Alexander II 1855-81

He was a keen reformer, made significant moves towards regaining Russia’s position as an ally.
His reform programme gained him the name ‘Tsar Liberator’ as it was so far reaching, more so than
any seen previously.
The Crimean War was the cause of his reforms.
The brutal defeat of Russia during this war emphasized a need for significant reform as many as
500,000 Russian soldiers died due to poor health, illness and disease that sparked due to their ‘serf’
status. They were so harshly defeated because the British, French and Turkish forces they were
fighting didn’t have armies of serfs and had advanced weaponry and machinery.
Modernization was sought in the end of serfdom, liberalization of the legal system, education and
military reforms.
War was a major catalyst in these changes – although this should not be over exaggerated as talks had
already been made prior to the war about a possible emancipation, as Alexander stated he would
rather ‘reform from above’.

Reform:
Military – suspended recruitment in 1856, abolished military colonies, made every man over 20 whom
were medically fit liable to conscription, reduced length of service from 25 to 15 years.

Education – promotion of private schools, overhaul of curriculum, set up an inspection system,

allowed Jews into higher education

Political – reduced censorship on publishers and writers, Trial of the 50 in 1877 after the
assassination attempt made in 1866 showed he was still ruling autocratically but slowed down his
radical reforming, 1864 Zemstva, 1870 Dumas set up for towns and cities, introducing of juries to
criminal cases, removed restrictions on Jews, 1866 State Bank placed currency on firmer footing.

Social – Emancipation was controversial, sounded good on paper but in reality the peasants were
worse off as they had 20% less land and the redemption payments were at 6% interest over a period
of 49 years, higher than the typical life expectancy of a peasant. The emancipation was made with the
idea that peasants would migrate to industry and hoped it would reduce the number of peasant
revolts. Emancipation was not a success as peasant riots increased. Freed the Decembrists; political
prisoners, similar to the Provisional Governments amnesty of political prisoners.

Economic – Reutern reforms (1862 – 1878) encouraged foreign investment and expertise,
construction of the Trans-Siberian railway, rail lines grew to over 20,000km.
Alexander was notable for promoting railway construction during the ‘Great Spurt’. Changes in
agriculture came from land reform in the emancipation of the serfs.

Reforms made were the most far reaching since Peter the Great. They couldn’t have worked because
there was unrest and a huge wave of opposition that wasn’t being dealt with. Poll tax increased by
over 80%. There was no popular representation and the reforms simply didn’t go far enough,
although ironically Alexander’s direction of restoring autocracy failed in that this period of leadership
can be seen as the eventual downfall of Tsarism in 1917. It revealed the corrupt nature of tsarism.

Opposition to Alexander II was enormous, peasant violence was increasing, and the Mir was exposed
as a brutal community. The Peoples Will was the biggest opposition and they assassinated Alexander
II in 1881.
In response to opposition Alexander II initially used the Third Section to exile opponents but switched
to a less radical body in the form of the Okhrana. Opposition was not as effective as
Alexander II stuck closely to autocratic principles especially after the attempt on his life in 1866. He
was a willing reformer, but his policies were still carried out with the need to preserve autocracy in
mind.

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Administration - The Tsars used a Council of Ministers as a main link, the Imperial Council of State that
advised the tsar on legal and financial matters, a Committee of Ministers and the Senate.

Peasants – generally abused/neglected but under Alexander II he tried to incorporate them in the
attempt to get Russia back up to speed with the allies in Europe. They made up the bulk of the
population 90% in 1855 to 70% in 1950’s.
Living and working conditions – remained the same – uniformly bleak
Personal and political freedom – 1864 Zemstva, regional local councils, were set up to express views of
rural people at a local level. Members were elected by property qualification and therefore included
landowners, some urban dwellers and wealthier peasants only.

Wars under Alexander II; Crimean War 1853-56 and Russo-Turkish War 1877-78
Crimean War – affected development of government as it emphasized Russia’s backwardness and that
its infrastructure was significantly outdated. Emancipation allowed for greater entrepreneurialism in
agriculture, and a shift in labour from rural to industry. Modernization of the military changed the
recruitment. Zemstva brought democracy but not to be overstated. This war didn’t lead to any major
change in ideology or structure of government, as Alexander’s main aim was to preserve autocracy.
Russo-Turkish War – had the least direct impact on Russian government. Caused major casualties but
gave an indication that some of Alexander’s economic policies were paying dividends. Russian forces
had been slightly successful in the deployment of steam-powered vessels over a bridge built over the
Danube.

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Alexander III 1881-94
When Alexander came to the throne he was faced with the mounting opposition that was encouraged
to grow during his fathers reign. He was determined to ensure and retain autocracy by reversing the
liberal reforms his father had implemented that led to opposition growth. He had to deal with land
ownership issues as a result of the emancipation and demands for more rapid industrialization.
His period is known as the ‘Reaction’ as he reacted to the liberal policies implemented by his father
and he reversed or altered many of them.
He extended repression and expanded Russia’s industrialization programme to turn focus away from
revolution.
This period between 1881–1894 is seen as one of repression of the Russian peoples.
He did introduce more positive measures particularly in the economic nature of Russia, as Sergei
Witte as Finance Minister was a step forward in the attempt to modernize the Russian economy.
A similarity between him and his father was the ideas of reforming in order to modernize Russia.

Reform:
Education – Universities lost abilities to run their own affairs, students subject to non-academic
inspections and lower class children were banned from secondary school. A step back from
attempting to rebuild Russia with the public.

Political – Judges were given advice on clear advice on sentences and verdicts, subjected to bribery,
censorship was increased, and libraries faced restrictions on the books they were allowed to stock.
Peasant representation in the Zemstva was reduced and peasant representatives were appointed
instead of elected. Land Captains had total authority in court cases and administration was drawn
from the gentry. Police were centralized under the control of the Minister of the Interior, which
created a police state so there was an apparatus of terror with the legalization of torture and the
return of the Okhrana.

