow risk of

bursting. The bolting procedure prornotes this process by the injection of water into the rock

mass and along joints. It is indeed at this point that a significant increase in audible rock

noise is detected as the transition to stability proceeds.

e goal of destressing as the promotion of fracturing

Blake (et al. 1998) s u m r n ~ s the

or mobilising movement on pre-existing fractures resulting in a change in the deformation

mode from bnttle to plastic.

2.8 Summary

Rockbursts are associated with: deep mines. areas of high tectonic stress. faults. and

high extraction ratio. Mining sequence. pillar geometry. destressing. as well as timing of re-

entry are steps that c m be taken to reduce the risk of rockbursts. Chapter 2 reviewed: (1) the

various methods by which stored strain energy is released: (2) the causes of rockbursts: and

(!) the solutions available to reduce their risk. The following chapters document significant

pillar destressing projects in order to drvelop a Frmework with which to compare the

destressing of 25 Pillar at Stobie Mine.

Chapter 3 Destressing Case Histories

3.1 Introduction

The previous chapter deds with stress. strength. stored strain energy. rockbursts and

destressing as an effective tool in releasing stored strain rnergy to reduce the risk of a

rockburst occurring. This chapter documents the application of destressing to drifts. stopes

and tabular ore zones and presents a number of case studies on pillar destressing.

3.1.1 Development of Destressing Techniques at INCO Limited.

Destressing up to 1980

Dickhout ( 1962) was one of the fints to elaborate on the use of destressing at INCO

Limited's Creighton Mine. During the earl y sixtirs the cut-and-fil1 method was being

introduced to replace the square set mining method. brlow the 1220m Irvel. Expanded rnetal

mesh and rock bolts were being used to replace sets as drift support on the 7010rn Ievel. It

was ai this transitional stage in the development of mining that destressing mrthods were

developed. Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel oil (ANFO). which had been recently introduced as

an explosive. made long destress holes frorn a working face possible. Dickhout indicated the

destressing at that time consisted of two drill holes (d=57mrn). one 7.6m the other l5.2m in

length (Fig. 3.1). The long hole was cornpletely filled with ANFO and collar primed. This

arrangement produced the required degree of destressing and produced a relatively clean hole
that could be readily exarnined and occasionally was used in the cut (Fig. 3.1). New destress

holes were ddled when 1.8m of the previous destress holes remained. Destress was a

success because the openings were stable and there was a marked reduction in overbreak and

spalling. n i e latter was very significant for miner safety since the 2.4m x S.7m drifts were

driven using jack leg drills. The successful use of destressing permitted the continued use of

rock bolts for drift support as opposed to reverting to the more expensive timber or steel sets.

Drilling the long holes and reconditioning after the blast were time consuming and

expensive. Fiirther refinements determined that two face holes, hÿice the length of the round,

would adequately destress a face.

NOT TO SCALE

PREVIOUS
DESTRESS HOLE
DESTRESS HOLES 1.8m
1r---
I
I

15mH I
1
, DRIFT
7ma
PlANNED
AOVANCE

FIG.3.1. Plan of a drift showing the general arrangement of destress holes used

during the 60's (after Dickhout 1962).

FIG.3.2 Enlargement of a blasted destress hole (after Dickhout 1962).
The lack of data on destressing techniques in the interval 1962- 1980 is apparentiy because

drillers were responsible for drilling and breaking rounds. If the rounds break cleanly then

no one interferes with the process. In some cases the only information available is anecdotal

rvidence. For euample. the idea of placing destress holes in the corner of working faces is

credited to a crew working on the 2070m level at Creighton mine. The rule of not drilling

within .l 5m of a previously blasted hole (bootleg), and twin destress holes in a face. make

locating of the cut dificult. The crew noticed during the process ofdrilling bolt holes in the

shoulder. that the magnitude and frequency of rock noises (low level seismicity) increased

above back-ground. When the holes were completed. the seismicity Fe11 below background.

Apparently. corners trigger seisrnicity. Accordingly. destress holès at the corners produce

beneficial results. However. face holes are still required to push the fracture zone ahead of

the face.

For destressing to be readiiy accepted by rniners the following are required: (1) they

must be aware of the risk of rockbursts: (2) the method has to be easily performed with the

tools and supplies that are available: (3) the process rnust not significantly delay the drilling

and blasting of a round: (4) there has to be minimum damage and repair work required

because of the destress blast; and ( 5 ) the results must be convincing.

3.2 A Comprehensive List of Destressing Techniques Developed by the

Author and Associates at INCO Limited.

3.2.1 Drift Destressing

The configuration developed over the years to reduce the risk of strain bursts in

dzvelopment drifts is the drilling of. two face holes twirc: the lèngth of the round. and holes

in the upper corners the sarne length as the round. Wall holrs and holes in the bottom cornes

were required in some cases (Oliver et al. 1987). The method is successful and no

reconditioning of the drifts is required. There is generally an increasr in the fracture pattern

at the face that causes some problems in drilling the next round.

3.2.2 Break Through Destresssing

When two drifts are being driven towards each other. die strain enerçy and associated

seismicity increase as the distance between them decreases. The technique developed by the

author in order to reduce the risk of a rockburst is: the headings are stopped four round

lrngths apart. and two holes are drilled. twice the Iength of a round. from each heading (Fig.

3.h). Instead of one meter of ANFO at the toe of each hole. the holes are loaded from the

toe out to a le& of approximately 75% of the length of the hole. It should be noted that

these holes have a strong kick back or shot gun effect. Care should be taken that thesr holes

are not in line with any crucial equiprnent or power lines. The rernaining four rounds are

usually taken from one side using the customary corner and wall holes.

A similar procedure can be used if a drift is to break into a stope and there is a nsk

of bursting (Fip. 3.3 b). The procedure used in the 1290 zone on the 2070m level at Creighton
mine when dnving a cil! drift towards a filled cut and fill block was as follows: A diamond

drill was used to driil two destress holes L5.2m long towards the stope. Approximately 75%

of the hole (from the toe out) was loaded with ANFO and blasted. Access into the area was

prevented for a predetermined decay period. usually a minimum of 8 hours.

3.2.3 Destressing in Stopes.

Destressing was used in cut and fill stopes on the 195Om and 20 10m levels during

the mid-seventies. A series of holes were drilled in stiff portions of gabbro or granite nb

pillars. These holes were used in both traditional high fill cut and fill and in uppers cut and

fill stopes. In the latter a ten foot slicr was blasted from hanging wall to footwall at once.

using narrow diameter 35mm drill holes. The new back was then bolted off the rnuck pile.

which was subsequrntly mucked out. The destress holes were ?.-lm long and on a 3rn

spacing. There is no wtitten evidence of the amount of explosives used. Reconditioning of

the walls was required after the destress holes cntered the walls and peeled back the screen

(Fig. 3.4).

3.2.4 The Destressing of Pillan on the Sill Cut.

Methods developed in the early eighties to dcstress rib pillars on the si11 cut of

mechanized cut and fiIl complexes. and the destressing of extraction drift ribs. are detailed

in O'Donnell (1992). However. to make this document complete the pertinent facts will be

out1ined.

Bursting of pillars on and above the 1950 m level did not occur until removal of the

second to fourth cut (Oliver et al. 1987). Pillar bursts started on the 2010m level. In the early

eighties a program of destressing was developed by the author and associates in cut and fil1
 PLAN VlEW

a) BREAKTHROUGH DESTRESSING FOR

A DRIFT BREAKING INTO A STOPE

b) BREAKTHROUGH DESTRESSING FOR

A DRIFT BREAKING lNTO A DRIFT
PORTION OF THE HOLE LOADEO AND DESTRESSED

FIG. 3 3 a) Breakthrough destressing for a drift breaking into a Siope.

b) Breakthrough destresshg for a drift breaking into a drift.

 FRACTURE ZONE

Sm LONG 32 m m OIAMETER OESTRESS HOLE

Fic. 3.4. Damage caused by destressing a drift wall.

PLAN SlLL CUT

SECTION A-A'

FIG.3.5 Destress pattern in the 2070m level Mechanized cut and fil1 units.
complexes on the 2073m level (Fig. 3.5). The complexes had 7.9m wide stopes and 4.9m

wide pillars with a 9. l m wide central slot. The stope direction was parallel to the least

principal stress.

Destressing included the blasting of 1.jm of ANFO at the base of twvo 6m. face holes.

The first 3 m of these holes were ddled with a 5Jmm cut bit to accommodate the coupling

which was required to extend the hole to 6m with a 43mm bit. The corner holes were 3m

long and J3mm dimeter and contained O.jm of ANFO. These holes were drilled up and out

at 30 degrees to the advance direction. Wall holes at 45 degrees to the direction of advance

(3m long. dia43mrn) were drilled 1.8m back from the face and 1.8mabove the floor. These

holes inclined up a few degrees to allow the drill water to drain out. were destressed with

0.9m of ANFO. The pillars were inspected daily and if they remained competent the destress

holes were re-blasted. Records were kept of the pillars that yielded as a result of proper

destressing.

The yiclding of the pillars was significant. As the stopes rxpanded. a cntical

dimension was reac hrd at which the back and floor converged as indicated by an episode of

elevated seismicity. Pillas that were not properly dcstressed would burst.

The level of support that proved adequate to support the pillars through the episode

of convergence was the following; the pillars (walls) were screened to the floor with f: 4

gauge welded wire mesh. bolted with 1.7m long ss39 split sets and 1.8m long 19mm

diameter resin grouted rebars.

Silling of the cut and fil1 unit on the 2134m level proceeded with fewer problems due

to the implementation of techniques developed on 2073m level. These included: a)

Developing the stopes in a wedge fashion (Le. pushing the stress outward). b) Planning stopr
liniits to maintain a smooth outline. c) Blasting of the slots through the pillars on the 16h00

to 24h00 shifis on Fridays. to allow the stresses to redistribute during the weekend, when no

one was present in the workplace. d) Increasing the widths of the dots from 3.6 to j m

reduced the hazard of loose ground to the construction crews. and e) al1 destress holes were

tashed out and the collars painted; the? were treated as bootlegs.

The state of the art progressed from a number of uncontrolled bursts in the initial

silling of the 2073m level cut and fill. to the occurrence with the drvelo~mentblast of 10 out

of the eleven bursts recorded during the silling of the 2 134 levrl mining block. During the

development of the 21 95 m level VRM extraction horizon 85% of the bursts were initiated

with the development round.

3.2.5 Destressing of the Vertical Retrert Method Extraction Horizon on the

2 M m Level

The extraction horizon for the Vertical Rrtreat Mining (VRM) on the 2195m level

contained 4.9 x 4.9 m drifts with 4.9m wide pillars designed to fail easily/sofly with proper

desvessing (Fig. 3.6). The drstress pattern of the extraction drifts was the most involved of

the time w
ith 10 destress holes per round including; two 7.3m face holes with 2.7 meters of

ANFO and four wall and four comer holes each 3.6m long and Mmm in diameter with 0.6m

of ANFO. The four corner holes were ddled up and out and d o m and out at 30" to the

driving direction. The bonom comer holes were drilled about .3m above the si11 to prevent

water fkom entering. The four wail holes were drilled at 45" to the direction of advance and

a few degrees above horizontal to allow drill water to drain. The wall holes were staggered
 'C ' SECTION 'C'

Fic. 3.6 Destress hole pattern used on the 2195m level extraction Horizon at

Creighton Mine (O'Domell 1992).

so they would not intersect holes from adjacent drifts. Typically the holes on the left wall

were ddled at the shoulder and Z.4m above the sill. The holes on the right hand wall were

drilled at 1.2m and 3m above the d l . Improper alignment of the wall holes c m destroy the

wall of the adjacent drift.

3.2.6 Destressing Stopes at Mid Height

On a number of occasions cut and fil1 stopes at Creighton have developed stress

problêms. as they reached rnid height between levels (33 m). Evidence included spalling at

the shoulder and an increase in seismicity. The abovr occurred in stopes that had been

destressed at the si11 cut and some that had not. The stress problrm \vas solvrd by destressing

the rib pillars using the up and our 30" holes in the corners and holes at 45" to the advance

at mid height of the cut. This procedure was carried out in stopes that showed the need

between the 1 830m and the 2 13 Sm levd.

