Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Conservation status
Domesticated
Contents
Scientific classification
Terminology
Kingdom: Animalia
General biology and habitat
Behavior Phylum: Chordata
Social behaviour Class: Aves
Courtship
Order: Galliformes
Nesting and laying behaviour
Broodiness Family: Phasianidae
Hatching and early life Genus: Gallus
Defensive behaviour
Species: G. gallus
Embryology
Subspecies: G. g. domesticus
Breeding
Origins Trinomial name
South America
Gallus gallus domesticus
Use by humans (Linnaeus, 1758)
Farming
Reared for meat
Reared for eggs
As pets
Artificial incubation
Diseases and ailments
In religion and mythology
In history
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Terminology
In the UK and Ireland, adult male chickens over the age of one year
are primarily known as cocks, whereas in the United States, Canada,
Australia and New Zealand, they are more commonly called
roosters. Males less than a year old are cockerels.[10] Castrated or
neutered roosters are called capons (surgical and chemical castration
are now illegal in some parts of the world). Females over a year old
are known as hens, and younger females as pullets,[11] although in
the egg-laying industry, a pullet becomes a hen when she begins to
lay eggs, at 16 to 20 weeks of age. In Australia and New Zealand Didactic model of a chicken.
(also sometimes in Britain), there is a generic term chook /tʃʊk/ to
describe all ages and both sexes.[12] The young are often called
chicks.
Chicken originally referred to young domestic fowl.[13] The species as a whole was then called domestic
fowl, or just fowl. This use of chicken survives in the phrase Hen and Chickens, sometimes used as a British
public house or theatre name, and to name groups of one large and many small rocks or islands in the sea .
In the Deep South of the United States, chickens are referred to by the slang term yardbird.[14]
The average chicken may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed.[18] The world's oldest known
chicken was a hen which died of heart failure at the age of 16 years according to the Guinness World
Records.[19]
Roosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plumage of long flowing tails and shiny,
pointed feathers on their necks (hackles) and backs (saddle), which are typically of brighter, bolder colours
than those of females of the same breed. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster
has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hen's. The identification can be made by
looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male's legs (in a few breeds and in
certain hybrids, the male and female chicks may be differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy
crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks
called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles.
Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, but in most breeds these are more prominent in
males. A muff or beard is a mutation found in several
chicken breeds which causes extra feathering under the
chicken's face, giving the appearance of a beard.
Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance
flight, although lighter chickens are generally capable
of flying for short distances, such as over fences or into
trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens may
occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings,
but generally do so only to flee perceived danger.
Behavior
Anatomy of a chicken.
Social behaviour
Courtship
Broodiness
Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete,
and they will then incubate all the eggs. Hens are then said to "go
broody". The broody hen will stop laying and instead will focus on the
incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually about 12 eggs). She will
"sit" or "set" on the nest, protesting or pecking in defense if disturbed or
removed, and she will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe.
While brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a constant temperature
and humidity, as well as turning the eggs regularly during the first part Chicken eggs vary in colour
of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, owners may place several depending on the breed, and
artificial eggs in the nest. To discourage it, they may place the hen in an sometimes, the hen, typically
elevated cage with an open wire floor. ranging from bright white to
shades of brown and even blue,
Breeds artificially developed for egg production rarely go broody, and green, light pinkish and recently
those that do often stop part-way through the incubation. However, reported purple (found in South
other breeds, such as the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, do regularly go Asia) (Araucana varieties).
broody, and they make excellent mothers, not only for chicken eggs but
also for those of other species — even those with much smaller or
larger eggs and different incubation periods, such as quail, pheasants, turkeys, or geese.
Fertile chicken eggs hatch at the end of the incubation period, about 21 days.[23] Development of the chick
starts only when incubation begins, so all chicks hatch within a day or two of each other, despite perhaps
being laid over a period of two weeks or so. Before hatching, the hen can hear the chicks peeping inside the
eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shells. The chick begins by "pipping";
pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt end of the
egg, usually on the upper side. The chick then rests for some hours,
absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood supply
from the membrane beneath the shell (used earlier for breathing through
the shell). The chick then enlarges the hole, gradually turning round as
it goes, and eventually severing the blunt end of the shell completely to
make a lid. The chick crawls out of the remaining shell, and the wet
down dries out in the warmth of the nest.
Hens usually remain on the nest for about two days after the first chick Chicks before their first outing
hatches, and during this time the newly hatched chicks feed by
absorbing the internal yolk sac.