Social – anti-Semitism returned and Russification promoted Russian culture and maintaining the
control of people in the Empire. Loyalty to the Tsar was critical, 3 pillars of tsarism, Autocracy,
Nationality and Orthodoxy. Russia was the only language that could be taught in the Ukraine and
Poland, anti-Semitism increased with vicious attacks; beatings of men and rapes of women as well as
pogroms. Peasant Land Bank 1883 established to provide cheap loans to help them buy their own
land, this was supposed to encourage peasants to create more for themselves. Land Captains in 1889
were repressive in nature, as they had to ensure peasants were monitored and behaving.

Economic – the economy was already growing under Alexander II however AIII’s industrialization was
rapidly increasing. With an average growth of 8% per annum it was the highest growing rate of any in
the world. Russia became the world’s 4th largest industrial economy under Witte. There was an
increase in annual production due to foreign investments. Abolished Salt Tax, 1881, and Poll Tax,
1886 both of which were burdens to the peasants. There was great success in balancing the budget
and the major achievement of accruing surplus income through the Mendele’ev tariff in 1891.

Opposition – Social Democrats and Social Revolutionaries came to light in the early 1900’s. Because of
industrialization and modernization new forces of opposition were being created, the educated
middle class, industrial work force – were all demanding change. Peasant activists wanted greater
freedoms, rights to land and protections against famines. The Intelligentsia was critical of the Tsarist
system, they questioned the system and read subversive texts such as Marxism. A regime-critical
intelligentsia made more people politically conscious, especially the exploited working class. This
combination brought about the revolution. Populism were the extreme radical intellectuals like the
Narodniks and the Peoples Will whom believed terrorism and assassination were the answers to
gaining a collective Russia – where everything was shared.

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Administration – his appointment of Sergei Witte to Finance Minister made a significant impact upon
the success of his economic reforms. The economy under Alexander III significantly improved,
building upon the positive measures Alexander II had encouraged.

Modernization – a command economy was in existence long before Lenin and Stalin as it was an
economy designed to protect the territorial integrity of the empire in an increasingly threatening
world. The needs of ordinary Russia always came second. The opening of raw materials from Siberia
and foreign investment was controlled by the government – command economy.

Repression – a period of intense authoritarian rule. He believed the Slav people lacked the intelligence
to participate responsibly in a democratic political system. He was willing to reform if it benefitted
Russia as a whole. He used the army to enforce Russification and increased censorship. There was an
increase in secret trials for political offences. Voting rights were reduced from 13,000 to leave only
7,000 eligible. Serfdom was not restored but peasant independence was reduced. University
education was restriction and religious tolerance eroded. The bureaucracy, police and army were
dedicated to enforcing religious, racial and national orthodoxy.

Living and working conditions – 1882 employment of children under 12 was banned and factory
inspectorate was introduced. Working conditions remained dangerous and unhealthy and there were
not enough inspectors. Inspectors had no authority and limited powers to enforce safety guidelines so
they didn’t do much to ensure the safety of workers. Wages were low and employment was insecure
as labourers were hired on a daily basis.
Personal and political freedom – 1883 law banned Old Believers from publicly promoting their beliefs.
Reversed back to before Alexander II in the rise of anti-Semitism to practice Russification.

Famine of 1891 – Adverse weather coupled with the panic selling of grain surpluses to counter the
impact of a new consumer goods tax resulted in food shortages. Peasants sold the surpluses to gain
extra income to pay for increases in tax. Over 350,000 died. This famine was a real test of the reforms
to local governments and famine hit 17 of the 39 provinces. Professor Hutchinson called this the
‘defining event of the decade’ and it was made even worse by the inevitable outbreak of cholera and
typhus the following year. This famine was nothing compared to the terrible famine of 1921 that left
over 5 million people dead under Lenin where the Civil War meant that the railway network had been
taken over by the Bolsheviks.

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Nicholas II 1894-1917
Nicholas II’s domestic policies never seemed to deal effectively with the economic, social and political
challenges Russia faced. Opposition to his rule proliferated and became more organised. To distract
people’s attention from growing domestic issues Nicholas engaged in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-
1905) and committed Russia to taking part in the First World War (1914-1918). Nicholas made a
tactical mistake by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the armed forces in 1915, leaving his
German tsarina in charge who was already disliked among the people. He was forced to abdicate and
the Bolsheviks replaced his regime.
Nicholas continued the policies of industrialization, Russification and control of the nationalities in the
empire. He continued to suppress political discontent until the Russo-Japanese War, which led to the
1905 Revolution. The Revolution was the most serious challenge since 1855 and Nicholas responded
with the October Manifesto. He failed to keep the promises of the manifesto that included promises for
a national parliament. Unlike his predecessors, Nicholas II was forced to proclaim political
concessions in the 1905 manifesto. The October Manifesto was similar to the Emancipation Edict in
1861, which promised more than it offered.
Nicholas II was also an authoritarian ruler like Alexander III, and economic progression was made
under him. He made some political reform but the ‘downfall of tsarism’ can be seen to have sparked
well before his leadership, and the appointment of himself as commander-in-chief subjected him to
widespread criticism.

Reform:
Education – Between 1905-14 primary schools doubled.

Political – Bloody Sunday 9th January 1905 – created after 5 men were sacked, large demonstrations
led by Father Gapon and soldiers opened fire on marchers. 200 killed, 800 wounded. The October
manifesto was deemed too little too late, even though it granted fundamental civil freedoms and gave
the Duma a larger participation. There were an increasing amount of strikes.
1906 the Fundamental Laws stated that ‘no new law can be legally binding without the approval of the
Sovereign Emperor’. This made it clear that no legislation could be passed by the Duma without the
tsar’s consent. First Duma, 1906, lasted 4 months then failed after disagreements over land reform.
Second Duma, 1907, was disbanded after 5 months due to disagreements over land reform and the
management of the army. Third Duma lasted 4 ½ years, 1907 – 1912, which was made up of loyal to
the crown people who helped make major reforms that strengthened the army, improved the judicial
system and introduced state-run insurance schemes for workers. Politicians from the far right
dominated fourth Duma and it infamously put pressure on the Tsar to abdicate.