3.2.7 Destressing of Drifts Being Driven Through Stressed Pillars

At Copper Cliff South Mine during the mid-eighties two drill drifts on the 700m

level were being driven through a stressed pilla. Spalling at the face and shoulden occurred.

This was mitigated by using the standard two face holes twice the length of the round and

two top corner holes up and out at 30".

3.2.8 Abutment Destressing

The abutments of stopes below the i 83Om level at Creighton would be under stress

and hence prone to burst. The nsk of bursting fiom these sites was diminished by drillhg and
blasting destress holes. In the cut and fiIl stopes. face holes hvice the length of a round were

ddled in the last round on the hanging ivall and footwall of each stope in the rnechmized

unit (Fig. 3.7a). Appro~imately1 meter of ANFO was detonated in these 44mm diameter

holes. If a slice is mined in an under cut and fiIl stope dong the hanging wall or footwall

contact. the destressing is as follows: a ?.-lmlong holr (dia.=32mm) at 45" to the direction

of advance. is drilkd at mid height into the wall with each round. Approximately 0.5 meter

of ANFO is detonated in the holes (Fig. 3.7b). If the under cut is mined transverse to the

contact then face holes are destressed in the last rounds into the hanging wall and foot~vall.

3.2.9 Hanging Wall Destressing to Eliminate Hole Closure, Struck Rods and

Reduce Dilution.

Longitudinal stopes mined by the vertical retreat mined (VRM) rxpenence hole

closure when depths excerd 1800m or whcn stressed pillars are mined. Rods become stuck

causing delays and loess of 'in the hole' (ITH) hammers.

Figure 3.8 indicates the geometry of panel #3 mined between the 1830m level and

the 1890m level at Creighton mine. Holrs were drilled parallel to the hanginy wall to reduce

delays and losses due to hole ciosure. Rings of holes (dia.= 170mm)were drillrd 3 meters

apart with a 3m spacing benveen the toes of the holes on the 1890m level. The holes in ring

13 and holes B and C in ring 14 were dnlled without problems. Holes A. D and E in ring 14

and al1 the holes in ring 15 were closing (egging and plugging) and caused delays due to

stuck rods. A row of holes (dia.=[ 70mm)were dnlled dong the hanging wall. at a 1 meter

spacing, parallel to the E holes. The plans were to blast these holes at the end of a 4-12 shifi
 >c l m ANFO
44mm DIA,
HOLES.

- - - - pp -

a) A PLAN OF ABUTMENT DESTRESSING CUT & FlLL MlNlNG

O.5m ANFO, 32mm DIA.

LONG

SANOFILL

/ SECTION 0-8'

b) A PLAN OF ABUTMENT DESTRESSING UNOERCUT & FlLL MlNlNC

Fic. 3.7 a) Abutment destressing in Cut and Fil1 klining. b) Abutment destressing in

Undercut & Fil1 Mining.

 FRACTURE

e
RlNG

LEVEL

ZONE

NOT ~ T OSCALE
PLAN CREIGHTOM MINE
1830m LEVEL
SECTION RlNG 15 RlNG HOLES O O O
NOT TO SCALE HW HOLES
PANEL SIZE 15m x 7.6m x 60m
PANELS 3 &4 HW HOLES DRILLE0
PANELS 5 ON, FRACTURE ZONE EXTENDED BMOND THE NEXT STOPE.

FK. 3.8. Hanging wall destressing used to reduce hole closure, stuck rods and

dilution in VRM stopes Mined under Stress at Creighton Mine.

on a Fnday evening in order to let the ground settle on the weekend. The hopes were that the

Fracture zone on the hanging wall would reduce drillinç problerns in rings 15 to 17. Prior to

these holes being blasted. a crack propagated tiom hole to hole. Drilling of the remaining holes

proceeded without problems. Drilling of closely spaced HW holes was required in a subsequent

l j m long panel. Af'ter that the geometry of a 60m by 7.6m by 60m slot induced the fracture

zone to extend beyond the fifth ring in the next panel. allowing holes to be drilled without a

problem. Hanging wall dilution was also reduced by the clean Fracture produced along the

hançing wall .

3.3 Cautions and Controls with Destressing

Destress holes c m pose a risk. for a number of them are located in the side walls that

rnust be bolted. There may be non-detonated powder dur to a rnisfire. Destress holes must

be considered as "bootlegs" or "sockets" as the South Afncans cal1 them. As such they must

be washed out and identified by painting the collar with a circle. This task is assigned to the

bolting crew for they are present at this part of the cycle. they are also at risk ofdrillinç into

un-cleaned holes when bolting. Even with the availability of stick powder (cartridges) ANFO

is preferred because it can be easily washed out.

It is also advisable to have the inspections of destress holes on the ground control

personnel's check list when evaluating workplaces. Destressing has on occasion been

considered ineffective only to find that either the holes were drilled and not blasted or drilled

at an improper angle usually too far in the wall to be effective.

As mentioned elsewhere destress holes shotgun out with enough impact to tear

screen. This is usually noticed when a drift is tuming. Another case in point was a
destressing request to quiet an active draw point pillar on the 91jm level at C.C. North Mine.

The crew was instmcted to drill the destress holes but not to blast them until they were

inspected. This was a fortunate move because the holes were aiming at the cables canying

main mine power. Needless to say the holes were re-drilled with a different orientation

before blasting.

Occasionally destressing is required in the walls of drifts or stopes. Destress holes

blasted. as the first holes in a round do not produce any wall or shoulder damage. This would

be due to the confinement of this configuration. However. 3m long holes (dia.=j?rnm) with

0.3 meters of ANFO will blow back the screen and produce a conical-shaped Crater at the

collar (Fig. 3.4). Damage of this type is viewed very negatively by the crews. who have to

do the remedial work. It is important to note that reconditioning of ten such holes would take

one shifi. whereas a burst along the sarne distance of wall could require considenbly longer

to recondition. The damqing desuess blast occurs when the heading is clrared whereas the

timing of a rockburst is unpredictable. A difficulty that anses when destressing in a specific

location in an a-seismic mine is the effort and time required to convince the group from

miners to management the benefit of destressing. For people to do extra work when on bonus

there has to be immediate pay back. Since the effects of destressing are not always readily

distinguishable. it c m be difficult to convince miners to do the extra work.

 Low stress levtls High stress levels

Hamj o d rak subjaaî r~ lu@

insitrimesdthruRrrocLmur
ainouiri;iu Oie opcning fUb by sli&
in#wdirwaimuiiiarndc~of
rock piau. C?#rr have ud a h d l
cbrimrniypurlrrniluof~ryp
of f'iin.

FIG. 3.9. Types of failure which occur in different rock masses under low and high

in situ stress levels. (Afier Hoek, et al. 1995). Destress blasting to reduce primary bursts in

drifts is quite successfbl in heavily jointed rock in high stress levels. The success rate

decreases with decreasing number of joints.

3.4 Problems Destressing Rock With Very Widely Spaced Joints.

It is difficult to destress large (4.9mx 4.9m)drifts excavated in hard. brittie rock with

a joint pattern which foms orthogonal blocks approximately 7m by Zm (Fig. 3.9). This type

of ground has led to bursting during the excavation of the r m p between the 21 35m level and

the 2 19511 level at Creighton. despite the drilling and blasting of the standard two face holes

and two comer and two wall holes. Since the rock generally lound below the 201 0m level

at Creighton c m be successfully destressed. then one could assume that the rock quality.

frequency of joints and discontinuities and blast damrigr fractures al1 are significant

characteristics that contribute to the destressing process.

It is postulated that. bursting could be climinated if a rock mriss with large blocks

were converted by the judicious use of e.uplosives to a mass with small blocks (Le. a wdl

fractured yielding drift periphery). The configuration and lenyth of the holes and the amount

of explosives would require empincal tests in a controllrd test site. The configuration would

have to be altered to suit the stress directions. Based on the succrss of the pattern used to

develop the extraction drifts on the 2 19511 level at Creighton (O'Donnell 1997) the following

configuration is proposed for destressing a drift in extremely good ground: Four face holes

twice the length of the round: four standard comer holes up and out/down and out. at 30" to
*

the drive direction: two wall holes on each side and an additional long wall hole on each side

of the drift. as well as in the back. These hoies must be angled to locate their destressed

portion beyond the bolt range of the drift (greater than 2 . h ) (Fig. 3.10). The holes. dthough

traditionaily timed to go off al1 at once and pnor to blasting the cut. should in this complex

pattern be sequenced. using electronic caps if necessary.

 t-w
c /' SECTION 'C'

13 HOLES PER ROUND

F FOUR 7,3m FACE HOLES
W FOUR 3.6m WALL HOLES
C FOUR 3.6m CORNER HOLES
D THREE Sm DEEP HOLES

FIG. 3.10. Proposed destressing pattern for drifts in rock with widely spaced joints.
 55

3.5 Destressing in Tabular Ore Zones in South Africa

Success of a 1957 destress program at East Rand Proprietary Mines Limited. a deep

high Suess tabular gold mine. was not acknowledged till 1982 (Ortlepp 1984). However the

program had been discontinued due to difficulties drillinç the long holes and loading h e m

with explosives.

At the Blyvoomitzicht Gold Mine in South Africa. a tabular ore body (depth

1.850rn). the design for the destress blasting in the up dip remnants (pillars). called for

several 10rn long holes drilled below the ore seam. in gullies. to accommodate advance of

lm per blast. The intent was to promote loosening and slip dong parting planes. Rorkr et al.

(1990) and Adams et al. (1993) summarize the effect of 57 destress blasts which contained

1 .-I km of holes. This intensive study was monitored by a fiill wave form seismic system.

convergence points were measured for ride and closure. fractures were mapped using stereo

photography. and ground penetrating radar was used before and atier the preconditioning

blasts to quanti@ the changes. The optimums detemined for drstressing were: breast panels

with holes drilled. 3 to 5 meters ahead of the face. drilled parailel to the dip and parallel to

the face and sternmed for 5m using grave1 and clay. Both 76 and 89mm diameter holes were

used; no preferred holr size was reported. A 29% increase in production and proof that

preconditioning could be done safely were the principal results of this project.

Recent destressing trials at the 2600m level of the Western Deep Levels South Mine

were successfd. Over 8000m2of reef was mined without a face burst and a 40% increase in

face advance was reported (Blake et al. 1998).

3.6 Exarnples of Pillar Destressing

Rockbursts anse fiom unstable energy changes in the host rock mass of a mine and

involve release of seismic energy fiom the zone of influence of the mining (Brady and BCOWTI

1994). Coats (1977) defined three conditions that are required for a burst to occur: (1) the

breaking strengrh of the rock must be exceeded by the applied stress: (7) the rock must

trmsform the rnajority of the work done on it by stress. into strain energy. rather than shed it

by some form of plastic strain: (3) the failure must be violent brittle fracturing accompanied

by the sudden release of al1 the stored elastic strain energy.

Pillar failure may affect only the imrnediate area of the pilla or. in some cases. the

stability of the whole mine. For example. in a room and pillar mine a domino effect c m be

induced by the failure of a pillar. which c m tdce place over a period of months or in a matter

of hours (D.G. F. Hrdley formerly of Canrnet. personal communication. 198 1 ).

Individuai pillars may fail instantaneously (Fig. 3. I la) or _gadually slough (Fig. 3.1 1b).

Gradua1 sloughing usually occurs when there are numerous discontinuities at a steep angle to

the pillar walls.

Pillars that burst violently may have one or more of the following properties: the rock

is massive and brinle; discontinuities. if present. are perpendicular to the pillar walls and do not

slide easily; there is a moderate to high level of confinement at the core of the pillar: and the

transfer of stress is instantaneous due to blasting in an adjoining stope. When destressing a

pillar under hi& stress there is a possibility of triggerîng failure or bursting elsewhere in the

mine

Stored strain energy. which is accumuiated in a volume of rock. is dissipated on

surfaces by Iiictional sliding or by extensional fracturing. Destressing reduces the stifiess of

a rock and releases stored energy (Blake et al. 19%).