Some breeds sometimes start
eating cracked eggs, which can
become habitual.[26] Hens
fiercely guard their chicks, and
brood them when necessary to
keep them warm, at first often
returning to the nest at night.
She leads them to food and
water and will call them toward
edible items, but seldom feeds
Skull of a three-week-old chicken. them directly. She continues to
Here the opisthotic bone appears care for them until they are
in the occipital region, as in the several weeks old. Although
adult Chelonian. bo = Basi- there are some hens, the Black
occipital, bt = Basi-temporal, eo = Hen Atriana, in the territory of
Opisthotic, f = Frontal, fm = Atri, that are aggressive and
Foramen magnum, fo = often kill their own chicks. a chick sitting in a person's hand
Fontanella, oc = Occipital They are characterized as a
condyle, op = Opisthotic, p = small-sized hen that lays mant
Parietal, pf = Post-frontal, sc = eggs daily.[27]
Sinus canal in supra-occipital, so
= Supra-occpital, sq =
Squamosal, 8 = Exit of vagus Defensive behaviour
nerve.
Chickens may occasionally gang up on a weak or inexperienced
predator. At least one credible report exists of a young fox killed by
hens.[28][29][30] A group of hens have been recorded in attacking a hawk that had entered their coop.[31]
Embryology
In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds "turned on" a chicken recessive gene, talpid2, and found
that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, like those found in ancient bird fossils. John Fallon, the
overseer of the project, stated that chickens have "...retained the ability to make teeth, under certain
conditions... ."[32]
Breeding
Origins
Galliformes, the class of bird that chickens belong to, is directly
linked to the survival of birds when all other dinosaurs went extinct.
Water or ground-dwelling fowl, similar to modern partridges,
survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed all
tree-dwelling birds and dinosaurs.[33] Some of these evolved into the
modern galliformes, of which domesticated chickens are a main
model. They are descended primarily from the red junglefowl
(Gallus gallus) and are scientifically classified as the same
species.[34] As such, they can and do freely interbreed with
populations of red junglefowl.[34] Subsequent hybridization of Play media
domestic chicken with grey junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and Earliest gestation stages and blood
green junglefowl occurred[35] with at least, a gene for yellow skin circulation of a chicken embryo
was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the
grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii).[36] In study published in 2020,
it was found that chickens shared between 71% - 79% of their
genome with red junglefowl with domestication period dated to
8,000 years ago.[35]
Three possible routes of introduction in about the early first millennium AD could have been through the
Egyptian Nile Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers,
across the Sahara. The earliest known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africa and date
back to the middle of the first millennium AD.[44]
Domestic chicken in the Americas before Western contact is still an ongoing discussion, but blue-egged
chickens, found only in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American chickens.[44]
A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa
makes it difficult to lay out a clear map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better description and
genetic analysis of local breeds threatened by extinction may also help with research into this area.[44]
South America
An unusual variety of chicken that has its origins in South America is the araucana, bred in southern Chile
by the Mapuche people. Araucanas, some of which are tailless and some of which have tufts of feathers
around their ears, lay blue-green eggs. It has long been suggested that they pre-date the arrival of European
chickens brought by the Spanish and are evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Pacific contacts between Asian or
Pacific Oceanic peoples, particularly the Polynesians, and South America. In 2007, an international team of
researchers reported the results of analysis of chicken bones found on the Arauco Peninsula in south-central
Chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were Pre-Columbian, and DNA analysis showed that
they were related to prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia.[46] These results appeared to confirm
that the chickens came from Polynesia and that there were transpacific contacts between Polynesia and
South America before Columbus's arrival in the Americas.[47]
The debate for and against a Polynesian origin for South American chickens continued with this 2014 paper
and subsequent responses in PNAS.[49]
Use by humans
Farming
More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of meat and
eggs.[51] In the United States alone, more than 8 billion chickens are
slaughtered each year for meat,[52] and more than 300 million chickens are
reared for egg production.[53]
The vast majority of poultry are raised in factory farms. According to the
Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry meat and 68 percent
of eggs are produced this way.[54] An alternative to intensive poultry
farming is free-range farming.