Social – 1896 – a law standardized the working day to 11 hours and there was an insurance workers
system introduced in 1903 to protect workers against loss of employment due to injury.
Russification continued. In Kishinev in 1903 Jewish houses and businesses were broken into, women
were raped and men were subject to beatings and murders. 47 died. Stolypin’s appointment as Prime
Minister placed him in a key position to incorporate a series of social reforms.
Stolypin’s Land Reforms: All state and crown lands were made available to Peasant Land Banks for
purchase by enterprising peasants, they were allowed to withdraw from the Mir and there was a
declaration of the end to the redistribution of land as the population grew. Almost 2 million had left
the Mir by the outbreak of WW1.
There was a creation of the new social class the ‘kulaks’ that were the wealthier peasants. Between
1906-12 Zemstva expenditure on health, poor relief and agriculture doubled. Stolypin’s ‘Necktie’
vigorous campaign against terrorists and revolutionaries meant that over 1,400 people were executed
between 1905 and 1908.

Economic – Yet again, there was enormous economic progress. In 1897 the rouble was placed on the
gold standard, which resulted in increased foreign investment. This gave impetus to the ‘Great Spurt’
where industrial production increased annually by 7.5%.

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Great Spurt – coal production doubled, iron and steel increased sevenfold, railway track increased
again nearly doubling in 10 years by 1901, foreign capital investment increased annually by 120%,
income earned from industry increased by 119 million roubles in 4 years.
Between 1905 and 1913 savings account numbers doubled to 8,992,000 and the national debt
dropped by over 1 million roubles. Between 1905 – 1914 annual growth was over 6% - surpassing
any other Western country.
However, after WW1 broke out there was inflation, food shortages and military problems as they lost
over 4 million men in the first year.

Summary of reforms – His domestic policies never seemed to deal effectively with the economic, social
and political challenges Russia faced. Opposition to his rule proliferated and became more organised.

Modernization – Stolypin launched his ‘wager on the strong’ to modernize agriculture and increase the
production of food. Ex-serfs could buy themselves out of the peasant commune and consolidate small
strips of land into profit-making farms, helped by loans from the Peasant Land Bank. This led to the
creation of a new social class – the ‘kulaks’. Significant economic improvements occurred again under
Nicholas II.

Opposition – In July 1904 terrorists succeeded in the murder of Plehve, Minister of the Interior, whom
they believed was the man to blame for the war with Japan. The tsar had to respond by lifting some
restrictions on the Zemstva and an extension of press freedom. The Intelligentsia was taking the lead
in pressing the regime to make fundamental reforms.
There were significant peasant protests in the form of riots particularly in 1906 and 1907. They were
invariably prompted by dissatisfaction with food shortages. As an urban proletariat grew and became
more ‘politically conscious’ so did their propensity to go on strike and attend protest meetings. The
most famous strike was probably at the Putilov works in St. Petersburg, which is commonly referred
as the start of the February Revolution in 1917.
Before 1905 trade unions were banned. From 1905-1917 they were allowed to exist but with very
limited powers. Workers councils appeared and they were tolerated.
Response to opposition – Nicholas consistently used the army to control workers’ protests – events of
Bloody Sunday. Worker’s protests achieved little before 1914. Strikes were put down with
considerable force; for example the army killed over 200 protestors during the Lena goldfield strikes
of 1912. Some national minorities were successful in gaining greater degrees of independence and
representation as the Polish National Democratic Party members gained seats in the first and second
Dumas.
Administration – Stolypin; was he a potential saviour of Tsarism? His objective was to prolong and
strengthen tsarism by steady reform, he saw a limited role for the Duma but he failed to save tsarism
because he was assassinated in 1911 and he failed to see the need to reform the current system.
Influence of Rasputin and Tsarina Alexandra.
Autocracy – Nicholas continued the rather severe form of autocratic rule adopted by his father. The
October Manifesto of 1905 and the setting up of the Duma appeared to be a move towards democracy.
The Fundamental Laws of 1906 cushioned the impact of these reforms. These laws reinforced the
notion that the Duma would always be accountable to the tsar. Hence, what appeared to be a major
concession to democracy was in reality ‘supreme autocratic power’ on paper.

Peasants – Conditions were appalling. Reforms made to the Mir, which produced the kulaks. There
was growing discontent and focus on overthrowing tsarism by many as they didn’t see any
improvements in their conditions.
Working and living conditions – In 1910 there were over 100,000 deaths due to cholera, a disease
associated with urbanization, in St. Petersburg. The living standards of the population suffered a rapid
decline after the outbreak of fighting in 1914. Russia enjoyed good harvests in 1914, 1915 and 1916.
Although grain stocks were high during autumn 1916 but the grain was not getting to the people. Due
to this, grain prices shot up and there was little incentive for peasants to sell, so they began to hoard

6
their produce and feed it to the animals. The railway lines broke down communications as it was in
poor conditions and the advancing enemy has captured some of the track so it was impossible to
transport goods. The winter of 1916-1917 was especially harsh as it frozen railway lines and closed
down factories because coal and other fuel resources weren’t readily available.
Personal and political freedom – still limited as there was a return of anti-Semitism although some
moves towards helping peasants come into their own and build themselves into society with the new
commercial farming.