In s u m a r y pillars and abutments in mines store strain rnergy as mining progresses.

The openings in rock reiease the stored strain energy as yielding occm. Destressing prornotes

the release of stored strain energy by promohg slip dong newly created microhctures as well

as dong pre-rxisting discontinuities.

The cut-and-fil1 mining mctthod is versatile and widely used in recovering both

irregular. narrow veins and wide orebodies with irregular contacts that require selective

mining to reduce dilution. The problem associated with cul-and-fil1 mining at increased

depths is the creation of pillars which. as mining progresses. load-up and burst. According

to Oliver et al. (1987. p 12) "The key to mining at depth is to rrcognize that failure around

openings is both inevitable and desirable." Pi llars designed with littlr laterai confinement are

weak and will fail under low levels of stress. Ground modification blasts soften pillar

material and allows them to hi1 without bursting.

Table 3.1 lists several examples where pilla desuessing was carried out. The pillar

size. quantity of explosives and the criteria used to judge success are listed to indicate the

state of the art at the time the Stobie regional pillar was destressed. The principal examples

are surnrnarized in this chapter. The Stobie 23 pillar blast is described in detail in Chapter

4.
 Frc. 3.1 1 a) Individual pillars rnay fail uistantaneousiy or b) through graduai sloughing.

Photos Erom the 2070m level at Creighton

 Table 3-1 Pillar Destressing

I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1
u idenis\wpfilasWdannelnprildessxls 'Decked with aggregate. "For Stobie the volumes of the destress slot and the piliar are given
I ~ i i i aminm
r WIVI out a burnp or large seismic event

Mining . no sersmiaty. h-Sbng in desvess gap

I
Mining wiVi very lime saismiaty

1Fracturedout dia not minad

Pillar panially aesmsseu Adlacent pillar ount t year laier
I
2 O Mn Ount with blast mined for 2 years, Numemw
1bunu in Gaps. Large buni a l en6 on feuils I
1
Inducad ptliar ciosure wiVi out inmase in swss Mining
nat completea 1996
Tha nillar was not min& but analvzea efiecnveness of
uesmssing
1 8 Mn wim lin on end. Mined with out a bunt
destress blast is auesnonaMe
 Table 3.1 Data fiom significant pillar destressing projects for comparative purposes.

Mine 1 Pilbr IMinlng Yeu Pillar Sire 1 1Stemmina l Commfmb

IDapth1Mahod Type 1 L I W I H

7
Star
I m l

24 10
--C&F
CBF

C&F

C&F
l m l m l m

4.5
6.7

28

6
2200

90
I

Air 1.5
AnFo

AnFo
1
I

1 245
1

1
[RIW minsd wim OUI a km(r oc lvps i«anuc avant

0.2 I ~ 1 1 w m i m
i~urrt

CLF 4.5 7.5 112 Air 1.5 AnFo Fracturd but 6 d not mimi

-
CUF 3 1 20 2.5

UCBF 3 24 1415 6

-
Opwi SloQ 35 36
I I 1 I
901 '~)ecked' 4.5
I I I
Emulsion 1 3480
I
1
I
tndocsd ptUw d o w e nlh wt incrasse in slrasa Mining

CIF 1.2 8.5 7.1 1 128 1 85 38 1 18 1 128 1 Cemenil 3 1 AnFo 1 27 1 O 2 [TM pllw was no1 mnsd but ancrlyzedefîecbvenair of
I 1 1 1 I I I I I I
UCdF 1 1271 1 '70 1 wim out a bural
11 8 ~n wim lm on end ~ t n e d
1
SuMevel 120J 550 4 6 l i 2 ~ 0 0 0 0 l 2 1 3 l 1 0 2 l1 2 l11501 Air 1 2 1 ~Ernulsion1100451 5 6 A 2 4 Mn 45 diys l a l u Mimng ir prograrungwilh l o r i
1 1 1 1 1
-Cave

iI\aUd.ra li!
1.81 21 11.711777"1
1 1
ked with ; jgregate.
1 1 1 I I
1
1
1
I
1
I
"For Slobi the volumes of the destress slot and the pillar are given .
I 1
S~IU~YLTIV
 3.6.1 Galena Mine 1970

Blake (1972) describes the destressing of a cut and fil1 croun pillar in the Galena

mine (Coeur doAlene district. Idaho). The pillar. depth of 1.1 3Om. was 3Om long. 3rn wide

and 6.7m high. ANFO was used in srnall diarneter holes. A seismic velocity survey was

conducted on the pillar both before and after destressing in order to determine if the pillar

was tiactured effectively. The project was deemed a success as the pillar was mined without

a burnp and only low-level noises were rxperienced (Fig. 5.12).

3.6.2 Campbeil Mine 1980's

Four destress blasts were initiated during the 1980's at the Campbell Mine in the Red

Lake district of NW Ontario (Neumann and Makuch. 1984). Destressing of crown and siIl

pillars on the 1 8 levrl. 870m below surface was the most successtùl of the four blrists. These

destress holrs (d. = 14mm)of genenlly less ihan jm. were drillrd at a 1.8m spacing. to

within 1.5 m of the overiy ing drift. in a 4.5m by 45m crown. Six-m long holes were drilled

on a 1.8m spacing into the 25m long si11 pillar above the level (Fig. 3.13). To help stabilize

the ara during and a f r r the blast. the 18 level drift was reinforced with 1.8 and 2.4m long

resin-grouted rebars and welded wire mesh. The stope below was filled with 10: 1 çemented

tailings.

A rockburst occurred 30 seconds afler the blast and nurnerous small seismic events

were recorded dunng the following few hours. There was significant darnage to the back of

the 18 level drifi and 30 cm of broken rock covered the drift floor. The crown pillar was

mined successfùl1y. A small bunt occurring in the pillar above the level following a
 Fic. 3.12 Sections illustnting the s t o p pillar and destressing pattern at the Galena
Mine (Blake 1972).

Fic. 3.13 Layout of destress holes in the 1902 and 1802 crown and si11 pillars at the
Campbell Mine (Neumann and Makuch, 1984).
production blast. The fiactured ground made drilling difficult. ï h e destressed si11 pillar above

the level was not mined due to the unconsolidated fil1 above it (Hedley 1992).

3.6.3 Macassa Mine 1987

The Macassa mine (Kirkland Lake. Ontario) has a history of rockbursts some of

which have caused fatalities (Hanson et al. 1987). Gold bearing zones. 2 to 6rn widr and

dipping at 7 j 0 are associated with a prominent fault and are mined between depths of 1400

and 2 150m.

Cut and fil1 crown pillars brcome burst pronr at 60% extraction when the pillar width

approaches 1 8m.In 1987 the 5840 crown was destressed using O. 15Kg/m3 of ANFO in 16

to ?lm long holes (d. = 64rnm) at a 3m spacing with 2.5m of stemming (Fig. 3.1 4). To

monitor the blast, waveforms were recorded. source locations were determined and

convergence of 25mm was rrcorded in the stope. Subsequent mining of the crown pillar

released a small burst that darnaged raise timbers and increased convergence to 33mm.

Apparently the crown pilla had been only partially destressed. A year later. a series of bursts

displaced a 1000 tons and darnaged adjacent drifts. The stope below the destressed pillar was

not affected.

Since 1986 the use of unconsolidated waste rock as the sole means of filling. was

rrplaced by poured bacWi11. Cut-and-fil1 mining has been replaced by under-cut and fil1 in

order to reduce the number of pillars created. The need to destress p i l l a has been almost

eliminated (Hedley 1992).

 one zome

Fit. 3.14 a) Section showing the layout of destress holes in the 58-40 crown pillar

at the Macassa Mine. b) Location of microseismic activity following the destress blast

(Hanson et al. 1987).

 3.6.4 Mt. Charlotte Mine 1995

Gold minenlisation in the Mt. Charlotte mine (Kalgoorlie. Australia, Fig. 3.1 5a) is

hosted in a strong. stiff and competent dolerite located near major faults (Mikula et al. 1995).

Near vertical ore bodies are 30 to 80 m thick with 200 to 300 m strike lengths (Fig. 3.1jb).

The ore is recovered using longhole open-stoping mining methods with sequentially mass-

fired. associated rib and crown pillars. Rib failures have occurred in three modes. by shearing

on steeply dipping structures. violently when they have been formed progressively and

gradually when formed at their final size by sloning the next stope against the future ribs.
C

A large rock rib piilar. with a high risk of violent failure. was preconditioned by

blasting in advancr of mining. The objective was to encourage the pillar to close and thus

redistribute loads to the stiffer. stronger abuments. This \vas achieved by blasr-fracturing a

thin zone of rock in the pillar. In situ stiffness was reduced. Gcological structures and small

individual blocks were more likrly to move in the vicinity of the preconditioned zone than

elsewhere.

Numerical modeling of several preconditioning options lrad to the decision to

precondition a zone 55m high. 36m long. and 3 to 4 m wide. at the hanging wall contact of

the lower section of the pillar. khveen the 900m and 95Om levels. The blast design consisted

of a total of seventeen vertical blast holes (d = 14Omm. total length = S m . Fig. 3.16a). Six

pairs of pre-split holes were drilled 3rn apart at a spacing o f 6 . h dong strike. Five decked

charged blast holes were drilled between the pairs of pre-split holes. The holes were surveyed
 Fic. 3.15 Preconditioning at the Mt. Charlotte Mine afier Mikula et al. (1995). a)

Location of Mt. Charlotte Mine. b) Long section of Stoping Blocks. c) Plan and section

indicating preconditioning zone. d) Cross section at 1 1 rib pillar. e) Blast design concept.
to ensure they were within the 2% deviation typically achieved for 5Om holes at Mt.

Charlotte mine. The pre-split holes were charged with JO kg of bulk emulsion explosives

placed at the midpoint of the hole and air decked (rmpty) above and below the explosives.

Four 150kg decks of emulsion. separated by J . j m of crushed rock aggregate as stemming

materiai. were loaded in each blast hole. The blast holes were designed to hcture the ground

between the pre-split holes in a direction parallel to the dot (perpendicular to the fractures

between the pairs of pre-split holes) (Fig. 3.1 je).

The blast was monitored as follows: ( 1 ) ground vibrations were measured both

underground and on surface: (2) seismic monitoring with a full wave form 33 channel PSS

system; (3) stress change monitoring with CSIRO-Hi cells and vibrating wire cells; (4)

extensometer monitoring to mesure dilation or shear across knoun geologic structures: and

(5) closure monitoring on the 900m level. During the mining only a few seismic events were

recorded within the pilla. in contrast to numerous rvents in the stope tloor and surrounding

areas.

The stress changes in an rast-west direction were +9MPa for the vibrating wire ce11

and +2 IMPa for the CSIRO Hi ceil and +2bIPa and 4 M P a in the north-south direction for

the two cells. respectively. Closure monitors recorded 7mm displacement across the

preconditioned zone and extensometers recorded up to 2 1mm displacement dong geologicai

structures. The preconditioning appeared to have k e n successful as the pillar closed with out

a major increase in stress or seismicity (Mikula et al. 1995).

 DECKEO
BLASTHOLE , PRESPLIT
BLASTHOLE
SIDEWALL OF PILLAR LINE
1
O O O o X
O O O O O

4.5m STEMMING 3.0m STEMMING

BLASTHOLE PLUG

150 kg POWERGEL

4.5m STEMMING EMPT

150 kg POWERCEL

4 3 1 STEMMING PRIMERS 4 0 kg POWERGEL

BLASTHOLE PLUG
PRIMER

PRIMER
11 rn /1 150 kg POWERGEL

4.5m STEMMING EMPT

PRIMER 1 I1
PRIMER pJ 150 kg POWERCEL

Fic. 3.16 a) Idealized blasthole layout. b) Blasthole charging design. M e r Mikula

et al. (1995).
 3.6.5 Sigma Mine 1996

A test was carried out in a sill pillar of an abandoned stope at a depth of 1500m (Fig.