Friction between these two main methods has led to long-term issues of
ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the
environment, creates human health risks and is inhumane.[55] Advocates of
intensive farming say that their highly efficient systems save land and food
resources owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked
after in state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.[56] A former battery hen, five
days after release. Note the
pale comb - the comb may
Reared for meat
be a reliable indicator of
health or vigor.[50]
Chickens farmed for meat are called broilers. Chickens will naturally live
for six or more years, but broiler breeds typically take less than six weeks to
reach slaughter size.[57] A free range or organic broiler will usually
be slaughtered at about 14 weeks of age.
Chickens farmed primarily for eggs are called layer hens. In total,
the UK alone consumes more than 34 million eggs per day.[58] Some
hen breeds can produce over 300 eggs per year, with "the highest
authenticated rate of egg laying being 371 eggs in 364 days".[59] A commercial chicken house with
After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen's egg-laying ability open sides raising broiler pullets for
starts to decline to the point where the flock is commercially meat
unviable. Hens, particularly from battery cage systems, are
sometimes infirm or have lost a significant amount of their feathers,
and their life expectancy has been reduced from around seven years to less than two years.[60] In the UK and
Europe, laying hens are then slaughtered and used in processed foods or sold as "soup hens".[60] In some
other countries, flocks are sometimes force moulted, rather than being slaughtered, to re-invigorate egg-
laying. This involves complete withdrawal of food (and sometimes water) for 7–14 days[61] or sufficiently
long to cause a body weight loss of 25 to 35%,[62] or up to 28 days under experimental conditions.[63] This
stimulates the hen to lose her feathers, but also re-invigorates egg-production. Some flocks may be force-
moulted several times. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moulted in the US.[64]
As pets
Keeping chickens as pets became increasingly popular in the 2000s[65] among urban and suburban
residents.[66] Many people obtain chickens for their egg production but often name them and treat them as
any other pet. Chickens are just like any other pet in that they provide companionship and have individual
personalities. While many do not cuddle much, they will eat from
one's hand, respond to and follow their handlers, as well as show
affection.[67]
Chickens are social, inquisitive, intelligent birds, and many find their
behaviour entertaining.[68] Certain breeds, such as Silkies and many
bantam varieties, are generally docile and are often recommended as
good pets around children with disabilities.[69] Many people feed
chickens in part with kitchen food scraps.
Artificial incubation
In ancient Greece, chickens were not normally used for sacrifices, Vatican Persian Cock — A 1919
perhaps because they were still considered an exotic animal. Because of print of a fabric square of a
its valor, the cock is found as an attribute of Ares, Heracles, and Persian cock or a Persian bird
Athena. The alleged last words of Socrates as he died from hemlock design belonging to the Vatican
poisoning, as recounted by Plato, were "Crito, I owe a cock to (Holy See) in Rome dating to 600
Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?", signifying that death CE. Notice the halo denoting the
was a cure for the illness of life. status of being holy in that
religious schema.
The Greeks believed that even lions were afraid of roosters. Several of
Aesop's Fables reference this belief.
In the New Testament, Jesus prophesied the betrayal by Peter: "Jesus answered, 'I tell you, Peter, before the
rooster crows today, you will deny three times that you know me.'"[79] It happened,[80] and Peter cried
bitterly. This made the rooster a symbol for both vigilance and betrayal.
Earlier, Jesus compares himself to a mother hen when talking about Jerusalem: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem,
you who kill the prophets and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your children
together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing."[81]
In the sixth century, Pope Gregory I declared the rooster the emblem of Christianity[82] and another Papal
enactment of the ninth century by Pope Nicholas I[77] ordered the figure of the rooster to be placed on every
church steeple.[83]
In many Central European folk tales, the devil is believed to flee at the first crowing of a rooster.
In traditional Jewish practice, a kosher animal is swung around the head and then slaughtered on the
afternoon before Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, in a ritual called kapparos; it is now common practice
to cradle the bird and move him or her around the head. A chicken or fish is typically used because it is
commonly available (and small enough to hold). The sacrifice of the animal is to receive atonement, for the
animal symbolically takes on all the person's sins in kapparos. The meat is then donated to the poor. A
woman brings a hen for the ceremony, while a man brings a rooster. Although not a sacrifice in the biblical
sense, the death of the animal reminds the penitent sinner that his or her life is in God's hands.
