Unit 3

Europe from 1850-1871

a. Crimean War (1853-56), Treaty of Paris (30 March 1856) and the
Declaration of Paris (15 April 1856)

1. Crimean War (1853-56):

Background:
The Crimean War was a conflict that originated from tensions between the Russian Empire
and the Ottoman Empire, exacerbated by disputes over religious rights and territorial claims
in the Holy Land and the Balkans. Additionally, Russia's desire to expand its influence in the
Black Sea region and protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire contributed to the
outbreak of war.

Major Causes:
1. Eastern Question: The Eastern Question referred to the power struggle over control of
territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly the Ottoman Empire. Russia sought to
assert itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians in the region, challenging the dominance
of the Ottoman Empire and other European powers.
2. Holy Places Dispute: The dispute over religious rights and access to holy sites in
Jerusalem and other areas of the Holy Land heightened tensions between Russia and the
Ottoman Empire, leading to diplomatic clashes and military mobilizations.
3. Russian Expansionism: Russia's territorial ambitions in the Balkans and the Black Sea
region threatened the balance of power in Europe, prompting concerns among other
European powers, particularly Britain and France.

Key Events:
1. Siege of Sevastopol: The Siege of Sevastopol was a prolonged military campaign in which
British, French, and Ottoman forces besieged the Russian port of Sevastopol, a key strategic
stronghold in Crimea. The siege lasted for nearly a year and resulted in heavy casualties on
both sides.
2. Battle of Balaclava: The Battle of Balaclava, fought on October 25, 1854, was one of the
major engagements of the Crimean War. It is best known for the Charge of the Light Brigade,
a disastrous cavalry charge by British forces immortalized in Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem.
3. Treaty of Paris: The Treaty of Paris, signed on March 30, 1856, brought an end to the
Crimean War. It was negotiated by representatives of Russia, Britain, France, Sardinia, and
the Ottoman Empire.

Consequences:
1. Demilitarization of the Black Sea: One of the key provisions of the Treaty of Paris was the
demilitarization of the Black Sea, which restricted the presence of warships and fortifications
in the region, thus limiting Russia's military influence.
2. Territorial Integrity of the Ottoman Empire: The treaty reaffirmed the territorial integrity and
political independence of the Ottoman Empire, securing its sovereignty over its European
territories.
3. Impact on Russian Politics: The Crimean War exposed the weaknesses of the Russian
Empire, prompting Tsar Alexander II to undertake a series of reforms aimed at modernizing
and strengthening the country.

2. Declaration of Paris (15 April 1856):

Background:
The Declaration of Paris was a diplomatic agreement signed by representatives of several
European powers, including Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. It aimed to
establish principles of international law governing naval warfare and maritime commerce.

Key Provisions:
1. Prohibition of Privateering: The declaration prohibited the use of privateers—privately
owned vessels authorized by a government to engage in maritime warfare—during armed
conflict.
2. Protection of Neutral Shipping: The declaration affirmed the protection of neutral shipping
in times of war, prohibiting the seizure of neutral vessels and cargoes unless they were
contraband of war.
3. Treatment of Blockade: The declaration established guidelines for the conduct of naval
blockades, requiring them to be effective to be recognized under international law.
4. Use of Red Cross Emblem: The declaration recognized the Red Cross emblem as a
symbol of protection for medical personnel, facilities, and transports engaged in
humanitarian activities during armed conflict.

Significance:
1. Humanitarian Principles: The Declaration of Paris represented a significant advancement
in the development of international humanitarian law, establishing principles aimed at
protecting civilians, medical personnel, and neutral parties during wartime.
2. Standardization of Naval Warfare: By establishing rules and regulations governing naval
warfare, the declaration helped to standardize the conduct of maritime operations and
mitigate the impact of armed conflict on civilian populations and neutral parties.
3. Influence on Subsequent Treaties: The principles outlined in the Declaration of Paris laid
the groundwork for subsequent treaties and conventions aimed at regulating armed conflict
and promoting peace and security on the high seas.

In summary, the Crimean War and the subsequent treaties of Paris and declaration of Paris
represented pivotal moments in European history, shaping the balance of power in the
region, influencing international relations, and advancing the development of international
law and diplomacy.
 b. Russia under Alexander II (1855-1881) and the Emancipation of
Serfs in 1861

1. Russia under Alexander II (1855-1881):

Background:
Alexander II ascended to the throne of Russia in 1855 following the death of his father, Tsar
Nicholas I. His reign was marked by significant political, social, and economic reforms aimed
at modernizing and liberalizing Russian society.

Key Reforms:

a. Emancipation of Serfs (1861):

The Emancipation of Serfs was one of Alexander II's most significant reforms, aimed at
abolishing the institution of serfdom, which had long been a cornerstone of the Russian
feudal system.

b. Judicial and Legal Reforms:

Alexander II implemented extensive judicial and legal reforms, including the establishment of
a system of independent courts, the introduction of trial by jury, and the codification of
Russian law.

c. Military Reforms:
Alexander undertook military reforms to modernize the Russian army, including the abolition
of the practice of conscripting serfs into the military, the reorganization of the army's
administrative structure, and the introduction of modern weaponry and tactics.

d. Local Government Reforms:

Alexander introduced local government reforms aimed at decentralizing power and granting
greater autonomy to regional and municipal authorities. This included the establishment of
elected local assemblies (zemstvos) and the expansion of local self-government.

e. Education Reforms:
Alexander implemented educational reforms aimed at expanding access to education and
promoting literacy among the Russian population. This included the establishment of a
network of primary schools and the liberalization of educational curricula.