3.17) at the Sigma Mine (NW Quebec) to determine the efficiency of pillar destressing in

reducing the potential for violent failure in loaded mining structures (Labne et al. 1997). The

sheared ore zone (dip =5j0). which contains qua-tourmaline veins and secondary sulfide.

chloritic and carbonaceous minerais. is hosted by relatively homogeneous porphyritic diorite.

The rock is of good quality with a rock mass ratinç (RMR) of over 80 and a Q Index of 1-6

to 3.3.

The drilling pattern consisted of fi fteen 8.5m long (d. = 38mrn) holes. dnlled at 55'

(to the horizontal) dong the vein in the drift back up to the siIl. The holes were dnlled on nvo

lines 1.2m apart. one dong the footwall contact the othrr at the center of the drift. Tne holes

were drilled 1.8m apart dong the line and the holes were staggered 0.9m Crorn one line to the

other (Fig. 3.1 8b). The holes were loaded with ANFO For a lrngth of 5 . h . and stemmed

with 3m of cernent. The cernent was separated from the explosives usine a plastic cover and

jute to prevent any reaction between the explosives and the cernent. The cernent sternrning

extended beyond the I m deep fracture zone caused by the drift. The powder factor of the

blast was 0.2 Kg/m3 .

The holes were initiated al1 at the same tirne and a 1.O Nuttley magnitude event was

determined fiom the waveforms analyzed. nie cernent sternming was ejecied from the holes.

the screen was peeled back at the collars of the holes and light spalling from the walls was

noted. Geotornographic surveys were conducted before and after the blast. Drspite a
reduction in the velocity of seismic waves in the pillar after the blast. it was not possible to

calibrate the &op to a change in rock properties. Stress variations were recorded in the center

and at both ends of the stope using the doorstopper method. The variations in the maximum

stress were as follows: the stress at the crnter of the pillar dropped Iiom 104 MPa to 59 MPa:

the ce11 on the east end recorded a drop fiom 64 to 19Mpa: whrreas the ce11 on the West end

measured m increase from 3JMPa to 42MPa. Only one of three triavia1 cells remained

operative after the blast. it indicated a change of I or 3 MPa of stress. Dilatometer tests were

conducted in bore holes and the in situ moduius of detomarion average was 55GPa.

A decision on the efficiency of the destress blast could not be made due to the

variability of the rock propenies and the difficulties in drtermining results with the

instrumentation used.

3.7 Analyzing the Success of Destressing

Blake et al. ( 1998). after an extensive review of international practice. concluded that

destressing of developrnent openings can be highly succrssful. However. the effectiveness

of pillar destressing is more difficult to determine. It is genrrally accepted that once a pillar

has been destressed mining should be able to proceed without the rockbursting hazard.

However there are only limited comparative records of mining "uith" and "without"

destressing. Hence success in areas where comparative records do not exist is a very

subjective rating .
 Fie. 3.17 a) Longitudinal section of the P Zone with 3420E Stope b) Longitudinal

section of the 3420E Stope and the destressed pillar show hatched (Labrie et al. 1997).
 A-A'
P

@ Tornographic holes
0
Walls
@ Blastholes
?
B s t view

a)

arnitt of 25 x 2OOmm

Iectric detoaaton

ANFO bulk explosive

Fic. 3.18 a) Destress hole pattern. b) Loading schematics at the Sigma Mine after

Labrie et al. (1 997).

3.8 Sumrnary

In summary. destressing techniques have been in use since the 1960's. These

techniques have developed such that they are routinely implemented with the equipment used

to drive developrnent headings. Recent tests in South -4frica have demonstrated that

destressing c m increase productivity from 30 to 40°/o. -4lthough pillar destressing requires

significant planning and the involvement of men and equipment during implementation. the

results are worth it in terms of reduced rockbursts.

 73

Chapter 4 Destressing a Regional Pillar at Stobie Mine

The Stobie mine. (Fig. 4.1) a large tonnage. low grade deposit. is the largest producer

in iNCO's Ontario Division. The mining methods are sublevel cave in the lower grade. upper

portion of the mine and vertical retreat method (VRM) in the higher grade. deeper levels.

The 25 pillar ertends from surface to the 73Om level and is 190m long and 122m widr

(footwall to hanging wall).

4.1.1 Geological Setting

The Sudbury Structure is comprised of three components: the Sudbury Basin. the

Sudbury Ignrous Complex (SIC) which surrounds the basin and an outer zone of shatter-conrd

and brecciated rocks (Rousell et al. 1997). The basin consists of four confomable formations

that form the Whitewater Group. The main mass of the SIC consists of. from top to bottom.

uanophyre. quartz gabbro. norite and contact sublayer (Fig. 1.1).Quartz diorite offset dikes
C

were traditionally interpreted as a component of the sublayer. but recently were linked by trace

element concentrations to the felsic main mass norite. They intrude footwall rocks as ndiating

and parallel dikes. (Lightfoot et al 1997). The inclusion rich sublayer. quartz diorite offset

dykes and Foowall Breccia host the M-Cu-PGE ores. Archean gneisses. rni&patites.ganites

and volcanics of the Superior Structural Province extend from the west. northwest. north and

nonheast of the Sudbury Structure. Supercrustal rocks of die Huronian Supergroup and

Nipissing Diabase of the Southem province are found to the south. south-rast and north-east

of the SIC.
Ftc. 4.1 Geological map of the Sudbury Structure (after Dressler et al. 1992)
 Sudbury Breccia is found within 80km of the SIC in al1 of these outlying rocks

(Rousell et al 1997). This breccia and the presence of shatter cones led Deitz (1964) to

suggest a rneteorite impact origin for the Sudbury Structure.

The tectonic history includes two periods of crusta1 extension and closure known as

Wilson cycles. The latest being the Grenville Orogeny. at 1000 Ma. which caused a NW-SE

closure (Rousell et al. 1997).

The Frood-Stobir ore deposit occurs in the Frood-Stobie Offset Dike (Fig. 4.2). The

dike consists of pods of the quartz diorite in a zone of mineralized and variably recrystalized

Sudbury Breccia. The offset. lies 2km frorn and parallel to the Main Mass norite contact.

extending over a strike Irngth of I 1km (Grant and Bite 1984).

Lower greenschist to middlr arnphibolite facies regional metmorphic grades are

present in the Frood-Stobie area. Thermal metmorphism from the impact event. the SIC

intrusion and the ore emplacement event are masked by the regional metarnorphism.

Okell et ai. (1979) describes the faulting in the Frood Stobie area as block style ~ i t h

NW-SE and NE-SW striking faults intersecting at 90'. The orebody is situated within a

discontinuous envelope of breccia which slightly cross cuts the interbedded metavolcanics

and metasediments of the Stobie formation. The contact between the quartz diorite body and

the Stobie formation dips at 70 to 75" to the NW.

The three principal ore types at Stobie Mine are disseminated sulphide. inclusion

massive sulphide and contorted schist inclusion sulphide. The Stobie orebody is made up of

a low-grade disseminated ore zone above the 670m level and a hi& &gradeinclusion massive

ore block below the 670111level. The copper-nickel ratio is relatively constant through out the
 Fic. 4 3 a) The Frood-Stobie, Kirkwood and Mccomeil Offset Dikes (after Grant and

Bite 1984) b) Geological section of Stobie Mine (after Stobie geological staff).
Stobie deposit at 0.9 to 1.O (Anom. 1993).

The three principal ore types at Stobie Mine are disseminated sulphide. inclusion

massive sulphide and contorted schist inclusion sulphide. The Stobie orebody is made up of

a low-grade disseminated ore zone above the 670m level and a hi& grade inclusion massive

ore block below the 670m level. The copper-nickel ratio is relativeiy constant through out the

Stobie deposit at 0.9 to 1.O (Anom. 1993).

4.1.2 Stress Conditions at Stobie Mine

The overcoring method was used to Setermine stresses on the 730m level. and the

l O 3 m level (Galbraith 1992). The values determined indicate that the mine openings

influenced somr of the resuits. The parameters in Table 4- 1 were used for numencal

modelling purposes and to calculate field stresses on various lrvels in 25 pillar (Table 4.2).

Table 4.1 Formulae from Stress Measurements at Stobie Mine

Stress Magnitude kirnuth Plunge

1

0 1 ( 10.9MPa + 0.0407MPa/m) 100" O

(3 (8.7Mpa + 0.0326MPa/m) --- O

0 3 (0.039MPdm) --- 90
 Table 4.2 Calculated field stresses (MPa) in the 25 Pilla. area and Pillar stresses at 85%

extraction ratio.

Level Gl "1 '33 0s D~

275111 22MPa 18MPa 8MPa 15MPa 1OOMPa

420111 28MPa 23blPa 12MPa I8MPa 120MPa

I s50rn l 27MPa l '6MPa I

The stress on a mine pillar (q)c m be caiculated as follows.

op=osX1OO1%P

%P=100-%E

The stress perpendicular to the plane of the orebody (0,) is a vector component of o,,

a, and a, and %P is the percent of the original pillar remaining and %E is the percent

extraction.

The percent extraction of the Frood and Stobie mines down to the 55Om level is

85% (Fig. 4.3a). To calculate an average pillar stress at the center of 23 pillar. at the

175m level. the stress perpendicülar to the ore body is 15MPA. at 85% extraction ratio

the pillar stress is 100 MPa. On the j5Om level the stress perpendicular to the svike of the

ore is 24.5 MPa thus with 85% extraction the average pilla stress is 163MPa (Fig. 43b).
 1 1 a) SECTION

STRESS (MPo)
20 40 60 80 1pO 120 140 160 180

1 r
CALCULATEO
STOBIE MINE
1 1 1 1 v
AVERAGE Wp
A 25 PlLLAR
I T

m
3 GUI 85% EXTRACTION
O000 O A
m3 ELASTIC MOOEL Ci AVERAGE ep
STOBIE MINE 25 PILLAR STRESS
85% EXTRACTION

Fit. 4.3 a) Longitudinal section of Frood and Stobie Mines indicating an extraction

ratio of 85% above the 55Om level. b) Plot of stress versus depth. o,,a, & a, = Maximum,

intermediate & least principal stresses respectively. a, = average stress acting on a pillar.
 4.1.3 Rock strengths

The ore in 25 pillar consists of disseminated sulphidrs in quartz dionte host rock.

while the hangingwall and footwall rocks are meta-sediments and meta-gabbros. The

strength data determined from core (d=j4mm) specimens fiom a borehole on 27.5 section

close to 25 pillar. are tabulated in Table 4.3 (O'Domell 1995).

Table 4.3 Uniaxiai and Triaxial Compressive Test Results of Rocks from BH 90264
ROCK (MW ROCK (MW
TYPE TYPE
Quartz
Diorite
206.2 Mean = 21 2.1 220 Mean = 307.9
Il
212.6 Std-Dev.= 23.9 H
377 Std.Dev.= 80.2
Maximum = 258.8
H
Il
183.6 326.7
Il
215.9 Minirnum=179.8
1
tt
213.7 -
11
228 Metasab- Mean = 373.3
t1
tI
182.3 41 1.8 Std.Dev.= 54.4 ,
t1
219.7
II
258.8 Amphib. 414 Mean = 361.5
Il
179.8 11
291 -5 Std-Dev.= 76.7
Il 1I
232.6 300
11
, 440.4 ,

T r E i a Compressive
~ Test Results of Rocks from BH 90264
r 1

ROCK Confining Vertical pressure at failure Deviatoric stress at failure

TYpe pressure ~1 (MW ( 1 - 1 (MW
1

Quartz 1 226.5 225.5

Diorite

1 Metased. 1 10 1 358 1 348 1

 4.1.4 Joints

Diederichs (1997) identiiied three major joint sets in the footwall of 25 pillar on die

120m and 180m levels 89" 333". 85" 242" and "01" 068". Joint sets at deeper levels are set

out in Table 4.5. The joints weaken 25 Pillar and they would becorne the loci for rockbursts.

