Subatomic particle

In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an

atom.[1] According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a
subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is
composed of other particles (for example, a proton, neutron, or
meson), or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other
particles (for example, an electron, photon, or muon).[2] Particle
physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they
interact.[3]

Experiments show that light could behave like a stream of particles

(called photons) as well as exhibiting wave-like properties. This led
to the concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale
particles behave like both particles and waves; they are sometimes A composite particle proton is made
called wavicles to reflect this.[4] of two up quark and one down quark,
which are elementary particles
Another concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their
properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and
momentum, cannot be measured exactly.[5] The wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to
photons but to more massive particles as well.[6]

Interactions of particles in the framework of quantum field theory are understood as creation and
annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics with field
theory.

Even among particle physicists, the exact definition of a particle has diverse descriptions. These
professional attempts at the definition of a particle include:[7]

A particle is a collapsed wave function

A particle is a quantum excitation of a field
A particle is an irreducible representation of the Poincaré group
A particle is an observed thing

Classification

By composition

Subatomic particles are either "elementary", i.e. not made of multiple other particles, or "composite" and
made of more than one elementary particle bound together.

The elementary particles of the Standard Model are:[8]

Six "flavors" of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top;
Six types of leptons: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino;
 Twelve gauge bosons (force carriers): the photon of electromagnetism, the three W and Z
bosons of the weak force, and the eight gluons of the strong force;
The Higgs boson.

All of these have now been discovered

by experiments, with the latest being the
top quark (1995), tau neutrino (2000),
and Higgs boson (2012).

Various extensions of the Standard

Model predict the existence of an
elementary graviton particle and many
other elementary particles, but none
have been discovered as of 2021.

Hadrons

The word hadron comes from Greek

and was introduced in 1962 by Lev
Okun.[9] Nearly all composite particles
contain multiple quarks (and/or
antiquarks) bound together by gluons
(with a few exceptions with no quarks,
such as positronium and muonium). The Standard Model classification of particles
Those containing few (≤  5) quarks
(including antiquarks) are called
hadrons. Due to a property known as color confinement, quarks are never found singly but always occur in
hadrons containing multiple quarks. The hadrons are divided by number of quarks (including antiquarks)
into the baryons containing an odd number of quarks (almost always 3), of which the proton and neutron
(the two nucleons) are by far the best known; and the mesons containing an even number of quarks (almost
always 2, one quark and one antiquark), of which the pions and kaons are the best known.

Except for the proton and neutron, all other hadrons are unstable and decay into other particles in
microseconds or less. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron is made of
two down quarks and one up quark. These commonly bind together into an atomic nucleus, e.g. a helium-4
nucleus is composed of two protons and two neutrons. Most hadrons do not live long enough to bind into
nucleus-like composites; those that do (other than the proton and neutron) form exotic nuclei.

By statistics

Any subatomic particle, like any particle

in the three-dimensional space that
obeys the laws of quantum mechanics,
can be either a boson (with integer spin)
or a fermion (with odd half-integer
Overlap between Bosons, Hadrons, and Fermions.
spin).

In the Standard Model, all the

elementary fermions have spin 1/2, and are divided into the quarks which carry color charge and therefore
feel the strong interaction, and the leptons which do not. The elementary bosons comprise the gauge bosons
(photon, W and Z, gluons) with spin 1, while the Higgs boson is the only elementary particle with spin
zero.

The hypothetical graviton is required theoretically to have spin 2, but is not part of the Standard Model.
Some extensions such as supersymmetry predict additional elementary particles with spin 3/2, but none
have been discovered as of 2021.

Due to the laws for spin of composite particles, the baryons (3 quarks) have spin either 1/2 or 3/2, and are
therefore fermions; the mesons (2 quarks) have integer spin of either 0 or 1, and are therefore bosons.

By mass

In special relativity, the energy of a particle at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared, E = mc2 .
That is, mass can be expressed in terms of energy and vice versa. If a particle has a frame of reference in
which it lies at rest, then it has a positive rest mass and is referred to as massive.

All composite particles are massive. Baryons (meaning "heavy") tend to have greater mass than mesons
(meaning "intermediate"), which in turn tend to be heavier than leptons (meaning "lightweight"), but the
heaviest lepton (the tau particle) is heavier than the two lightest flavours of baryons (nucleons). It is also
certain that any particle with an electric charge is massive.