Wars under Nicholas II and their impact/influence – Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905, 1905 Revolution,
First World War 1914-1918
Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 – this war was a disaster for Russia. Russian forces were defeated and
there were many consequences as a result. It was a sign for growing discontent in Russia made by
wartime inflation and essential shortages – similar to that of the Crimean War. Russia responded by
plunging into a revolutionary situation with various manifestations of unrest in urban centres,
countryside and various regions. The tsar responded with the October Manifesto but it offered little
concession. Different from Crimean war as there was little opposition then compared to a substantial
opposition movement. Neither Crimean nor Russo-Turkish war led to revolution. Nicholas II had to lift
restrictions imposed on Zemstva activity in order to retain support, which only led to further
criticism.

1905 Revolution – Historians often cite the following events as evidence of reaction and protest
against Russia’s involvement in the Russo-Japanese war. Tsar managed to survive the revolution as he
made concessions with the army in order to retain their support. He proposed to improve living
conditions. It was mainly due to a lack of unity in the radical parties as to why the tsar survived the
revolution itself. With the October Manifesto and the Duma it seemed like major change was coming,
but the Fundamental Laws made it difficult for any radical legislation to be passed and the Duma
dissolved twice.
After the revolution there was a counterrevolution period when serious repressive methods were
enforced by Stolypin to ensure that a revolution would not happen again. He organised the execution
of over 1,500 people, censored over 1,000 newspapers and exiled peasants to Siberia if they were
deemed enemies of the state. An industrial boom occurred and there was the creation of the well to do
peasant – the kulaks. Stolypin’s necktie divided the revolutionary parties and there were many
internal party struggles.

First World War 1914-1918 – As with the Crimean and Japanese wars, the First World War also went
badly for Russia. Russian casualties totaled around 8 million. Nicholas II incompetency as wartime
leader was partly responsible for his abdication. An event like this was necessary for autocracy to
disappear forever. Social unrest grew to levels never seen before. The scale and degree of
coordination of the military were such that the authorities couldn’t cope and the war resulted in huge
errors of judgment by the tsar. The result of the war was the formation of the Provisional Government.
This can be seen as a positive development and it was only the unnecessary continuation of
involvement in the war that led to the downfall of the Provisional Government.
February Revolution 1917 led to a dramatic change in government as it forced tsar Nicholas II to
abdicate and it signified the extensive opposition that had grown under his leadership.

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Provisional Government March 1917 – October 1917
The February Revolution of 1917 led to a dramatic change in government.
The Provisional Government was made up of politicians who had been elected to the Duma in 1912
and were associated with the ‘old’ guard – the incumbent political elite that represented traditional
interests.
On 2nd March 1917 Provisional Government was established to take over from Nicholas II. The
government was meant to last until a Constituent Assembly could be elected that would have
represented major change in Russian government as the Assembly was to be democratically elected
and would have provided representation for all social groups in Russia.
They started with 8 principles that would underpin their domestic policies; amnesty for political
prisoners, establishment of freedom of speech, preparations for a Constituent Assembly and the
abolition of the secret police.

Reform:
Military – July 1917, Minister of War, Kerensky, launched a new military offensive against Germany to
boost morale of Russians and increase government support. Initially this was a success, but it wasn’t
long before Russia realized it was still losing the war.

Political – Political prisoners were released and flocked to Petrograd and Moscow. During this period
Russia became the freest country in the world. 2 million people joined the trade unions. The
development of opposition was inevitable, with the amnesty of political prisoners and terrorists like
Trotsky, Lenin and Stalin, whom all proved difficult competition and threat to the Provisional
Government. The government promised elections, which they continuously delayed as they tried to
retain power. They were not well organised or a strong legitimate government – if they were elected
they may have been. August 1917 marked the appointment of Kerensky as Prime Minister. The Prime
Minister put an attempt to overthrow him to a halt, but as a result Dual Authority emerged. This was
the workings of both the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet, the workers council,
which is recognized by historians to be a window of opportunity in which revolutionaries were
evidently going to exploit. Soviets were integral to the Bolshevik seizure of power and were integrated
into the communist political system after the October Revolution in 1917.

Social – The immediate granting of freedom of speech, assembly and the right to strike provided
extensively difficult moves to control the consequences of. The government hadn’t been elected and so
there were issues over how the country was governed. The land question became a major issue for the
Provisional Government as it was central to Russian politics concurrently throughout this period. Now
the revolution had occurred, the peasants expected their land and they didn’t get it. Even more
opposition to government resulted because of this lack of authority and reform in this substantial
area. The Peasant Land Bank was now ineffective, and peasants complained and were violent towards
landowners with more than 700 complaints taking place in 1917 alone.

Economic – Of particular concern were economic problems that had resulted from the war, such as
inflation, dwindling resources, lost overseas markets and loss of labour. Inflation levels shot up. There
was a shortage of fuel and raw materials as a result of the war. The railway kept breaking down and
wasn’t reliable in the transportation of materials. The price of grain was raised by 100% to encourage
peasants to sell to boost the economy.

Summary of reforms – There was little time for the Provisional Government to successfully work or
establish significant change, as they were an unelected body that significantly lacked authority. They
entered ‘power’ in a time of economic, social and political crisis and the First World War was having
devastating impacts any leader/government would struggle to deal with successfully.

Opposition – Significant opposition was forming extensively in this short period of time. The freedom
of political prisoners gave rise to revolutionary and terrorism driven parties and influences to grow

8
and mount their offensives on the government. Anti-war feelings were rife among the populace at the
time of the July Days, and feelings intensified when the offensive failed. Discontented workers started
protests, which spiraled into violent riots. 17th July – over 700 people were killed by the order of
troops to fire on the peaceful anti-government demonstrations in Petrograd.
Response to opposition – The ‘July Days’ were when the government responded to growing opposition
with a campaign ordering the repression of revolutionaries, which contradicted their liberal approach
and style of government promises.
Administration – Not representative, largely middle/upper class and liberal in their ideology.