Table 4.4 Attitudes (Dip & Dip Direction) of Joint sets identitird between 430m and

550m levels in 25 PilIar at Stobie Mine.

Level Dip & Dipdirection

J20m 88" 353" 77" 009"

465m 90" 186" 82" 360" 75" 03 1O

390m 90" 006" 88" 180" 03' 10O0

520m 88" 101" 90" 367" 89" 050"

550m 88" 279" 84" 186" Oz0 190"

4.1.5 Mining Sequence

Sublevel cave mining requires the influx of cave rock as cover to maintain a safe

system. Othenvise. possible catastrophic hangingwall failure would cause an in-rush of air.

The method chosen to mine the top of the block (420m to 165m levels) and to induce caving

in a controlled manner was VRM (Fig. 4.3). This was done by excavating a topsill on the

420m level and a bottom siIl. or extraction horizon on the J65m level. The general

configuration was to mine VRM panels dong the hanging wall and proceed diagonally
towards the foohvail and towards the south. The panels were generally 33m long, 18m wide

and 46m high. with a planned 80% recovery of the broken ore once caving had started. The

remaining 20 % was left as cover. Caving of the back proceeded well with only minor

encouragement required d e r the third stope had been mined. The encouragement consisted

of drilling and blasting a few 100mm-diarneter holes in die back above the open VRM

stopes. The ore outlined behveen the 420m and 465m sublevels enabled the extraction of the

north half of 25 pillar. leaving a segment 90m along strike and S m from footwall to hanging

wall. The resultant pillar had a height to width ratio of 0.43 on the 420111horizon and 0.76

on the 465m horizon. The average height to width ratio for this portion of the block was 0.6.

Failures observed as mining progressed.

As mining proceeded. cracks 3 to 6 meters apart. transverse to the pillar. drveloprd

in the walls and backs of the drifts on 42Om and J65m sublrvels. They were rnapped and

monitored regularly. At this time. the height to width ratio of the remaining pillar was 0.5

on 420m and 1 on the 465m level. Initially. the cracks were thought to represent tàilure along

a preferred plane parailel to fabric in the rock. but splitting of the pillar as stress increased.

sirnilar to the axial splitting observer in uniavial samples of core in a press is the

interpretation proposed by the author. The failure and associated cracking progressed from

single straight cracks in the ore and shotcrete. to the formation of loose blocks. then failure

of the rebar bolts resulting in minor falls of ground. It is important to dari@ that larger falls

of ground were experienced on the 420m level close to the caving front.

To ensure continual monitoring of the reaction of the pillar rock mass to mining, a

novel monitoring method was developed. A band or strip of shotcrete was applied on the

wdls of the drifts. This strip. which was 0.5m wide and 25 to 40mm thick. was applied a
rneter above the floor and started at the entrance to the block on 465m level. The shotcrete

strips were applied to specific drifts at right angles to one another to monitor movement in

different directions. The response of the rock mass to mining was sasily documented by

scanning the ~vallsregularly and painting and dating the cracks. A monitoring prognm using

extensometers. data loggers and control points would have cost in the $50.000 to $100.000

ranges. As expected any tensile failure resulted in a crack and stress failure resulted in

spalling.

The mining method used on the J90m lrvel and subsequent levels was sublevel cave.

The sublevel cave mining from 190m lrvel up to the J65m sublevel k v a s started at the 2650

rock stope in the north west corner of the pillar and progressed towards the footwall. The

remaining rock pillar is 90m by 90m. giving a height to width ratio of 1.

4.2 Mining Induced Seismicity

Despite the rxpected increase in occurrence of rockbursts as estraction of the deposit

progressed. Stobie Mine still has a low level of seismicity and a corresponding low

frequency of rockbunts. Between 1970 and 1988 an average of one rockburst per year

occurred. During the years 1988 to 1998 an average of 5 rockbursts were recordrd per year

with highs of 8 recorded in 1996 and 1997 (Fig. 4.5).Currently three to ten Iow level seismic

events (no displacement) due to re-adjustment of the stresses after blasting, occur per day.

One rock burst per year since 1995 was associated with the marcasite filled shear on 915m

level. Since November of 1995 four 2.4 to 2.8 Nuttli magnitude seismic events. and 4

rockbursts associated with 25 pillar have occurred (Fig. 4.6 and Table 4.5).
 FIG.4.1 Longitudinal section indicating the mining in 25 pillar between 420m and

550m leveis.
 Rockbunts per year 1970 to 1989
Year
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Fic. 4.5 Histograrn indicating the number of rockbursts at Stobie Mine per year.
 Table 4.5 List of Seismic Events and Rockbursts Associated with 25 Pillar. See Fig.

4.5 for the location of the events.

1 No.
I / Diqlaced. / Mag.MNn*l
1

A Nov. 1 7/95 2 1 :O9 0455m 25 Pillar 2.6

I

0 Nov.2 1 /95 2 I :38 0455m 35 Pillar 2.6

ST49 Jan. 19/96 0652 Sudace Cave area 6000Tons 2.8

ST50 Feb.28/96 1 1 :O0 550m Mn S Dr. OSTon

ST62 Nov.28/97 00:03 425111 25 Pil.Gar. 2.5Tons

ST64
I 1 19:39 I 550m 1 2262 X-C. 1 OSTons
ST66 Jun.03/98 15:35 425m 25 Pil.Gar. lTon -
ST67 Jun.24198 07:19 580m 25 Pillar clTon 2.4

1.* Mn indicates a Nunli Magnitude, which is sirnilar to Richter Magnitude but used

for central and castern North America (Hedley 1992).

1 SElSMiC €VENTS ASSOCIATED WlTH 25 PILLAR

SCALE
1
LLTiUAk
'dm
0 SEISMIC M N T OESTRESS SLOf

Frc. 4.6 Rockbursts and Seismic Events Associated with 25 Pillar of Stobie Mine

plotted on a Longitudinal Section

 This significant Ievel of seismicity associated with the initial stages of mining 25

pilla was used as an indicator of the potential of a very large seismic event or rockburst if

25 pillar should fail. Presurnably. filure would occur while mining on the 55Om level. since

it was the first level on which the pillar was to be mined right across from 12 block to 3 1

block (Fig. 4.4).

4.3 Numerical Modelling

Numerical modelling was used to evaluate the various scenarios for mining 25 pillar

and assess the consequences of rach mining sequence. Tlie modelling was conductrd using

Map3D, a comprehensive three-dimensional rock stability anal y sis package ( Wilcs 1996)

distributed by Mine Modelling Limited. The package was usrd to construct models. analyze

and then display displacements. strains. stresses and strength factors of various phases of the

mining. The program fonnulation is based on the Indirect Boundary Element Mrthod and

incorporates simultanrous use of both fictitious force and displacement discontinuity

elements. A version of Map3D with linear elastic solutions was used. However zones with

different moduli were used in some of the evaluations. The caved areas on surface and mine

openings down to the 73Om level were includrd in the mode1 (Fig.4.7).

4.3.1 Stages Modelled

The rnodelling was carried out in two Stages. In stage 1. numerical modelling was

used to evaluate when in the overall mine sequence 25 pillar could be rnined. The models

indicated the selective mining frorn the 420m level to the 55Om level would not have adverse

effect on the pillar or adjacent rocks. However if 25 pillar were to be kept intact and oniy
mined from the 640m level down. the pillar would start to fail before the onset of mining.

Once the rnining on the 640m level would extend across 25 pillar an extensive failure zone

is propagated both above and below the mining horizon. Thus it was of paramount

importance to mine 23 pillar From the 420m level d o m . Another negative impact of mining

the pillar later would be the lower mine grade due to the reduction in high grade ore available

to balance the mine output. If mined early the low grade 25 Pillar would becomes

incremental ore. which could be mixed with a greater portion of the high grade reserves.

4.3.2 Phases Evaluated

In stage 2. a second series of numerical modeis were used to analyze the 25 pilla

destressing project. Specific objectives were as follows: ( 1 ) define the level of stress and

rxtent of failure induced as mining progressed: (3) evaluate the effect of drstressing the

pillar: (3) evaluate the effect of mining without destressing: and (4) determine whether a

destress dot could be usrd. and during which phase of the mining it should be implemented

(Fig. 4.8).

Six phases o r mining were identified For assessrnent purposes: Fig. 4.9 displays

simplified plans of four of them. For each phase the relevant portion of the J90m. 520m. the

55Om and 610m levels were constmcted (indicated as mined) in the model. (See d s o Fig.

4.4.)

The destress slot represented in the numericd model by three methods: (1) a 2m

thick slot with weakened rock. (a, of 10% of the intact value). (2) a 0.311 thick vertical

mined out zone and (3) a 2m thick mined out zone. Phases without the destress slot were

modelled for comparative purposes (Fig.4.10). When dealing with mine-wide geometry it
is often not practical to look at individual openings For detail. Given that the destress slot is

an extremely narrow dit. it was necessary to incrrase the size of the dot in the numerical

mode1 beyond its physical dimensions to ensure that the numerical results were reasonably

correct. It is well known that thin elements or elements with extreme aspect ratios are

numerically inaccurate. Hence to over corne this problem the destress slot was analyzed as

a O.3m and 2.0m thick dot in the numerical model.

4.3.3 Strength Pararneters/Failure Criterion

Hoek-Brown strength panmeters were used to determine safetp factors (Hoek et al.

19%). The modi fied Hoek-Brown failure criterion for intact rock. an empirically derived

relationship may be expressed in the following form:

where m, is the value of the constant m for the rock mass.

s and ïr are constants which depend upon the characteristics of the rock mass

o c is the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock piecrs and

o., and o are the axial and confining effective principal stresses

respectively.

The values used were a tende strength of O. a uniaxial compressive strength of 155

MPa. m equal to 1 .J and s = 0.01.

The stress regime used was a, = 10.9MPa+O.O407MPa/m S. o2 = 8.7MPa +

0.0326MPalm S. and 0,= 0.029MPdm S where S = depth below surface in meten. The trend

of the principle stress is 100 degrees. The plunge used was O degrees.
 stop 1 Stobie Mine - 2S P I U A R Eualuation Destressing Progran SSSPDE62/11/9?

t I

FIG. 4.7 Plot of the numerical mode1 geometry (MAP3D used) indicating the

openings brtwern surface and the 73Om level.

FIG. 4.8 Plot of the destress slot area.

 490m LEVEL 52Om LEVEL 550m LEVEL

PHASE 1

b) PHASE 2

C) PHASE 3

d) PHASE 5
MINING IN
amsi
25 PILLAR eza DESTRESS SLOT-

Fie. 4.9.Plans indicating the opening included in each phase modelled. a) Phase 1. J90m level66%

mined, 520m 25% mined, 550m rock stopes, 610m level30 block 50% mined. b) Phase 2,490m level 100%

mined, 520m level50% mined, 550m 25% mined. Conditions prior to blasting the destress dot. c) Phase 3,

49Om level 100% mined, 520m 50% mined, S5Om 35% mined, Destress dot blasted. d) Phase 5,490m level

100% mined, 520m 80% mined, 550m 50% mined, no demess slot. Note Phases 4 and 6 and 6lOm level are

omitted in this figure.

 4.3.4 Model lndicating the Effect of the Destress Slot.

A list of the models analyzed in stage 2, detailed summaries of individuai models and

the key findings are contained in Appendix B. Al1 of the electronic data for stages 1 and 2

of the modelling is archived on the Stobie Mine netsvork. Hard copies of the o,.o,and safety

factor plots and summary reports are on file at the mine.

Model S3PD29I indicates the rffect of the destress slot very well. The destress slot

is represented in this mode1 as a 1.8mwide excavated slot and results are plotted on a vertical

erid through the pillar. The o,plot indicates a band of reduced stress through the pillar. High
C

stress zones are located above and below the destress slot (Fig 4.10). The o;plot indicates

a zone in tension on the HW and FW of the dot. Zones of increased confinement are located

above and below the slot (Fig 4.1 1). The safety factor plot indicates the core of the pillar

above and below the slot has failed (Fig 4.17).