The Talmud speaks of learning "courtesy toward one's mate" from the rooster.[84] This might refer to the fact
that when a rooster finds something good to eat, he calls his hens to eat first. A rooster might also come to
the aid of a hen if she is attacked. The Talmud likewise provides us with the statement "Had the Torah not
been given to us, we would have learned modesty from cats, honest toil from ants, chastity from doves and
gallantry from cocks",[85][86] which may be further understood as to that of the gallantry of cocks being
taken in the context of a religious instilling vessel of "a girt one of the loins" (Young's Literal Translation)
that which is "stately in his stride" and "move with stately bearing" in the Book of Proverbs 30:29-31 as
referenced by Michael V. Fox in his Proverbs 10-31 where Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon (Saadia Gaon)
identifies the definitive trait of "A cock girded about the loins" in Proverbs 30:31 (Douay–Rheims Bible) as
"the honesty of their behavior and their success",[87] identifying a spiritual purpose of a religious vessel
within that religious instilling schema of purpose and use.
The chicken is one of the symbols of the Chinese Zodiac. In Chinese folk religion, a cooked chicken as a
religious offering is usually limited to ancestor veneration and worship of village deities. Vegetarian deities
such as the Buddha are not recipients of such offerings. Under some observations, an offering of chicken is
presented with "serious" prayer (while roasted pork is offered during a joyous celebration). In Confucian
Chinese weddings, a chicken can be used as a substitute for one who is seriously ill or not available (e.g.,
sudden death) to attend the ceremony. A red silk scarf is placed on the chicken's head and a close relative of
the absent bride/groom holds the chicken so the ceremony may proceed. However, this practice is rare today.
A cockatrice was supposed to have been born from an egg laid by a rooster, as well as killed by a rooster's
call.
In history
An early domestication of chickens in Southeast Asia is
probable, since the word for domestic chicken (*manuk) is part
of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian language . Chickens,
together with dogs and pigs, were the domestic animals of the
Lapita culture,[88] the first Neolithic culture of Oceania.[89]
In ancient Greece, chickens were still rare and were a rather prestigious food for symposia.[92] Delos seems
to have been a center of chicken breeding (Columella, De Re Rustica 8.3.4). "About 3200 BC chickens were
common in Sindh. After the attacks of Aria people these fowls spred from Sindh to Balakh and Iran. During
attacks and wars between Iranian and Greeks the chickens of Hellanic breed came in Iran and about 1000
BC Hellanic chickens came into Sindh through Medan".[93]
The Romans used chickens for oracles, both when flying ("ex avibus", Augury) and when feeding
("auspicium ex tripudiis", Alectryomancy). The hen ("gallina") gave a favourable omen ("auspicium
ratum"), when appearing from the left (Cic., de Div. ii.26), like the crow and the owl.
For the oracle "ex tripudiis" according to Cicero (Cic. de Div. ii.34), any bird could be used in auspice, and
shows at one point that any bird could perform the tripudium[94] but normally only chickens ("pulli") were
consulted. The chickens were cared for by the pullarius, who opened their cage and fed them pulses or a
special kind of soft cake when an augury was needed. If the chickens stayed in their cage, made noises
("occinerent"), beat their wings or flew away, the omen was bad; if they ate greedily, the omen was good.[95]
In 249 BC, the Roman general Publius Claudius Pulcher had his "sacred chickens" "[96] thrown overboard
when they refused to feed before the battle of Drepana, saying "If they won't eat, perhaps they will drink."
He promptly lost the battle against the Carthaginians and 93 Roman ships were sunk. Back in Rome, he was
tried for impiety and heavily fined.[97]
In 162 BC, the Lex Faunia forbade fattening hens on grain which was a measure enacted to reduce the
demand for grain.[98] To get around this, the Romans castrated roosters (capon), which resulted in a
doubling of size[99] despite the law that was passed in Rome that forbade the consumption of fattened
chickens. It was renewed a number of times, but does not seem to have been successful. Fattening chickens
with bread soaked in milk was thought to give especially delicious results. The Roman gourmet Apicius
offers 17 recipes for chicken, mainly boiled chicken with a sauce. All parts of the animal are used: the
recipes include the stomach, liver, testicles and even the pygostyle (the fatty "tail" of the chicken where the
tail feathers attach).
The Roman author Columella gives advice on chicken breeding in the eighth book of his treatise, De Re
Rustica (On Agriculture). He identified Tanagrian, Rhodic, Chalkidic and Median (commonly misidentified
as Melian) breeds, which have an impressive appearance, a quarrelsome nature and were used for
cockfighting by the Greeks (De Re Rustica 8.3.4). For farming, native (Roman) chickens are to be preferred,
or a cross between native hens and Greek cocks (De Re Rustica 8.2.13). Dwarf chickens are nice to watch
because of their size but have no other advantages.