Peasants – Furious about not receiving their land that they felt like they should have got under a
liberal government that promised to be representative. Their land bank became ineffective.
Working and living conditions – In an attempt to reinstate factory discipline the working day was
reduced from 11 hours under Nicholas II to 8 hours.
Personal and political freedom – The Provisional Government attempted to continue the path towards
democracy by planning for a Constituent Assembly. Major civil rights were granted, and freedom was
extensive. The people did have unrealistic expectations of the government as they believed all the
problems could be solved instantly, they were very much mistaken and reacted very negatively in the
form of riots and revolution. There was an immediate abolition of religion, national or social
privileges, which addressed the problems of anti-Semitism and the harsh nature of Russification.

Wars under Provisional Government and their impact/influence – First World War 1914-1918, October
Revolution 1917
First World War 1914-1918 – The war was having a huge impact, discussed in Nicholas II section
October Revolution 1917 – The October Revolution in Petrograd overthrew the Provisional
Government and gave the power to local soviets dominated by the Bolsheviks. As the revolution was
not universally recognized outside of Petrograd, there followed the struggles of the Civil War and the
creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.

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Lenin – October 1917 – 1924
Lenin had a great influence on the revolutionary movement even though he was often in exile.
He played a major role in the Bolshevik seizure of power and the establishment of Communist rule in
Russia.
Revisionist historians have argued that Lenin laid a base for future Communist leaders to build on.
Thus, Stalin and Khrushchev are thought to have simply continued with Leninist ideas and policies
rather than introducing their own style of communism.

Reform:
Political – In January 1918 the Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets agreed to shut down the
Constituent Assembly and announced the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist
Republic (RSFSR). This was to be governed by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the Central
Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars – Sovnarkom. In theory this meant that
people should be represented directly, but these new organs of government were dominated by the
Bolsheviks. In March 1918 Lenin authorized the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended
Russia’s involvement in the First World War – which was a significant move.

Social – Divorce and abortions were permitted. Education was open to workers and there was a drive
for literacy and education. The working class was also greatly encouraged to go to university. The NEP
was introduced as a result of the devastating effects of the famine in 1921. Labour resources were
geared up to the war effort through the militarization of labour. Workers were expected to focus on
producing goods that would be essential to winning the war. Decrees passed included; the decree on
peace, civil marriage and divorce made easier, institute for the protection of mothers and children
formed, commissariat of public education took education out of the hands of the Church. All titles
were abolished – everyone was a ‘comrade’ – signified an attempt to establish equality in Russia a
traditionally socialist principle.

Economic – in 1917 Lenin introduced State Capitalism – completely control of the economy by the
state before a dictatorship of the proletariat could be established. This was reinforced by the Decree
on Land November 1917, the Decree on Workers’ Control November 1918 and the formation of the
Supreme Economic Council December 1917, which controlled the means of production, distribution
and exchange. The New Economic Policy of 1921 was the drastic action made by Lenin to ensure
communists retained power – “let the peasants have their bit of capitalism as long as we keep the
power”. The NEP ended the requisitioning of grain, reintroduced a free market where peasants could
sell extra surplus, legalized small businesses. He eventually put an end to the armed resistance in the
countryside and the immediate crisis was lifted. As the Civil War progress he realized that even
greater centralized control of resources was needed. He therefore used State Capitalism and grain
requisitioning to create War Communism. War Communism included policies such as the
nationalization of large enterprises, denationalization of small enterprises (those who benefited from
this were called Nepmen), a state monopoly of markets for goods and services, and the forced
requisitioning of agricultural produce.
Much of the economic policies were similar to Witte’s move towards a more capitalist style economy,
and some Bolsheviks viewed NEP as a betrayal of the October Revolution.

Summary of reforms – Initially, Lenin’s domestic policies were aimed at confronting opposition and
dealing with the effects of involvement in the First World War. Once he had tackled these issues, he
went to consolidate Bolshevik power and attempted to win acceptance for the new regime from the
rest of the world. This was because the October Revolution in 1917 only held Bolshevik success in
Petrograd, hence the struggles of the Civil War prior to the establishment of the world’s first
communist state.

Opposition – ‘Moderate’ opponents to the Civil War and War Communism in particular emerged within
the Bolsheviks. Lenin maintained party unity by appeasing moderates through the introduction of the

10
NEP. The Civil War saw the greatest opposition to the Communists in the shape of the Whites and
Greens. The Poles also successfully challenged the Red Army during this period. There was less
opposition from national minorities after 1918. This was mainly a result of the 1918, 192, and 1936
constitutions but also due to increased repression.
Response to opposition – Lenin established the Cheka in December 1917 to deal with those who
opposed the Bolshevik seizure of power in October. It became integral to the implementation of War
Communism and the Red Terror during the Civil War. The strongest party in existence after 1917 was
the Bolshevik party, which transformed into the Communist Party. The one-party state was reinforced
by the Ban on Factions of 1921.

Administration – Russia was governed by a form of dictatorship after the October Revolution in 1917.
Lenin implemented his ideology of Marxism-Leninism through propaganda texts such as his own
writings, leading a Bolshevik revolution in 1917, engaging in a civil war, using War Communism to
ensure there was no drift from his close followers or those who he perceived should have supported
Marxism-Leninism. He implemented War Communism with a degree of repression, similar to
Alexander III’s implementation of Russification, they both made use of the secret police to brutally
enforce their policies.

Repression – Control of the army was vital to the survival of government. The army had already been
weakened by the war and the Bolsheviks appealed to the soldiers as they had promised a quick end to
the war. The sovarnkom banned all bourgeois parties and their newspapers through censorship. This
extended into other political parties. New government used the Cheka and loyal troops to prevent
anti-government demonstrations. The Bolsheviks took control of many local soviets. Opposition
groups were either disbanded or went underground. Execution of Nicholas II and his family in 1918.

