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agreement with observation. The answer to this question is quite encouraging. Although most of the entries in the Calabi-Yau
catalog yield observable consequences significantly different from our world (different numbers of particle families, different
number and types of fundamental forces, among other substantial deviations), a few entries in the catalog yield physics that is
qualitatively close to what we actually observe. That is, there are examples of Calabi-Yau spaces that, when chosen for the curled-
up dimensions required by string theory, give rise to string vibrations that are closely akin to the particles of the standard model.
And, of prime importance, string theory successfully stitches the gravitational force into this quantum-mechanical framework.

With our present level of understanding, this situation is the best we could have hoped for. If many of the Calabi-Yau shapes were
in rough agreement with experiment, the link between a specific choice and the physics we observe would be less compelling.
Many choices could fit the bill and hence none would appear to be singled out, even from an experimental perspective. On the
other hand, if none of the Calabi-Yau shapes came even remotely close to yielding observed physical properties, it would seem that
string theory; although a beautiful theoretical framework, could have no relevance for our universe. Finding a small number of
Calabi-Yau shapes that, with our present, fairly coarse ability to determine detailed physical implications, appear to be well within
the ballpark of acceptability is an extremely encouraging outcome.

Explaining the elementary matter and force particle properties would be among the greatest—if not the greatest—of scientific
achievements. Nevertheless, you might ask whether there are any string theoretic predictions—as opposed to postdictions—that
experimental physicists could attempt to confirm, either now or in the foreseeable future. There are.

Superparticles

The theoretical hurdles currently preventing us from extracting detailed string predictions force us to search for generic, rather than
specific, aspects of a universe consisting of strings. Generic in this context refers to characteristics that are so fundamental to string
theory that they are fairly insensitive to, if not completely independent of, those detailed properties of the theory that are now
beyond our theoretical purview. Such characteristics can be discussed with confidence, even with an incomplete understanding of
the full theory In subsequent chapters we shall return to other examples, but for now we focus on one: supersymmetry.

As we have discussed, a fundamental property of string theory is that it is highly symmetric, incorporating not only intuitive
symmetry principles but respecting, as well, the maximal mathematical extension of these principles, supersymmetry. This means,
as discussed in Chapter 7, that patterns of string vibrations come in pairs—superpartner pairs—differing from each other by a half
unit of spin. If string theory is right, then some of the string vibrations will correspond to the known elementary particles. And due
to the supersymmetric pairing, string theory makes the prediction that each such known particle will have a superpartner. We can
determine the force charges that each of these superpartner particles should carry, but we do not currently have the ability to predict
their masses. Even so, the prediction that superpartners exist is a generic feature of string theory; it is a property of string theory
that is true, independent of those aspects of the theory we haven't yet figured out.

No superpartners of the known elementary particles have ever been observed. This might mean that they do not exist and that
string theory is wrong. But many particle physicists feel that it means that the superpartners are very heavy and are thus beyond our
current capacity to observe experimentally. Physicists are now constructing a mammoth accelerator in Geneva, Switzerland, called
the Large Hadron Collider. Hopes run high that this machine will be powerful enough to find the superpartner particles. The
accelerator should be ready for operation before 2010, and shortly thereafter supersymmetry may be confirmed experimentally. As
Schwarz has said, "Supersymmetry ought to be discovered before too long. And when that happens, it's going to be dramatic."83

You should bear in mind two things, though. Even if superpartner particles are found, this fact alone will not establish that string
theory is correct. As we have seen, although supersymmetry was discovered by studying string theory, it has also been successfully
incorporated into point-particle theories and is therefore not unique to its stringy origins. Conversely, even if superpartner particles
are not found by the Large Hadron Collider, this fact alone will not rule out string theory, since it might be that the superpartners
are so heavy that they are beyond the reach of this machine as well.

Having said this, if in fact the superpartner particles are found, it will most definitely be strong and exciting circumstantial
evidence for string theory.

Fractionally Charged Particles

83
Interview with John Schwarz, December 23, 1997.