4.3.4 Summary of the Modeling Results

Modeling indicated that failure would begin with the removal of between 25 and

50% of the 5jOm level. Also. the central portion of the pillar. above and below the destress

slot (core of the pillar). would either fail early in the mining history with the blasting of the

destress slot. or later in the mining. as the extraction of the 55Om to 52Om level block

proceeds. In surnrnary. destressing was required to promote timely failure of the core of 25

pillar.
 (MPa)
al
(Psi)

Fic. 4.10 A G,plot on a vertical _gid through the pillar in Mode1 S25PD29I in which

the destress slot is represented as a 1.8mwide excavated dot.

 FIG.4.11 A a,plot on a vertical grid through the pilla in Mode1 S25PD29I in which

the destress dot is represented as a 1.8m wide excavated slot.

 Fic. 4.12 A safety factor plot on a vertical grid through the pillar in Mode1 S2jPD29I

in which the destress d o t is represented as a 1.8m wide excavated dot.

4.4 Explosives and Blast Design

The objective of destressing 25 pillar was to: promotr failure of the pillar dong the

dot. induce failure above and below the slot at the time of or shortly afier the destress blast.

and to produce a failure zone dong which mining could progress without building up stress.

nie following stcps were taken to promote these objectives: (1) Mining w s directed to

induce the highest level of stress dong the destress slot and (7) Two sets of fan holes were

located on the ends of the destress slot. to provide more of an opening for the destress blast

to break to.

If there were preferences. a destress blast would in itself producr muck. and would

be scheduled or designed before stresses are elevated (before the pillar becomcs a pillar)

which wouid make it a preconditioning blast. Consideration could not be given to designing

a preconditioning blast because in the Stobie case the pillar pre-existed the drcision to

recover a portion of it. However. if there is not a high lrvel of stress. the blast will not have

the potential to fracture and condition the ground to the same rxtent. Mining sequences

require the mining to start at a fault or opening (slot) and progress away from it.

4.4.1 Configuration of the Destress Holes

The destress slot contained two parallel rows of holes. which are also parallel to the

strike of the hanging wall contact. Two fans of sublevel cave rings were placed on each end

of the destress slot. one against the rock stope on the north and the other against 20 block on

the south (Figs. 4.14.4.15 and 4.16). The fans and rings of holes. were designed to: (1) create

a positive opening for the first few destress holes to break into; (2) reduce the length of the
 STRESS CELL & POINT # 1
POlNT #2

STRESS FROM NUM. MODEL AT GRID POINT # 1 53 30 17 MPa

STRESS FROM NUM. MOOEL AT GRlD POlNT #2 56 22 16 MPo

550m LEVEL
PHASE 2

STRESS FROM NUM. MODEL AT GUID POlNT # 1 14 6 2 MPo

STRESS FROM NUM. MOOEL AT GRID POlNT #2 37 23 16 MPo
CHANGE IN STRESS FROM NUM. MODEL AT GRID
POlNT # 1 (STRESS CELL) 0ETWEEN PHASE 2 & 3 -39 -24 -15 MPo
POINT #2 BETWEEN PHASE 2 & 3 -8 + 3 +1 MPo
RECORDED CHANGE IN STRESS CELL -8 -3 -2 M P ~
550m LEVEL
PHASE 3
MINING IN 25 PlLLAR DESTRESS SLOT-

Fie. 4.13 Plan of S5Om level with sirnplified geometry of Phases 2 and 3 indicating

stress regime fiom numencal mode1 and stress change determined by stress cell.
destress dot and (3) concentrate the stress on the slot. The fans (Fig. 4.15) are typical wagon

wheel fans with rings inclined above the horizontal at 50". 65". and 70" grading into 80"

rings. The fans to the north and south of the destress slot were blasted together on the first

blast and the 80" rings were blasted altematively on the subsequent blasts. It is important to

note that the rings were not blasted till al1 the destress holrs were loaded with emulsion. This

was to ensure that if a stress or seismic problem developed the holes could be primed and

wired quickly.

The holes were 2 1.3 rneters long by 102 mm in diameter. The rows were designed

to be 1.8 m apart but ranged from 1.5 to 1.8m due to variations in drill capabilities. The rows

followed the destress drift and essentially were panllel to the hanging wall contact joining

the southeast corner (HW) of the 2340 rock stope and the northeast corner of 20 Block. The

holes were inclinrd at 85" from the horizontal. There were differences in the spacing of the

holes in the hanging wall row of destress holes. The holes on the north half of the drift were

spaced 2.4 meters apart and the holrs on the south half were spaced 1.8mapart.

The holes in the row on the footwall sidr of the drift were drilled 0.61m apart and

every second hole was loaded and blasted. These holes were the pnrnary destress holes. The

empty holes were buffer holes and were to induce stress and promote fracturing. The holes

in the hanging wall row were designed to extend the fracture zone created by the primary

destress holes.

4.4.2 Explosives

The emulsion used in the destress blast was the same product used in regular sublevel
 SCALE

Fic. 1.14. Plan of 550m level indicating the geometry of Phase 3 of the numerical

model. This geometry coincides with the position of the mining front when the destress blast

was taken.
 Fic. 4.15 Longitudinal section of the destress slot indicating the fan rings on the

North and South ends. The general attitudes of the destress holes are indicated. Not al1 the

rings are plotted as the holes were on a spacing of 0.6rn.

cave blast rings at Stobie Mine. The drills. loading equipment and explosives used were the

standard used in the mine on a daily basis. D p o Nobel Ltd. manufactured the ernulsion w d

under the trade name of RUS Emulsion and its properties are listed in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Properties of RUS Emulsion manufactured by Dyno Nobel Ltd.

Energy 690 cal/gm or 860 c a k c

Relative Weight Strength 0.78

-
Relative Bulk Strength 1.19

Vrlocity of Detonation 1 5200 m/sec

Detonation Pressure 85 Kbars

Gas Volume 4 1 .7 Mo leskg

Water Resistance 1 Excellent

Minimum Diameter

Fume Class t

The holes were loaded with a toe loader. The emulsion was purnped through a wand

that was inserted up the hoie to the toe and retracted towards the collar as the emulsion was

pumped. The holes were designed to be loaded to 1.jmand 3m fiom the collar on alternate

holes. In the field. most holes were loaded to 3.lm from the collar. A total of 10,045

kilograrns of explosives was loaded in the destress holes. The rings on the south side and

north side had 12,575kg and 10.900 kg of emulsions respectively.

 4

--.
- 4 . 5m
*I

-#*
a#--
#-* 21 70 OESTRESS ORlfT
-- wu-

t- ~ ~
40 DISTANCE BETWEEN HOLES

DETONATION SEQUENCE

HOLE LOADED WlTH EMULSION

O BUFFER HOLE NOT LOADED

4 DETONATION SEQUENCE

FIG.4.16 Simplified plan of 2170 Destress drift on 55Om Ievel indicating the hole

spacing and detonation sequence.

 FIG.4.17 a) Boosters with Nonel delay detonators which were used to prime the

emulsion Ioaded destress holes. b) Blaster and Dyno Nobel Technicd representative placing

the boosters at the correct distance up the hole with a fiberglass rod.
 FIG.4.18 a) Back of the destress dot facing North. Holes are Ioaded and primed.

b) Loaded and primed holes in the back of the destress dot, view facing South.
 4.4.3 Timing of Holes and Kilograms of Explosives per Delay

Due to the number of holes in the destress blast. both Nonel Unidets (short period

detonators) and Nonel long period detonators were usrd to ensure that al1 the cap delays

would have been initiated before the first hole would detonate (Werely 1998). The holes

were double primed at 1O.7m and 7.2m from the collar (Figs. 4- 17a. b and 4.1 8a. b). The

short period detonators used were. 1-22.24.26.18. 30.32. 36.40. The timing for the short

period detonators is delay# x 2jms (milliseconds). thus a number 32 would be 32x3ms =

800ms (#40 =1000ms). The Long Period (LP) detonators used. ranged fiom a X3LP

(1 100ms) and ended with #17LP (7700ms). The longest delay a number 17 would have

extended the duration of the blast to 7.2 seconds. Since two holes on the foohvall and 3 holes

on the hanging wall were crushed and were not successfully initiated. the blast only lasted

4.9 seconds. Emulsion was observed after the blast at the collars of the crushed holes on the

South end of the destress slot. Two delays had 5 6 4 g of explosives: the remainder had 1 87kg

of explosives per delay.

3.5 Instrumentation

4.5.1 Stress Monitoring

A CSIRO HI stress ce11 (Council for Scientific & Industrial Research Organization

of Australia Hollow Inclusion Cell) was installed February 17Lh.1998 in a 10 . b long hole

ddled in the back of 21 85 X cut (Figs. 4.13.4.23 and 4.24). The hole was inclined at 85"

towards the destress slot and the cell was located 14 m from the slot. The ce11 was wired to
a multiplexer and data logger on February 25th. Readings were taken every hom. The data

logger was d o m loaded twice a week.

4.5.2 Microseismic System

An Electrolab MPXO microseismic system has been used at Stobie since 1988 to

monitor strength and location of seismic events. This system does not capture waveforms or

plot wave traces of the blasts or events recorded. Active areas c m be identified and the çvent

frequency and density (number of events per hour and volume) c m be determined. The decay

tirne aftrr a major event is also an important parameter.

4.5.3 Biast Monitor

Explotech Engineering Ltd. monitored vibrations at three locations with three

Instantel digital seismographs. rquipped with triaxial çeophones (Fig. 4.1 9). The geophones

have a Peak Particle velocity range of up to 254mmls and a frequency response of 2 - 3 0 Hz.

in addition to the digital seismograph a microphone with ri Peak Sound Pressure Level

(PSPL) range of up to 1J2dB was used to record overpressure at the site in a sub-division

1.8km from the mine (Corkery 1998).

4.5.4 Observations Before and After the Blast

Stress had been evident on the 55Om level fiom September of 1997 when the "in the

hole" (ITH) holes of 2260 rock stope (fiom 5jOm to 610m level) started dog-earing. The

formation of these borehole breakouts in production holes. in the 25 pilla. at Stobie mine

signalled the advent of failure and the need for destressing (Fig. 2.8). The presence of egging

in drill holes is used as an hdicator that the stress level is sufficient for primary destressing to
be effective. Considenble squeezing and sloughing with associated seismicity occurred

during the blasting of the sublevel cave rings in the minor pillar between 2340 rock stope

(55Om to 565rn level) and 2530 rock stope (490m to 55Om level) during the months of

J a n u q and February of 1998. Sloughing occurred in the walls of 2260 rock stope at the

55Om level topsill in late February of 1998. Cracking and shear failure of the shotcrete and

egging of the destress holes in the south end of the destress slot were noted on the 1' of April

1998. On May 4Ihadditional egging was noted in the destress holes at rings 2066 and 2077.

The last ring on the South side that was double primed. as per the design. was ring 2079.

Rings 2066 and 2077 were collar-primed. On May 4'. Rockburst ST-64 displaced 1 ton from

the back of 7262 driti on the 55Om lrvel. On May Yh spalling was noted in the shotcrete at

2080 orepass drift on the 55Om level. The sequence of rvents described above indicates the

increase in stress as mining progressed and the release of stored strain energy that occurred

wiith the Failure around the openings. The timr to blast the drstress slot was close at hand.

The destress blasr was detonated at l4:Q on May 9Ih1998. Al1 three adjoining mines

(Stobie. Little Stobie and Frood) were cleared for the blast in case a Richter (Nuttli)

magnitude rockbunt should occur. Access to 490.520.550 and 580 m levels was resuicted

tiil 7:00the day following the blast. Work was performed on the b e l s below 590m during

the afternoon shift of the 9Ihafter the smoke and fumes cleared.

Conditions in the destress slot were reviewed on May 10Ih.There was no damage to

any of the mine openings outside of the destress slot (Fig. 4.20). The back of the destress slot

was cratered up to twelve feet above the original back. The muck was relatively fine with

occasional pieces having the longest dimension up to 0.5 meter.