Peasants – War Communism was extremely unpopular amongst the peasants and they were subject to
repression from the Cheka’s considerable force used to implement it. Peasants opposed War
Communism and collectivization but peasant revolts were ruthlessly put down by communists.
Wealthier peasants became a particular target.

Working and living conditions – From the end of 1917 there was improvement with respect to a
shortening of working hours, the introduction of a workers’ insurance system and bonus schemes, but
overall the impression is that the proletariat were treated in a similar way to the peasants. The Decree
on Land made by the Bolsheviks in 1917 removed housing in the cities from private owners and
committees began to relocate poor families into the houses of the wealthy.
1921 famine: Terrible winters, severe droughts, and destruction of transport infrastructures due to
the Civil War combined to create a famine in which over 5 million people died. The problem was made
worse by Lenin’s slowness in responding to the crisis and his reluctance to accept international aid.

Personal and political freedom – National minorities had mixed fortunes in achieving their aims after
1917. Poland and Finland gained full independence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk although Poland
reverted to becoming a satellite state after the end of the Second World War. Georgia gained
temporary independence in 1920. The Bolsheviks passed several decrees in the first few weeks after
the revolution, which had an impact upon the people. The decree on peace, divorce, civil marriage,
education, abolition of titles and the institute for mothers and children. The NEP changed the
perspective of the kulaks and they were seen as the more ‘cultured and educated’ peasants. They
seemed to grow in numbers and were identified as those who owned ‘more than 3 cows’. They were
still persecuted, disenfranchised and their children weren’t allowed to attend schools. During the Civil
War churches were closed and their property was confiscated.

Wars under Lenin and their impact/influence – Civil War 1917-21

Civil War 1917-21 -
The Bolsheviks won the civil war, but it was largely a war of their own making.

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If they hadn’t insisted on a one party dictatorship and included other socialist groups into a collation
there wouldn’t have been a war on such a large scale.
A combination of ruthless propaganda and support from the industrial proletariat and the soldiers in
the Red Army enabled the communists to win the war.
The Whites were unnumbered and divided.
The end of 1921 signified peace had been restored and the communists had won a victory. The
communists found that they had lost support of the people.
They managed to win because they dominated central Russia, their industry and railways.

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After Lenin’s death 1924 - 1929
There was initially much debate over whether:
The NEP should continue, there should be a more openly democratic form of government,
Communism should be confined to Russia, ‘socialism in one country’, as favoured by Stalin, or be
spread across the world, ‘permanent revolution’, as favoured by Trotsky.
Stalin managed to oppose Trotsky by forming a pact with Zinoviev and Kamenev whom Stalin
removed and replaced them with ‘Stalinists’.

Stalin 1928 – 1953

Joseph Stalin is usually associated with repression on a scale that had never been witnessed in Russia
before.
Generally there was a move towards totalitarian rule, and the use of the cult of personality to
consolidate power. But Stalin is also given credit for industrializing Russia to such a degree that it was
able to defeat Nazi Germany in the Second World War.
Despite signs from 1850 onwards the Russian Industrial Revolution did not really begin until the
1930’s when Stalin implemented his Five Year Plans.

Reform:
Political – Fear and terror through the use of repressive bodies such as the OGPU and the NKVD. Show
trials took place in August 1936: the trial of the 16 who were in touch with Trotsky, all were found
guilty and shot. Membership of the party was the only was individuals could hope to have any
influence on the policies of government, either at local or national level. 1921 Chistka the first major
purge took place, where ¼ of party members were expelled. It was one of the methods Stalin used to
rid himself of critics, potential rivals and their supporters. 1937 Yezhovschina ‘The Great Purge’
started to rid those who supported Trotsky. 2/3 of senior officials were shot or arrested and the army
and secret police were given targets of how many people they should arrest. In 1938 alone, 329,000
were killed. Between 1936 and 1938, the Great Terror, it can be estimated that Stalin could have been
responsible for the deaths of over ½ a million people. Stalin’s determination alone built the USSR into
a modern state. The USSR emerged victorious from the ‘Great War for the Fatherland’ and became a
World Power.

Social – Dekulakisation, attacks on religion, practicing of anti-Semitism. The Great Terror showed that
between 1936 and 1938 life in Stalinist Russia was dominated by the Great Terror and the use of
show trials and purges to instill fear in the Russian people. The secret police, NKVD, were involved in
purging certain groups. It is estimated that throughout Stalin’s rule over 40 million people were sent
to forced labour camps, the gulags. The Great Terror was seen to have occurred because in Stalin’s
eyes Russia needed another revolution to transform itself into the preferred industrial state, what he
called ‘the Great Turn’.

Economic – Vesenkha was set up to plan the economy in 1917. In 1921 Vesenkha set up Gosplan to
collect statistics. Gosplan also produced a plan to industrialize Russia. At the end of the 1920’s these
two organisations produced ambitious targets for the economy. They introduced Collectivization,
which brought socialism to the countryside. The collectivization of agriculture started in 1929.
Smaller farms were brought together to form bigger communal farm units. The aim was to increase
food production to serve the needs of a growing industrial proletariat. By 1941 it was claimed that
98% of all peasant households worked on collectives. Propaganda in the form of censorship, like the
Stakhanovite movement, bolstered support their rule.

The Five Year Plans – From 1932 Stalin demanded that workers operated to a ten to twelve hour
working day to fulfill the requirements of his plans.
As a result of the alleged success of the first Five Year Plan, the average working day was shortened to
7 hours in 1939. Bonus schemes were organised and the Stakhanovite movement popularized.

