SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

General Physics1
Quarter 2 – Module 2-Week 2
Electromagnetic Waves and the
Nature & Propagation of Light
 Lesson

1 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave

Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves with a wide range of properties and uses.
Some of the waves are also hazardous to human body tissues. Their vibrations or
oscillations are changes in electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to the direction of
wave travel. Electromagnetic waves travel at 300,000,000 meters per second (m/s)
through a vacuum.

All electromagnetic waves:

• • transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber.
• • can travel through a vacuum such as in space.
• • all travel at the same velocity through a vacuum.

Electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum of waves. This includes:

• waves with a very short wavelength, high frequency and high energy
• waves with a very long wavelength, low frequency and low energy

Electromagnetic waves can be separated into seven distinct groups in the spectrum.

source: https://tinyurl.com/18eotfwb

Each group contains a range of frequencies. For example, visible light contains all the
frequencies that can be detected by the human eye:

• red light has the lowest frequencies of visible light

• violet light has the highest frequencies of visible light
The behavior of an electromagnetic wave in a substance depends on its frequency or
wavelength. The differing behaviors of different groups in the electromagnetic spectrum
make them suitable for a range of uses.

All electromagnetic waves are light, but the band of the electromagnetic spectrum that
people and animals can see is called visible light. When a beam of light passes through a
prism, a person can see each color of the rainbow separated into their individual
wavelengths.

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y9wrjf9n

Red, the longest of the wavelengths, measures around 700 nanometers; yellow is around
600 nanometers; and violet, the shortest, is around 400 nanometers in length.

Describing Electromagnetic Energy

The terms of light, electromagnetic waves, and radiation all refer to the same physical
phenomenon: electromagnetic energy. This energy can be described by frequency,
wavelength, or energy. All three are related mathematically such that if you know one,
you can calculate the other two. Radio and microwaves are usually described in terms of
frequency (Hertz), infrared and visible light in terms of wavelength (meters), and x-rays
and gamma rays in terms of energy (electron volts). This scientific convention that allows
the convenient use of units that have numbers that are neither too large nor too small.
Frequency
The number of crests that pass a given point within one second is described as the
frequency of the eave. One wave – one cycle – per second is called a Hertz(Hz), after
Heinrich Hertz who established the existence of radio waves. A wave with two cycles that
pass a point in one second has a frequency of 2 Hz.

Wavelength
Electromagnetic waves have crests and troughs similar to those of ocean waves. The
distance between crests is the wavelength. The shortest wavelengths are just fractions of
the size of an atom, while the longest wavelengths scientists currently study can be larger
than the diameter of our planet.

Energy
An electromagnetic wave can also be described in terms of its energy – in units of measure
called electron volts (eV). An electron volt is the amount of kinetic energy needed to move
an electron through one-volt potential. Moving along the spectrum from long to short
wavelengths, energy increases as the wavelength shortens. Consider a jumping rope with
its ends being pulled up and down. More energy is needed to make the rope have more
waves.

Maxwell’s Synthesis of Electricity of Electricity, Magnetism and Optics

In 1873, seventy years after Thomas Young presented his experimental results on the
nature of light, a Scottish physicist named James Clerk Maxwell published a theory that
accounted for the physical origins of light. Throughout the nineteenth century, many of
science's greatest minds dedicated themselves to the study of two exciting new ideas:
electricity and magnetism. Maxwell's work synthesized these two ideas, which had
previously been considered separate phenomena. His new theory was aptly named a
theory of “electromagnetism”.

Maxwell and other physicists began exploring their implications and testing their
predictions. One prediction that came from Maxwell's equations was that a charge moving
back and forth in a periodic fashion would create an oscillating electric field. This electric
field would then set up a periodically changing magnetic field, which in turn would cause
the original electric field to continue its oscillation, and so on. This mutual vibration allowed
the electric and magnetic fields to travel through space in the form of an
"electromagnetic wave," as shown below:
Because this new mathematical model of electromagnetism described a wave, physicists
were able to imagine that electromagnetic radiation could take on the properties of waves.
Thus, just like all waves, Maxwell's electromagnetic waves could have a range of
wavelengths and corresponding frequencies.

This range of wavelengths is now known as the "electromagnetic spectrum." Maxwell's

theory also predicted that all the waves in the spectrum travel at a characteristic speed of
approximately 300,000,000 meters per second. Maxwell was able to calculate this speed
from his equations:

𝒄=𝟏/√𝜺𝒐𝝁𝒐=𝟐.𝟗𝟗𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒎/𝒔
Where,

c= speed of the electromagnetic wave

𝜺𝒐= permittivity of free space (8.854×10−12 F/m)
𝝁𝒐= permeability of free space (4π×10−7 N/A2)

Maxwell's calculation of the speed of an electromagnetic wave included two important

constants: the permittivity and permeability of free space.

The permittivity of free space is also known as the "electric constant" and describes the
strength of the electrical force between two charged particles in a vacuum. The
permeability of free space is the magnetic analogue of the electric constant. It describes
the strength of the magnetic force on an object in a magnetic field.
Thus, the speed of an electromagnetic wave comes directly from a fundamental
consideration of electricity and magnetism.