When originally defined in the 1950s, the terms baryons, mesons and leptons referred to masses; however,
after the quark model became accepted in the 1970s, it was recognised that baryons are composites of three
quarks, mesons are composites of one quark and one antiquark, while leptons are elementary and are
defined as the elementary fermions with no color charge.

All massless particles (particles whose invariant mass is zero) are elementary. These include the photon and
gluon, although the latter cannot be isolated.

By decay

Most subatomic particles are not stable. All leptons, as well as baryons decay by either the strong force or
weak force (except for the proton). Protons are not known to decay, although whether they are "truly"
stable is unknown, as some very important Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) actually require it. The μ and τ
muons, as well as their antiparticles, decay by the weak force. Neutrinos (and antineutrinos) do not decay,
but a related phenomenon of neutrino oscillations is thought to exist even in vacuums. The electron and its
antiparticle, the positron, are theoretically stable due to charge conservation unless a lighter particle having
magnitude of electric charge ≤ e exists (which is unlikely). Its charge is not shown yet.

Other properties
All observable subatomic particles have their electric charge an integer multiple of the elementary charge.
The Standard Model's quarks have "non-integer" electric charges, namely, multiple of 1 ⁄3  e, but quarks (and
other combinations with non-integer electric charge) cannot be isolated due to color confinement. For
baryons, mesons, and their antiparticles the constituent quarks' charges sum up to an integer multiple of e.

Through the work of Albert Einstein, Satyendra Nath Bose, Louis de Broglie, and many others, current
scientific theory holds that all particles also have a wave nature.[10] This has been verified not only for
elementary particles but also for compound particles like atoms and even molecules. In fact, according to
traditional formulations of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, wave–particle duality applies to all objects,
even macroscopic ones; although the wave properties of macroscopic objects cannot be detected due to
their small wavelengths.[11]

Interactions between particles have been scrutinized for many centuries, and a few simple laws underpin
how particles behave in collisions and interactions. The most fundamental of these are the laws of
conservation of energy and conservation of momentum, which let us make calculations of particle
interactions on scales of magnitude that range from stars to quarks.[12] These are the prerequisite basics of
Newtonian mechanics, a series of statements and equations in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, originally published in 1687.

Dividing an atom
The negatively charged electron has a mass equal to 1 ⁄1837 or 1836 of that of a hydrogen atom. The
remainder of the hydrogen atom's mass comes from the positively charged proton. The atomic number of
an element is the number of protons in its nucleus. Neutrons are neutral particles having a mass slightly
greater than that of the proton. Different isotopes of the same element contain the same number of protons
but differing numbers of neutrons. The mass number of an isotope is the total number of nucleons (neutrons
and protons collectively).

Chemistry concerns itself with how electron sharing binds atoms into structures such as crystals and
molecules. The subatomic particles considered important in the understanding of chemistry are the electron,
the proton, and the neutron. Nuclear physics deals with how protons and neutrons arrange themselves in
nuclei. The study of subatomic particles, atoms and molecules, and their structure and interactions, requires
quantum mechanics. Analyzing processes that change the numbers and types of particles requires quantum
field theory. The study of subatomic particles per se is called particle physics. The term high-energy physics
is nearly synonymous to "particle physics" since creation of particles requires high energies: it occurs only
as a result of cosmic rays, or in particle accelerators. Particle phenomenology systematizes the knowledge
about subatomic particles obtained from these experiments.[13]

History
The term "subatomic particle" is largely a retronym of the 1960s, used to distinguish a large number of
baryons and mesons (which comprise hadrons) from particles that are now thought to be truly elementary.
Before that hadrons were usually classified as "elementary" because their composition was unknown.