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From 1941 workers were under pressure to meet demands of the Russian war effort. The length of
the working day increased and workers were forced to forgo holidays.
These plans marked centralized planning that aimed for economic autarky – a policy of economic self-
sufficiency
The first Five Year Plan focused on heavy industries, coal, iron, steel, and electricity to lay the
foundations for future industrial growth. The targets set were unbelievably high and unrealistic, but
remarkable results were achieved.
The second Five Year Plan gave heavy industry top priority and help develop railways and new
industries of chemicals.
Annual growth was around 5-6% higher than westerners and industry was now on a massive scale.
1942 – production of tanks and planes exceeded the figures achieved in 1941.

Summary of reforms – There were 2 main strands to Stalin’s ideology:

The implementation of a command economy based on centralized planning, and collectivization so
that the ‘superstructure’ of society could be changed. The personalization of the ‘superstructure’ so
that total control of the economy, society and politics was in the hands of Stalin, which was to be
achieved through the use of propaganda, increased censorship, repression of opposition on an
extreme scale and the cult of personality.

Opposition – Continuing practice of anti-Semitism since the Jews had been placed in an artificial
settlement, the Pale of Settlement, since the time of Alexander II and continued to be treated harshly,
as shown by the establishment of further ‘special’ settlements and the Doctors’ Plot of 1952. This
involved the execution of 15 Jewish leaders who had been accused of being subversive. In-fighting
within parties still occurred, but it caused splits that meant opposition was not effective at all. This
marked the beginning of purges of ‘inside’ opposition that lasted until the Second World War.
Workers were less prone to oppose the Communists, although as shown by the Novocherkassk
protest of 1962, they would still rebel if they felt they were unjustly treated. Overall there was a
massive decrease in the amount of opposition to the totalitarian rule of Stalin.
Response to opposition – Show trials, purges, Great Terror, propaganda, open trials. Consistently used
repressive methods to ensure no opposition would become strong enough or courageous enough to
try to break the administration under Stalin.

Administration – There are a number of possible explanations as to why Stalin moved Russia away
from a Lenin-style dictatorship to totalitarianism. He exploited circumstances to implement a
practical solution to Russia’s problems. For his Five Year Plans and collectivization to be successful he
wouldn’t allow anyone to question their appropriateness. Stalin was also a megalomaniac and so he
did whatever was needed to gain and maintain power to fuel his desire to feel important. He
intentionally built on a base laid by Lenin as he believed Lenin would have moved to totalitarianism if
he didn’t die.

Why was industrialization so important? – Stalin believed it was the only way to achieve socialism, he
was keen to come out of Lenin’s shadow, wanted to make sure Russia could defend itself, to show how
communism could encourage and improve the country.

Peasants – Stalin was interested in improving the provision of education. Compulsory primary school
attendance for 7 years, 1930, the scrapping of fees, 1939, and the creation of correspondence courses
were introduced. In 1931, 2.5 million pupils attended secondary schools, compared with 6.9 million
by 1932. Adult education numbers also rose and illiteracy fell to 4% in males and 18% in females. In
1932 the average real pay was only half of what it had been at the end of the NEP due to rising
inflation. Peasants joined the working class but standard of living suggested that the peasants were
worse off than their grandparents were.

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Working and living conditions – As a result of collectivization the peasants suffered from poor working
and living conditions and didn’t always get the food that they had farmed. There were still food
shortages as the dreadful 1932-1934 famine showed. This famine is considered to be a result of the
harsh implementation of collectivization rather than natural causes, similarly to the famine of 1921.
Overcrowding was on a similar scale to that of during the time of the Tsars. Living space had fallen
and the standard of living was appalling. The Stalinist policy was to allocate space rather than rooms
to individuals and families, especially with the new high rise tenements. Overcrowding once more
became the norm. Under Stalin there was some change in the way peasants were housed. ‘Special’
housing blocks were constructed on the periphery of the collective farms. However, kulaks were often
allocated the worst housing.

Personal and political freedom – Those who opposed collectivization were eradicated, most notably
the kulaks. This dekulakisation disrupted production and led to some migration. There were almost 3
million people in gulags by 1939. There was an attack on religion as they believed religion was
invented to distract the poor and the oppressed. There efforts failed as in 1937 census, 57% Russians
were still believers in multiple religions. Initially, divorce was cheap, abortion was legal and there was
childcare in the workplace. However, the 1936 government introduced new measures under the 1936
constitution, which made abortion illegal, divorce harder, banned homosexuality and produced a
reward system to mothers of more than 6 children. This 1936 constitution was supposed to present
more representation and autonomy however it was still dominated by multiple members of the
Communist party. The Second World War resulted in more than 25 million Russians being made
homeless, a problem which was hardly addressed until after Stalin’s death.

1932-1934 famine – The famine that occurred at this time was similar to that of 1921. However,
suffering was made worse by the repression that was being heaped on the people by Stalin. For
example, the death penalty was imposed on people stealing grain, even though legally they may have
owned it.

Wars under Stalin and their impact/influence – The Great Patriotic War 1941-1945 (also the Second
World War) and the initial stages of the Cold War 1947 - 1991
The Second World War 1941-1945 – Although the war had significant social and economic effects, the
political impact was more limited.
The structure of government remained relatively stable and Stalin assumed the role of Supreme
Commander of the Military (unlike Nicholas II’s failure as commander-in-chief), which gave him
absolute control of the military and the supplying factories.
The war had an impact on Soviet foreign relations as Russia confirmed claims to territorial frontiers
established under the Nazi-Soviet Pact. The USSR gained responsibility for governing more people and
had a greater influence over other nations, especially in Eastern Europe. The issues over what should
happen after the war held the greatest difficulty to the Soviet leaders as Germany and Berlin were to
be divided and occupied by the four main allies in Europe, in which Russia occupied the eastern zones.

The Cold War 1947 – 1953 (until Khrushchev came to power) – The Cold war involved simmering
tension between the USSR and the West, which stopped short of actual physical combat.
It didn’t have much effect on government under Stalin as there was only simmering tension between
the USSR and the West.