2. Emancipation of Serfs in 1861:

Background:
The Emancipation of Serfs was a landmark reform implemented by Alexander II in 1861,
aimed at abolishing the system of serfdom, which had long been a central feature of Russian
society.

Causes of Serf Emancipation:

1. Social Inequities: Serfdom was characterized by widespread poverty, exploitation, and
social inequality, with serfs bound to the land and subject to the arbitrary rule of their
landlords.
2. Economic Stagnation: The feudal system hindered economic development and
modernization in Russia, as serfs were unable to freely engage in trade, commerce, or other
forms of economic activity.
3. Pressure for Reform: The growing discontent among the peasantry, combined with the
need to modernize Russia and maintain its competitiveness on the international stage,
prompted Alexander II to undertake the reform.

Key Provisions of the Emancipation Edict:

1. Personal Freedom: The Emancipation Edict granted serfs personal freedom, allowing
them to marry without their landlord's consent, own property, and pursue occupations of their
choosing.
2. Land Redistribution: Serfs were granted land allotments, though the size and quality of
these allotments varied widely. Land was transferred from landlords to peasants, though
peasants were often required to pay redemption payments to compensate landlords for the
loss of their property rights.
3. Obligations to Landlords: Despite gaining freedom, serfs were still required to fulfill certain
obligations to their former landlords, including payment of redemption payments, taxes, and
various forms of labor service.

Consequences of Serf Emancipation:

1. Social Transformation: The Emancipation of Serfs brought about a profound social
transformation in Russia, freeing millions of individuals from the bonds of serfdom and laying
the groundwork for a more egalitarian society.
2. Economic Changes: The reform led to significant changes in Russia's agrarian economy,
as former serfs gained access to land and sought to establish themselves as independent
farmers. However, the redistribution of land was often inadequate, leading to widespread
land hunger and poverty among peasants.
3. Political Implications: The Emancipation of Serfs had broader political implications, as it
sparked demands for further reforms and greater political participation among the Russian
population. However, the reform fell short of creating a truly democratic society, as political
power remained concentrated in the hands of the autocratic Tsar and the ruling elite.

Legacy of Alexander II:

Alexander II's reign is remembered as a period of significant reform and modernization in
Russia. While his reforms brought about important changes in Russian society, they also
faced numerous challenges and limitations. Ultimately, Alexander II's assassination in 1881
signaled the end of an era of reform and ushered in a period of increased repression and
political reaction under his successors. Nonetheless, the Emancipation of Serfs remains a
defining moment in Russian history, symbolizing the struggle for freedom, equality, and
social justice.
 c. The Unification of Italy, Geneva Convention (1864)

1. The Unification of Italy:

Background:
During the 19th century, Italy was fragmented into various states and territories, each ruled
by different foreign powers or local rulers. The Italian Peninsula was divided into several
regions, including the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, the Papal States, the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, and numerous smaller duchies and principalities. The desire for national unity
and independence from foreign domination fueled the Italian unification movement.

Key Figures:

a. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882):

Garibaldi was an Italian nationalist and revolutionary leader who played a central role in the
unification of Italy. He led the Expedition of the Thousand, a volunteer army that fought to
liberate southern Italy from Bourbon rule. Garibaldi's military campaigns and charismatic
leadership made him a symbol of the Italian unification movement.

b. Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861):

Cavour was the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont and a key architect of
Italian unification. He pursued a policy of realpolitik, forming alliances with other European
powers and using diplomacy to advance the cause of Italian unity. Cavour orchestrated the
diplomatic and military maneuvers that led to the annexation of central and northern Italy into
the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.

c. Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872):

Mazzini was an Italian patriot, revolutionary, and founder of the secret society Young Italy.
He advocated for the creation of a unified Italian republic based on democratic principles.
While Mazzini's ideas inspired many in the Italian unification movement, his vision of a
republican Italy clashed with the monarchist ambitions of figures like Cavour and Garibaldi.

Key Events

a. Risorgimento (Italian Unification Movement):

The Risorgimento, meaning "resurgence" or "resurrection," was the Italian nationalist
movement that aimed to unify Italy and establish a single, independent nation-state. The
Risorgimento was characterized by a series of political upheavals, military conflicts, and
diplomatic maneuvers.

b. Wars of Independence:
The Wars of Independence were a series of military conflicts fought between Italian
nationalists and foreign powers or ruling dynasties. These wars included the First Italian War
of Independence (1848-1849), the Second Italian War of Independence (1859), and the
Expedition of the Thousand (1860). These conflicts resulted in the liberation and annexation
of various Italian territories into the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.
c. Austro-Sardinian War (1859):
The Austro-Sardinian War, also known as the Second Italian War of Independence, was
fought between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, with support
from France. The war resulted in the defeat of Austria and the cession of Lombardy to
Sardinia-Piedmont, marking a significant step towards Italian unification.

d. