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again. According to string theory, the properties of an elementary "particle"—its mass and its various force charges—are
determined by the precise resonant pattern of vibration that its internal string executes.

It's easiest to understand this association for

a particle's mass. The energy of a particular
vibrational string pattern depends on its
amplitude—the maximum displacement
between peaks and troughs—and its
wavelength—the separation between one
peak and the next. The greater the
amplitude and the shorter the wavelength,
the greater the energy. This reflects what
you would expect intuitively—more frantic Figure 6.2 The loops in string theory can vibrate in resonance patterns—similar
vibrational patterns have more energy, to those of violin strings—in which a whole number of peaks and troughs fit along
while less frantic ones have less energy. We their spatial extent.
give a couple of examples in Figure 6.3.
This is again familiar, as violin strings that are plucked more vigorously will vibrate more wildly, while those plucked more
gingerly will vibrate more gently. Now, from special relativity we know that energy and mass are two sides of the same coin:
Greater energy means greater mass, and vice versa. Thus, according to string theory, the mass of an elementary particle is
determined by the energy of the vibrational pattern of its internal string. Heavier particles have internal strings that vibrate more
energetically, while lighter particles have internal strings that vibrate less energetically.

Since the mass of a particle determines its gravitational properties, we

see that there is a direct association between the pattern of string
vibration and a particle's response to the gravitational force. Although
the reasoning involved is somewhat more abstract, physicists have
found that a similar alignment exists between other detailed aspects of a
string's pattern of vibration and its properties vis à vis other forces. The
electric charge, the weak charge, and the strong charge carried by a
particular string, for instance, are determined by the precise way it
vibrates. Moreover, exactly the same idea holds for the messenger
particles themselves. Particles like photons, weak gauge bosons, and Figure 6.3 More frantic vibrational patterns have
gluons are yet other resonant patterns of string vibration. And of more energy than less frantic ones.
particular importance, among the vibrational string patterns, one
matches perfectly the properties of the graviton, ensuring that gravity is an integral part of string theory.45

So we see that, according to string theory, the observed properties of each elementary particle arise because its internal string
undergoes a particular resonant vibrational pattern. This perspective differs sharply from that espoused by physicists before the
discovery of string theory; in the earlier perspective the differences among the fundamental particles were explained by saying that,
in effect, each particle species was "cut from a different fabric." Although each particle was viewed as elementary, the kind of
"stuff" each embodied was thought to be different. Electron "stuff," for example, had negative electric charge, while neutrino "stuff'
had no electric charge. String theory alters this picture radically by declaring that the "stuff" of all matter and all forces is the same.
Each elementary particle is composed of a single string—that is, each particle is a single string—and all strings are absolutely
identical. Differences between the particles arise because their respective strings undergo different resonant vibrational patterns.
What appear to be different elementary particles are actually different "notes" on a fundamental string. The universe—being
composed of an enormous number of these vibrating strings—is akin to a cosmic symphony.

This overview shows how string theory offers a truly wonderful unifying framework. Every particle of matter and every transmitter
of force consists of a string whose pattern of vibration is its "fingerprint." Because every physical event, process, or occurrence in
the universe is, at its most elementary level, describable in terms of forces acting between these elementary material constituents,
string theory provides the promise of a single, all-inclusive, unified description of the physical universe: a theory of everything
(T.O.E.).

45
For the mathematically inclined reader, we note that the association between string vibrational patterns and force charges can be described more precisely as follows. When the motion
of a string is quantized, its possible vibrational states are represented by vectors in a Hilbert space, much as for any quantum-mechanical system. These vectors can be labeled by their
eigenvalues under a set of commuting hermitian operators. Among these operators are the Hamiltonian, whose eigenvalues give the energy and hence the mass of the vibrational state, as
well as operators generating various gauge symmetries that the theory respects. The eigenvalues of these latter operators give the force charges carried by the associated vibrational
string state.