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Khrushchev 1953 – 1964
Khrushchev was a loyal and committed communist and was intent on proving that Stalinism had been
an aberration. He wanted to show that Stalin had veered away from true Communist principles. He
therefore denounced Stalin before moving on to promise a programme of economic and social
reforms designed to raise living standards to levels not experienced before.

Reform:
Political – At the Twentieth Party Congress Khrushchev launched a verbal attack on Stalinism. This
was the start of de-Stalinization, an ongoing attempt to erase the legacy of Stalin. What emerged after
Stalin was a government of collective leadership but one influenced mainly by Khrushchev. By 1956
Khrushchev had formulated a plan to move the Soviet Union away from Stalinism. He said it was not
Lenin’s wish that Stalin became leader, Stalin hadn’t prepared Russia adequately for the Second World
War, and he had committed crimes against the people. They released political prisoners from gulags,
like Alexander II did in releasing the Decembrists, relaxed censorship and attempted to remove the
cult of personality. He built the Berlin Wall in 1961.

Social – Khrushchev was something of a modernizer in the field of education as he promoted free
education for all based on the polytechnic model. Khrushchev introduced his Virgin Land Scheme,
which aimed to increase the amount of land to be cultivated and hence the amounts of cereals
produced. The idea was similar to that of Stolypin’s ‘wager on the strong’, which had been disrupted
by War Communism, the NEP, collectivization and dekulakisation. The Virgin Land Scheme succeeded
in increasing production of grain and alleviating food shortages in the short term. Contributed to over
50% of the total harvest in 1956, and by 1965 an extra 36 million hectares were cultivated.

Economic – Part of de-Stalinization involved a decentralizing of control over the Russian economy.
Also, by the mid-1950’s the Russian leadership was under increasing pressure to match the USA as a
superpower. Part of this was reflected in the space race; in 1957 Russia launched its first spacecraft;
Sputnik I. Amount of acreage given over to wheat production rose from 96 million in 1950 to 165
million in 1964. However, a lack of attention to crop rotation and soil erosion meant a fall in soil
fertility and a leveling off of gains in productivity, Khrushchev also continued Stalin’s policy of
centralized economic planning by introducing his own five year plans. Food prices were raised to
increase production. Peasants could sell and produce from private plots more easily. The 1959 Seven
Year Plan placed heavy emphasis on power stations and consumer goods. Targets were set centrally
with little sensitivity to the nations or industry’s real needs. Productivity was very low, and quality
was poor. Coal (millions of tons) went from 391 in 1955, to 578 in 1965. Electricity (billion kWh) went
from 170 in 1955, to 507 in 1965.

Summary of reforms – Unfortunately the financial cost of competing in the Cold War proved a barrier
to the successful implementation of Khrushchev’s policies. He also faced internal opposition from
those who believed that he was too liberal. Nevertheless, he carried on with his key plans which were
to release political prisoners, improve the social infrastructure, develop light and consumer
industries, and increase the production of food to avoid famine. This period witnessed the greatest
strain on domestic policy. Financial resources were needed for continued involvement in both the
space race and the nuclear arms race.

Opposition – There were protests over Khrushchev’s economic policies such as the worker’s riots in
Novocherkassk as people expected dramatic change. The Hungarian Uprising 1956.
Response to opposition – Khrushchev continued to use physical force to repress opposition, as was
shown by his order to send tanks to Hungary in 1956 to deal with the Nagy regime. Hungarian
Uprising resulted in Khrushchev sending 1,000 tanks to quash anti-communist demonstrations and
4,000 Hungarians were killed fighting the Russians.
Administration – From the start Khrushchev wanted to give the impression that a less repressive
government was being installed. He reorganized the policing system into the MVD and KGB; the

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former were to deal with ordinary criminal cases and the latter with intelligence work. Political
prisoners were released and the gulags started to disappear due to de-Stalinization. De-Stalinization
was not a move away from authoritarian rule.

Peasants – Khrushchev ordered the construction of self-contained ‘agro-towns’, towns focused on

agricultural production, for peasants but again they were built cheaply and quickly, and subsequently
were of a poor standard. Pensions and benefits increased. The diet of Russians improved
considerably. Khrushchev introduced a minimum wage and a standard of living improved. Between
1960-1965 the average household income grew by over 3% a year.
Working and living conditions – The housing stock doubled and the principles of communal living were
abandoned. Unfortunately the emergence of housing co-operatives seemed to benefit some more than
others. Housing co-operatives were organisations that were given first pickings over new state
housing as long as they could meet government set prices. After 1958 the working day stabilized at 7
hours. Conditions improved as Khrushchev wanted Russia to move on from the oppressive years of
rule by Stalin. He improved the standard of living.
Personal and political freedom – Khrushchev also disregarded religion. In 1961 the 22nd Congress
published a new ‘moral code’, which to all intents and purposes was meant to replace the Bible.
Greater westernization. Jazz and pop were allowed. He helped reconstruct industry and agriculture.
However, censorship still remained. He wouldn’t allow modern art, only socialist realism – the
‘official’ style of art and literature that reflected the heroic efforts of workers and peasants.

Wars under Khrushchev and their impact/influence – The Cold War 1947-1991
The Cold War, from 1953 – The Cold War had prompted an arms race, which required high levels of
investment in heavy industry. This prevented more investment in consumer products and caused
unrest, which was ruthlessly dealt with, such as the Novocherkassk worker protests in 1962.
A number of situations such as the Cuban Missile Crisis nearly caused a war between the USSR and the
USA. These incidents demonstrated that the Soviets were willing to both confront the Western
countries and compromise. Cuban Missile Crisis, September 1962 – January 1963, Khrushchev had
planted ballistic missiles in Cuba, which the US found and Kennedy denounced these actions.
Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the sites. It can be recognized that the Soviet government used this
confrontation to gain patriotic support for its actions.

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