A list of important discoveries follows:

 Particle Composition Theorized Discovered Comments

Minimum unit of electrical charge,

− elementary G. Johnstone J. J. Thomson for which Stoney suggested the
Electron e (lepton) Stoney (1874)[14] (1897)[15] name in 1891.[16] First subatomic
particle to be identified.[17]

Proven by Rutherford and

alpha particle composite Thomas Royds in 1907 to be
Ernest Rutherford
(atomic never helium nuclei. Rutherford won the
α nucleus) (1899)[18] Noble Prize for Chemistry in 1908
for this discovery.[19]

Max Planck Albert Einstein Necessary to solve the

elementary
Photon γ thermodynamic problem of black-
(quantum) (1900)[20] (1905)[21] body radiation.
Ernest Rutherford
composite William Prout 1
Proton p (1919, named The nucleus of H.
(baryon) (1815)[22]
1920)[23][24]

composite Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick

Neutron n The second nucleon.
(baryon) (c.1918[25]) (1932) [26]

Paul Dirac Carl D. Anderson ( Revised explanation uses CPT

Antiparticles   +
(1928)[27] e , 1932) symmetry.

César Lattes, Explains the nuclear force

composite Hideki Yukawa Giuseppe between nucleons. The first
Pions π (mesons) (1935) Occhialini, Cecil meson (by modern definition) to
Powell (1947) be discovered.

− elementary Carl D. Anderson Called a "meson" at first; but

Muon μ never
(lepton) (1936)[28] today classed as a lepton.

G. D. Rochester,
composite C. C. Butler Discovered in cosmic rays. The
Kaons K never
(mesons) first strange particle.
(1947)[29]
University of
Lambda composite 0
never Melbourne (Λ , The first hyperon discovered.
baryons Λ (baryons)
1950)[30]

Wolfgang Pauli Clyde Cowan,

elementary Frederick Reines ( Solved the problem of energy
Neutrino ν (1930), named by
(lepton) spectrum of beta decay.
Enrico Fermi νe, 1956)

Quarks Murray Gell-Mann,

elementary George Zweig No particular confirmation event for the quark model.
(u, d, s) (1964)

Sheldon Glashow, B. Richter, S. C.

elementary John Iliopoulos,
charm quark c (quark) Luciano Maiani C. Ting (J/ψ,
(1970) 1974)

Makoto
bottom quark elementary Kobayashi, Leon M. Lederman
b (quark) Toshihide (ϒ, 1977)
Maskawa (1973)
Harald Fritzsch,
elementary Murray Gell-Mann
Gluons DESY (1979)
(quantum)
(1972)[31]
Weak gauge elementary Glashow, CERN (1983) Properties verified through the
± (quantum) Weinberg, Salam 1990s.
bosons W ,
 0 (1968)
Z
Makoto
Kobayashi, Does not hadronize, but is
elementary
top quark t (quark)
Toshihide Fermilab (1995)[33] necessary to complete the
Maskawa Standard Model.
(1973)[32]

elementary Peter Higgs Thought to be confirmed in 2013.

Higgs boson CERN (2012)[36]
(quantum) (1964)[34][35] More evidence found in 2014.[37]
Zc (3900), 2013, yet
Tetraquark composite ? to be confirmed as a A new class of hadrons.
tetraquark

Yet another class of hadrons. As of 2019 several are

Pentaquark composite ?
thought to exist.

Interpretation of a gravitational
elementary Albert Einstein wave as particles is
Graviton
(quantum) (1916)
controversial.[38]

Magnetic elementary Paul Dirac

undiscovered
monopole (unclassified) (1931)[39]

See also
Physics portal

Atom: Journey Across the Subatomic Hot spot effect in subatomic physics
Cosmos (book) List of fictional elements, materials,
Atom: An Odyssey from the Big Bang to isotopes and atomic particles
Life on Earth...and Beyond (book) List of particles
CPT invariance Poincaré symmetry
Dark matter

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Further reading

General readers
Feynman, R.P. & Weinberg, S. (1987). Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The
1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Greene, Brian (1999). The Elegant Universe. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-
05858-1.
Oerter, Robert (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung
Triumph of Modern Physics. Plume. ISBN 978-0452287860
Schumm, Bruce A. (2004). Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics.
Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
Veltman, Martinus (2003). Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics (https://archiv
e.org/details/factsmysteriesin0000velt). World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-238-149-1.

Textbooks
Coughlan, G.D., J.E. Dodd, and B.M. Gripaios (2006). The Ideas of Particle Physics: An
Introduction for Scientists, 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. An undergraduate text for those
not majoring in physics.
Griffiths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-471-60386-3.
Kane, Gordon L. (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 978-0-
201-11749-3.

External links
University of California: Particle Data Group. (http://pdg.lbl.gov/)

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