The stress ce11 rneasured changes induced by blasts taken on the Zorn. 550 and
610m levels. As expected the destress blast had a marked effect compared with the other

blasts (Fig. 4.23). The slope of the plot of the values is an expression of the creep of the

epoxy glue between the rock and the crll.

The changes in stress calculated from the strain changes recorded by the stress ce11

between F n d g May 8Ih the day before the blast and Tuesday May 12Ih.3 days after the blast

are contained in Table 4.7.

The minor stress drop c m be compared to the values calculated using the numerical

modeling of phases 2 and 3 (Fig. 4.13). While a large drop in stress would be desirable the

failure of the core of the pillar was considered a primary goal of the blast. The mode1

indicated the destress blast would promote failure of the core of the pillar above and below

the destress dot. however it is difficult to assess this in the tield. The 1.4 Nuttli Magnitude

ment that occurred at 07: 15 on June 24th in the north wall of 3 pillar on 1900 level is

viewed as a significant event in the expected continued failure of 25 pillar.

Table 4.7 Changes in stress caused by the destress blast rneasured by the stress ceil

in 2185 X-cut on the 550m level.

Principal Stress MPa Di p Bearing

61 -8.1 29 O 234 "

% +3.8 57 O 23 O

b 3 +1.1 14 O 135.6
I
 Figure 4.13 indicates the stress regime in phases 2 and 3. calculated at two grid

points, one at the location of the stress cell. and the other 18m to the footwall. at the same

elevation as the stress cell and on the same section. The stress drop indicated by the stress

ceIl is also plotted.

The destress blast \vas classed as a mild blast with minimal vibrations felt and

recorded on surface. A strong reaction was expected on surface due to the confinement of the

explosives (lack of free face) in the centrr of the destress dot and the high stress the pillar

was subjected to. which would promote better transmission of the shock waves from the

blast. A greater that 7 Nunli magnitude (Mn) seismic event was anticipated within 24 hours

of the blast as the pillar failrd and released its stored strain energy. Neithrr a large shock

wave nor a seismic rvent was associated rvith the blast. The low kilograms of explosives per

delay producrd acceptable Peak Particle Vclocity (PPV) on surface and at the garage on the

550m level. 150m fiom the destress dot. A 3.4 hiln seismic event occurred at 07:19 on June

24Ihon the 58Om level dong the north wall of 75 pillar (Figs. 4.6 and 4.2).

The destress blast was recorded over five "event-windows" by the microseismic

system due to its long duration. Thirty-four events were recorded over the two days

following the blast. On the third day afier the blast only 3 events were recorded. By

comparison 3 1 events were recorded on the 24 Ih of June. the day the 2.4 Mn seismic event

occurred on the 380m level.

There were an average of 17 seismic events recorded per day during the month of

April and an average of 12 and 1 1 per day during the months of May and June respectively.

By comparison the month of October had 2.4 events per day. The data recorded during the
 July vacation shut d o m indicated an increase in activity in the areas of the marcasite shear

on the 91jm level but no activity in the 23 pillar area. The events recorded during a

production shut d o m are a good indicator of the areas in the mine. which are eidier retuming

to their naturai stress strtte. or are naturally active without mining induced stress. One could

postulate that the destress blast and the 2.4Mn event transferred stress to the abutmrnt dong

the rnarcasite shear. The recorded vibrations and overpressure induced by the blast are

tabulated in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8 Peak Particle Velocities and Peak Sound Pressure Levels recorded of the

May 9'hdestress BIast (Corkrry 1998).

Location PPV (rnm/s) PSPL (dB)

1800 Level Garage 10.03 NIA

I l

Eng. Equipment Vault <1 .O0 N/A

100 Village Cr. 0.25 88

1.6 Interpretation of Results

A complete evaluation of the success of the destress blast can only be properly made

once the 55Om level is completely mined. A preliminary evaluation indicates the destress

blast was a success. based on the stress drop recorded by the stress cell. the reduction in daily

seismicity through out the mine and the absence of any new stress related problrrns on the

550m level since the destress blast (January 1999).

The occurrence of a 2.4Mn rockburst on June 24'' 1998 can be viewed as a

significant event in the expected, continued failure of 25 pillar.

 Loi
1
II
- -- î

FIG.4-19 Plot of the wave form of the destress blast recorded by Explotech

Engineering Ltd. (Corkery 1998)

 FIG.4.20 a) View of the desness d o t from the entrance drift. View facing towards

the hanging wall. Note there is approximately 6 feet of ore in the slot. b) Close up view of

the muck pile in the destress slot.

 FIG.4.21 a) View of the back of the destress slot facing North. b) Close up of the

back facing south where the rings did not detonate.

 wrnaow 1 - tvenr I
199846-24-1 1 :Il:35.6580

Fit. 4.22 Plot of the traces captured by the Eastern Canada seismological network of

the 2.4 Mn event on June 24" 1998 (CANMET 1998).

 CUMMULATIVE STRAlN CHANGE 25 OESTRESS SLOT

---Gauge 6
- -. .

-Gauge 3
Gauge 4
I -Gauge 5
2 RINGS SdUW
' -Ref 120
STAR ' OF DESTRESS
R O T FAN MNGS
"ORrn
-Gauge 1
M E 0 NORTH h M U T H

8 RINGS SCUTH
-Gauge 2
I -Gauge 7

JUUAN DATES

Fie. 4.23 Plot of the suain change data capnired by the stress ce11 and data logger.

Note the corresponding blasts are indicated.

F I ~4.21
. Photo of a CSIRO (Australia) hollow inclusion stress ce11
 Chapter 5 Summary and Conclusions

Rockbursts are the result of the sudden release of stored strain energy derived from

the stresses induced by mining at depth or to a high extraction ratio. Control methods range

frorn modi@ing geometries to altering the rock properties by destressing. The physical

expression of the release of stored strain energy includes dog-earing. core disking. slabbing,

pillar failure and bursting. A review of the historical development and a comprehensive lis1

of the various methods of destressing are contained in this thesis. Special interest is paid to

destressing of pil1;ü.s. culminating in the description of the drstressing of the regional pillar

at Stobie Mine. which the author designed and directed.

The significant milestones of this project are: (1 ) mining was directed to induce stress

along the destress slot and the pillar was succcssfully brought to a point that failure was

eminent: (2) over 10.000 kg of rsplosives was used to destress the pillar without damaging

the mine infrastructure and (3) the drstress slot. which was designed to promote failure in

the core of the pillar above and below the dot provided a zone from which mining could

safely proceed.

The risk of bursting has been reduced for the extraction of 1.8 million tons of ore

between the 550 and 520-m levels. Another 5.6 million tons of ore is available if mining

proceeds io the 64Om level. It is recommended that the seismicity induced as mining

proceeds in 25 pillar be reviewed in the final evaluation of this project once the ore on the

550m level has been mined.

Appendix A Time Line of the Project.
1992 Silling and developing on 420m level

January to June 1993 Modelling of mining 25 Pillar

June 1994 First VRM Production blast between 420m and 465m levels

August to October 1994 Three reportable falls of ground

Januay to June 1997 Numerical Modelling of destress dot

June 1996 Joint Preliminq Report on Destressing 25 Pillar Preston and O ' D o ~ e l l .

February 1997 Approval From MC0 to Use the destressing project as a Thrsis

September 8th 1997 Photographed ITH holrs egging in 2260 rock stopc on 55Om

Nov. 38 1997 Rockburst X 62 on 425m Irvrl in 35 Pillar Garage.

Feb 17/98 Stress ce11 installed.

Feb. 25 stress ceIl wired.

March 8th/98 Walls slouging in 1360 rock stope.

May 4th Last 6 rings on the South side fan blasted.

May 4th Rockburst $64 on S o m level in 2262 X-cut

May 4th increase in the deformation (egging) of the holes in the south end of the

destress slot at rings 2066 to 2077, the lnst ring primed is 2079.

May 9th Destress Blast

June 24th Major seismic event of 2.4 Mn. Magnitude at 07:l-l on 580m level

elev. at 2490 East & 1880 North

December 1998 No new stress related detenoration noted in 25 pillar on the 520 and

55Om levels.
Appendix B Numerical Analysis.
The purpose of the numerical modeling analysis of the 25 pillar destressing project

is to 1 ) determine the stress magnitudes and estent of failure as mining progresses. 2)

evaluate the effect of destressing the pillar and 3) evaluate the effect of mining without

destressing. Al1 numerical analyses were camed out with the three-dimensional boundary

element numerical program MAP3 D (Wiles 1996).

B.l Description of the Mining Phases Modeled:

The stress regime used was G, = IO.OMPa+0.0407MPdm S. 0, = 8.7MPa +

0.0326MPdm S. and flj = 0.029MPdm S where S = drpth below surface in rneten. The trend

of the principle stress is 100 degrees. The plunge used was O drgrrrs. Hoek Brown strength

parameters were used to determine saîèty factors. The values used were a tensile strength of

O. a unimial compressive strength of 1 5jMPa. m equal to 1.4 and s = 0.0 1 .

Five phases or stages of the mining process have been identified for assessrnent

purposes. The first phase represents the mining grorneûy to Janu.; of 1997 at which time

the following was rnined: (1) 66% of 25 block on 490m level was mined (sublevel cave): (2)

25% of 520m level: (3) 100% of the 55Om lrvei rock stopes and (4) 50% of 30 block on

6 10m level were mined. Figure 4.9a shows this initial phase of the mining in 25 block.

Phase 1 of the mining was evaluated using models S25PDESl to 4. The efiect of the

georneûy on the stress regime and the extent of failure in 25 Pillar are displqed on 4 grids.

Grid # I is a vertical transverse section frorn 38Om level to 6 10m level along 2 140 section.

this is referred to as view SXPSTRN. Grid #2 is a vertical longitudinal section along 1060

line fiom 380m level to 610m level and is Iabeled view S2SPSLNG. Grid #3 is a horizontal
grid at 5201-11 level, the view is from the bottom up. with the footwall at the top of the page.

This view is referred to as S25PPUDR. Gnd #J is aiso a horizontal grid. it is located at 55Om

level and is viewed from the bottom looking up. the same view as used for grid #3.

Phase 2 of the mining represents the geometry of mining at Aprii 1997 with 100%

of 490m 1eveI mined. 50% of 52Om level mined. and 25% of SSOm mined. Models

S25PDESj to 8 evaluate the geornetry of phase two.

The mining conditions projected for June 1997 are representrd by Phase 3. which

was modeled by the runs S2jPDES9. S2ZPDElO to 12. The geometry of phase 3 represents

100% mined on 490m level. 50% of 52Om levrl. and 25% of 55Om level. Mining in this

phase includes a vertical 6' thick soti zone from j20m to 5ZOm level joining 12 block to the

sublevel cave front. representing the destress dot.

Phase 4 has 100%of -F9Orn mined. 80% of S X m 50% of 550m level and the 6 Z Om

level foot wall drift rnined. A 6' wide softened zone represents the destress slot. The models

evaluating phase J are S25PDE 13 to 16.

Phase 5 has the rame mining configurations as phase 4 but without the destress slot.

it is evaluated by models S25PDE17 to 20.

Models S25PDE29 to 32 evaluate the geometry of phase 3 with a 1' thick slot to

simulate the destress slot. Models 33 to 36 have the geometry of phase 3 without the softened

6' thick slot of models 39 to 32 nor the 1' thick slot of modeis 9 to 12.
B.2 Summary of Key Findings

The models SEPDES I to 4 indicate that phase 1 is a stable configuration with an

average of 60MPa 0,stress in the core of the pillar. The confining stress sigma 3 is about

13.8MPa. The strength factor used is the most appropriate to use when assessing pillar

failure. it is the factor that gives the smallest value thus it is the most conservative. The

strength factor is defined in terms of the o,strength divided by the current stress assuming

a constant value of sigma 3. The analysis indicated a short to long term stability in the core

of the pillar. a safety factor of 1 -3 to 1.6. Failure is limited to the periphery of 17 block and

30 block.