When Maxwell calculated this speed, he realized that it was extremely close to the
measured value for the speed of light, which had been known for centuries from detailed
astronomical observations. After Maxwell's equations became widely known, the Polish-
American physicist Albert Michelson made a very precise measurement of the speed of
light that was in extremely close agreement with Maxwell's predicted value. This was too
much for Maxwell to accept as coincidence and led him to the realization that light was an
electromagnetic wave and thus part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Lesson

2 Total Internal Reflection

A light wave does not just stop when it reaches the end of the medium. Rather, the light
wave undergoes certain behaviors when it encounters the end of the medium - such
behaviors include reflection, transmission/refraction, and diffraction. For this lesson, we
will investigate the connection between light reflection and light refraction.

A light wave, like any wave, is an energy-transport phenomenon. A light wave transports
energy from one location to another. When a light wave strikes a boundary between two
distinct media, a portion of the energy will be transmitted into the new medium and a
portion of the energy will be reflected off the boundary and stay within the original
medium. The actual percentage of energy that is transmitted and reflected is dependent
upon several variables; these will be discussed as we go along with this lesson. For
now, our concern is to review and internalize the basic concepts and terminology
associated with boundary behavior.

Reflection of a light wave involves the bouncing of a light wave off the boundary, while
refraction of a light wave involves the bending of the path of a light wave upon crossing
a boundary and entering a new medium. Both reflection and refraction involve a change
in direction of a wave, but only refraction involves a change in medium.
The fundamental law that governs the reflection of light is called the law of reflection.
Whether the light is reflecting off a rough surface or a smooth surface, a curved surface
or a planar surface, the light ray follows the law of reflection. The law of reflection states
that “When a light ray reflects off a surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.”

The fundamental law that governs the refraction of light is Snell's Law. Snell's Law
states that “When a light ray is transmitted into a new medium, the relationship between
the angle of incidence (Θi) and the angle of refraction (Θr) is given by the following
equation:

ni • sine(Θi) = nr • sine(Θr) Equation 1

where the ni and nr values represent the indices of refraction of the incident and the
refractive medium, respectively.

A common Physics lab is to sight through the long side of an isosceles triangle at a pin
or other object held behind the opposite face. When done so, an unusual observation - a
discrepant event - is observed. The diagram on the left below depicts the physical
situation. A ray of light entered the face of the triangular block at a right angle to the
boundary. This ray of light passes across the boundary without refraction since it was
incident along the normal. The ray of light then travels in a straight line through the glass
until it reaches the second boundary. Now instead of transmitting across this boundary,
all of the light seems to reflect off the boundary and transmit out the opposite face of the
isosceles triangle.
This discrepant event bothers many as they spend several minutes looking for the light
to refract through the second boundary. Then finally, to their amazement, they looked
through the third face of the block and clearly see the ray. What happened? Why did
light not refract through the second face?

The phenomenon observed in this part of the lab is known as total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection (TIR) is the reflection of the total amount of incident light at the
boundary between two media.
To understand total internal reflection, let us consider this fiber optic cable.

An optic fiber cable is made up of thin strands of glass or plastic. These strands carry
information between two places in a form of light. As you know, glass is a dense medium
that refracts light, but light does not refract light inside the fiber optic cable.
Do you know why the incident ray did not refract here? We can understand the reasons
for this once we understand the process of total internal reflection.
A ray of light passing from a dense medium into a rear medium refracts and bends away
from the normal line. The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence.
When the angle of refraction is equal to 90 degrees, we get a critical angle. In this case,
the angle of incidents is equal to the critical angle but when the angle of incidence
becomes greater than the critical angle then, the refracted ray does not enter the rear
medium rather, it is reflected in the same medium. This is what we call the TOTAL
INTERNAL REFLECTION.

Going back to the example of the optical fiber, the light rays hit the inside surface of
the wall of the optical fiber at an angle greater than the critical angle, due to this, the
light ray reflects with the same medium.
Remember, there are two necessary conditions for total internal reflection do
happen.

the ray of light must be traveling from a dense medium to a rare medium.
the angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

Many optical instruments use the principle of total internal reflection. Total internal
reflection is used in instrument such as fiber optic, binoculars, and periscope.
Describing Electromagnetic Energy
The terms of light, electromagnetic waves, and radiation all refer to the same physical
phenomenon: electromagnetic energy. This energy can be described by frequency,
wavelength, or energy. All three are related mathematically such that if you know one,
you can calculate the other two. Radio and microwaves are usually described in terms of
frequency (Hertz), infrared and visible light in terms of wavelength (meters), and x-rays
and gamma rays in terms of energy (electron volts). This scientific convention that allows
the convenient use of units that have numbers that are neither too large nor too small.

Frequency
The number of crests that pass a given point within one second is described as the
frequency of the eave. One wave – one cycle – per second is called a Hertz(Hz), after
Heinrich Hertz who established the existence of radio waves. A wave with two cycles
that pass a point in one second has a frequency of 2 Hz.
Wavelength
Electromagnetic waves have crests and troughs similar to those of ocean waves. The
distance between crests is the wavelength. The shortest wavelengths are just fractions
of the size of an atom, while the longest wavelengths scientists currently study can be
larger than the diameter of our planet.
Energy
An electromagnetic wave can also be described in terms of its energy – in units of
measure called electron volts (eV). An electron volt is the amount of kinetic energy
needed to move an electron through one-volt potential. Moving along the spectrum from
long to short wavelengths, energy increases as the wavelength shortens. Consider a
jumping rope with its ends being pulled up and down. More energy is needed to make
the rope have more waves.
source: https://tinyurl.com/57flkesn