According to Columella (De Re Rustica 8.2.7), the ideal flock consists of 200 birds, which can be
supervised by one person if someone is watching for stray animals. White chickens should be avoided as
they are not very fertile and are easily caught by eagles or goshawks. One cock should be kept for five hens.
In the case of Rhodian and Median cocks that are very heavy and therefore not much inclined to sex, only
three hens are kept per cock. The hens of heavy fowls are not much inclined to brood; therefore their eggs
are best hatched by normal hens. A hen can hatch no more than 15-23 eggs, depending on the time of year,
and supervise no more than 30 hatchlings. Eggs that are long and pointed give more male hatchlings,
rounded eggs mainly female hatchlings (De Re Rustica 8.5.11).
Columella also states that chicken coops should face southeast and lie adjacent to the kitchen, as smoke is
beneficial for the animals and "poultry never thrive so well as in warmth and smoke" (De Re Rustica
8.3.1).[100] Coops should consist of three rooms and possess a hearth. Dry dust or ash should be provided for
dust-baths.
According to Columella (De Re Rustica 8.4.1), chickens should be fed on barley groats, small chick-peas,
millet and wheat bran, if they are cheap. Wheat itself should be avoided as it is harmful to the birds. Boiled
ryegrass (Lolium sp.) and the leaves and seeds of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) can be used as well. Grape
marc can be used, but only when the hens stop laying eggs, that is, about the middle of November; otherwise
eggs are small and few. When feeding grape marc, it should be supplemented with some bran. Hens start to
lay eggs after the winter solstice, in warm places around the first of January, in colder areas in the middle of
February. Parboiled barley increases their fertility; this should be mixed with alfalfa leaves and seeds, or
vetches or millet if alfalfa is not at hand. Free-ranging chickens should receive two cups of barley daily.
Columella[101] advises farmers to slaughter hens that are older than three years, those that aren't productive
or are poor care-takers of their eggs, and particularly those that eat their own and other hens' eggs.
According to Aldrovandi, capons were produced by burning "the hind part of the bowels, or loins or
spurs"[102] with a hot iron. The wound was treated with potter's chalk.
For the use of poultry and eggs in the kitchens of ancient Rome see Roman eating and drinking.
Chickens were spread by Polynesian seafarers and reached Easter Island in the 12th century AD, where they
were the only domestic animal, with the possible exception of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans). They
were housed in extremely solid chicken coops built from stone, which was first reported as such to Linton
Palmer in 1868, who also "expressed his doubts about this".[103].
See also
Urban chicken keeping
Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity
Battery Hen Welfare Trust, a UK charity for laying hens
Chicken eyeglasses
Chicken fat
Chicken hypnotism
Chicken or the egg
Chicken manure
Chook raffle – a type of raffle where the prize is a chicken.
Early feeding
Feral chicken
Gamebird hybrids – hybrids between chickens, peafowl, guineafowl and pheasants
Henopause
List of chicken breeds
Poularde
Rubber chicken
Sex change in chickens
Symbolic chickens
Tastes like chicken
Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep
"Why did the chicken cross the road?"
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Further reading
Green-Armytage, Stephen (October 2000). Extraordinary Chickens. Harry N. Abrams.
ISBN 978-0-8109-3343-9.
Smith, Page; Charles Daniel (April 2000). The Chicken Book. University of Georgia Press.
ISBN 978-0-8203-2213-1.
Siddharth, Biswas (2014). "Gallus gallus domesticus Linnaeus, 1758: Keep safe your domestic
fowl from your domestic foul" (https://www.caves.res.in/journal/articles/Amb_Sci_01_Nn_02.pd
f) (PDF). Ambient Science. 1 (1): 41–43. doi:10.21276/ambi.2014.01.1.nn02 (https://doi.org/10.
21276%2Fambi.2014.01.1.nn02). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160305105525/htt
p://www.caves.res.in/journal/d2014.htm) from the original on March 5, 2016.
Andrew Lawler (2014). Why Did the Chicken Cross the World?: The Epic Saga of the Bird that
Powers Civilization. Atria Books. ISBN 978-1476729893.
External links
Chickens (https://curlie.org/Science/Agriculture/Animals/Birds/Poultry/Chickens/) at Curlie
Chicken (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/110675) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Video: Chick hatching from egg (https://web.archive.org/web/20170511083710/http://www.hue
hnerstallkaufen.net/kueken-schluepft-aus-dem-ei/)
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