Phase 2 was evaluated with models S25PDESj to S. They indicate a drop in

confinement in the core of the piilar from an average of 13.8MPa in phase 1 to 9.6MPa in

phase 2. This drop in confinement reduces the stability of the pillar and an increase in the

rxtent of the failure zone is ctvident in the plots cornparrd to phase 1 plots.

Models S25PDE33 to 36 evaluate the state of phase 3 (without destressing). The

plots indicate little if any increase in the principlr stress in the core of the pillar but a further

reduction in confinement to values as low as 4.8MPa (plot S25DUS3). A reduction in pillar

strength in phase 3 follows the reduction in confinement. The edge of the mining on 55Om

level induces a rise in confinement just below 550m level as well as an increase in

confinement to above 20.6MPa in the hanging wall and footwall. This local increase in

confinement has an associated increase in strength at the 55Om level horizon.

Models S25PDES9 and S25PDE10 to 12 represent phase 3 with a 1.8m thick destress

slot sirnulated by reduced rock strengths of 25MPa pillar strength and an angle of intemal
 122

friction of 25 degrees. tension as usual is 0. Mode1 SEPDE13 to 16 represents phase 4 with

a destress slot of similar properties. Modelling the destress zone in this fashion has not

shown any change in the results. In comparing models SZSPDE 13 to 16 (Le. phase 4 with

a sofiened destress dot) with SZ5PDE 17 to 10 (Phase 4 without destressing) there is no

difference in the results. This would indicate the material properties assigned are not low

enough to effect the system.

A cornparison of the results of phases 3 and 4 without destressing indicates very linle

change in confinement and extent of failure caused by the increase in mining in phase 4.

A destress dot in phase 3 was simulatrd by creating a O.3m thick dot (mined not

sofiened) tiom 52Om to SjOm level in models S2jPDE29 to 33. In comparing these rnodels

to S25PDE33 to 36 (phase 3 without destressing) the destress slot causes an increase in o,

up to 13.8MPa to the footwall of the destress dot. A signiticant reduction in o3and a tensile

zone occurs to the hanging wall of the slot. This causes the two hilure zones in mode1 33 to

join into one continuous zone.

In cornparhg models 3 1 and 33 with 35 and 36. the destress dot greatly extends the

zone failure zone through the pillar.

Models S2jPDE37 to 40 are copies of models 13 to 16. they were analyzed to

evaluate whether a 1.8m wide sofiened zone with a unimial compressive strength of 1 SMPa

( 10% of the intact value) and m = 0.0 14 and s = 0.000 1 could simulate a destress slot. There

is absolutely no difference between the results of models 13 to 16 and the results of 37 to 40.

To evaluate mining without a destress dot models S25PDE4 1 to 44 were analyzed.

They have 75% of 550m level mined. To evaluate the conditions in the center of the
remaining pillar the vertical transverse grid was moved to 3080 section. In comparing the

results of models 41 to 44 with models 17 to 20. which have 50% of 5Om level mined. an

increase in 0,is noted. The a; plot indicates an increase in confinement in the hanging wall

of model 4 1 and a decrease in the confinement in the core of the pillar. A large increase in

the extent of the failure zone is indicated by plot S25D4 1SF. The increase in failure zone is

not as evident on the long section plot S25D42SF nor on the plans at 520m and 55Om leveis

Plots S25D43SF and S25D44SF respectively. It c m be surmisrd that the pillar has îàiled

when 50 % of 55Om level has been minrd. This is why the destress dot is pianned to bc

blasted when the rnining on 5Wrn is confined to hanging wall area and only 35% of j5Om

Ievel bas been mined.

B.3 ConcIusion

The purpose of the destrrss slot was to promotc a tirnely tàilure of 35 pillar and

reducr the risk of injury by controlliny the failure with blasting the destress dot. Numerical

modeling and comparing the changes in the sxtent of srress and failure zones as rnining

progresses provided an indication of early tàilure pnor to destressing. This early failure may

result from the safety factor used. There have been no previous cases that could be used to

calibrate the model. Assuming that failure will start prior to rnining the destress dot. there

is still a need to destress since the core of the pillar does not fail till the destress slot is taken.

In summary. the modeling indicates a need to destress 23 block to promote a tirnely failure

of the core of the pillar.

C 'DNIS\WPF~LESLVL~IOD
rptC ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~
 124

Table B.1 List of Runs and Descriptions of Phases Modelled.

Mining
Phase
Comments I
1

Phase 1 Conditions at January 1997 490m level213 mined, 520m 114

mined, 550 rock stopes, 610m level3O block mined.
Phase 2 Conditions at April l997J9Om level 100% mined, 520m
50% mined, 550m I / J mined.
Phase 3 Conditions at June 1997490m level 100% rnined. 520m 504'0
mined, 550m 3506 mined, Destress slot 1.8m wide type 3
parameten 25 MPa pillar strength, 25 degree angle of
interna1 friction.
1
1
Phase 4 49Om 100% mined, 530111 80% rnined, 550m 50Y0 mined,
6 10m level footwall mined. Destress slot 1.8m wide type 3
parameters 25 MPa pillar strength, 25 degree angle of internal
friction.
.. 490m 100% mined. 530m 8096 mined. 55Om 50°h mined. no
dest ress dot.
1 *.
Copies of models 9- 12. J90m t 00% mined. 520m 509'0
mined. 55Om 25% mined. destress dot rnined 1.8m thick no
softening parameters.
.. Copies of models 9- 12.4901~1100% mined. 520m 50°h
mined. 550m 2596 mined, destress dot mined 0.3m thick no
softening parameters. Slot has a twist, is non planar.
Runs Copies of models 9- 13. J90m IOO% mined. 52Om 509.o
mined. 55Om 25% mined. destress dot mined 0.3m thick no 1
softening parameters. Slot has no twist, is planar.
.. Copies of modeIs 9- 12. J90m 10094 mined. Zorn 5090
mined. 55Om 35% mined. no destress slot.
.. Copies of models 13 - 16. J90rn level 100°'a mined. 520m
809'0mined. 550rn 5096 mined. 6 10m level footwall rnined. 1
Destress slot 1 .8m w ide type 3 parameters uniaxial
compressive strength of 15.5MPa m = 0,014 and s =
0.000 1.
.. Copies o f models 17 - 30.490m 10094~mined. SlOm 80%
mined. 550m 75% mined, no destress slot. 1

Additional Runs Dec. 22/98

As a result of a revicw of the models by Drs. Derek Martin and D. McCreath

additional models were run to attempt to define or elirninate the stress riser visible in models

S35PDE29 to 3 1.

The problem was partially eliminated by adding joiner plates between the destress
slot and the large mining blocks. However it required a wider destress slot to eliminate the

problem. With a O.3m \vide slot. the image of the destress slot was transparent when viewed

frorn the foohvall. When viewed from the hanging wall it was opaque. Increasing the destress

slot to a 1.8m width eliminated both the transparency problem and the stress riser. Models

S25PD32H and S25PD321 were used to plot the stress values at two points. Models

SXPD291 to 321 were developed to replace btodels SD25PDE29 to 3 1.

Model S25PD29I has a vertical gnd through the pillar. The o,plot indicates a band

of reduced stress through the pillar. High stress zones are located above and below the

destress dot. The ojplot indicates a zone in tension on the HW and FW of the slot. Zones

of increased confinement are located above and below the slot. The Safety factor plot

indicates the core of the pillar above and below the slot has failed.

Model SXPD321 has a horizontal grid through the destress dot at 533m level. The

a,plot indicates the stress level through the pillar is at the background level. The o3plot

indicatrs tension dong the destress dot. The Safety factor plot indicates a zone !O the

foot~vallof the destress slot which has not failed. This is due to the increase in conilnement

in this area.

Model S25PD3 11 has a horizontal gridjust above the destress dot at 5ZOm level. At

the destress slot the grid cuts the stress riser above the dot. The Strength factor plot indicates

failure through the core of the pillar.

Model S25PD3OI has a vertical grid just to the footwall of the destress dot. Failure

is indicated across the pillar along the top half of the destress slot. The zone with a strength

factor greater than 1.6 that coincides with an increase in confinement is indicated at the
bottom half of the destress dot.

In summary models S25PD29I to 321 indicate the destress slot causes a &op in stress

in 25 pillar between 520m and 55Om levels. Failure is promoted in the core of the pillar

between 460m and 6 10m Ievels.

Appendix C Glossary of Terms

Collar The Collar of a hole is the opening or start of the hole. The term collaring or

starting a hole is commonly used. The end of a hole is referred to as the toe.

Cut The cut in a drift round is a groupkonfiguration of 6 to 9 holes of which 3 to

6 are of a larger diarneter and usually are not charged with explosives. The purpose of the

cut is to provide a free Face to which the remriinder of the round may break (Singh !990).

Cut The cut in a stope designates the lifi or slice mined. (i-e. The crew is mining

on the Yd cut.)

Crown Blast The c r o w blast in a Verticai Retreat Mined (VRM) or VerticaI Crater

Retreat (VCR) stope is the final blast taken through to the topsill. Usually the c r o w is 8 to

10m in thickness prior to blasting.

Nonel Anodet The trade name o î à non clectric delayed drtonator.

Primary Undercut and fil1 Method. A mining method that uses multiple slices

driven from a main dot to recover a block of ore. Each slice is tilled with a tirnber and screen

mat and cemented till. Once a cut has been completed the n e n slice is taken below the

previous cul. This is an underhand stoping method. It is usrd in extremely high grade. where

complete recovery is desirable. in ore that cannot be supported conventionally using bolts.

and in areas of high stress where the diminishing pillars created by ciit and fil1 mining are

likely to burst. The term primary differentiates the method from a pillar or secondary

undercut and fil1 stope.

Rebar Rebar bolts are sti ff bolts made of 400 grade steel (same as reinforcement

rods used in concrete) which can have a forged head or threaded end. Rebar bolts are grouted
in the rock using resin or cernent.

Silling Silling is the term used to denote the preliminary development phase

of a stope during which the blasting requires a cul. This is to differentiate between silling the

first Lift and down breaking a second lifi.

Appendix D Correspondence and Approvals

D. 1 Letter recornmending to management to destress 25 Pillar

INCO LIMITED

WBKR SUsmic Event Stobie

Stobic mine expcrienced a 2.3 Mn (Richter) magnitude rismic event on Damiber 18,
1996. at 8: 13. A signifcant stress buüd up is cxpectcd as miaiDg continues in 25 block. This
stress wilî dissipate whcn the geometry of the diminishhg piliar U such tbat fulm taktq place.
Failurc may bc acçompanied with bursting. Once mining has pmgrcsd to rbc point that 30 block
ud 12 block arc jowd by the mining of 25 block the Iiicclihood of seismic events king inducd
wouid k vcry smaii. It might bc desirable to &stress the diminLching pillar to rclease this energy
at a prcscnil tiw rathcr than it failhg at an Uhdctenninablc the.

Destrcssing of pülars is rclaiively new, with some data availabfe on prcconditioning blasts
at the Mt. Cbarfottc mine in Australia.

Numerid modelling data. devclopment. drilling. a d explosive costs wül be tabulateci

during Jaouvy so chat an iaformed decision can k made with respect to appmvhg the desuesshg
of 25 block.

X.C. G. Ellioac. M. Sylvestrr, L. Cmhnne, R. Myk, H.Buksa. W.Quinn. C. McAnuity, C.

Langille, File.
D.2 Letter to Inco management requesting approval of destressing as a Thesis.

INCO LIMITED

m / C. ~angiiie DA^ 4 February 1997

naw: D.P. O ' D O M ~ ~

NULCT Thesis approvd

Further to our conversation, 1 request approval to write an MSc thesis on the destressing
of 25 Pillar between 1700 and 1800 levels at Stobic Mine. The d e s w i n g of this pilla is required
to induce failure of this pillar at a desirable lime. Documentation of this project will increase
INCO's profile in the mining and academic community. The cost to iNCO will be minimal as the
thesis would be written on my own t h e .

Your assistance in geaing official approval would be appreciated.

Denis O'Donnell
Rock Mechanics Specialist
Frood, Stobie and Shebandowan mines,
U--N.

X.C. L. Cochrane, M-Sylvestre, File.

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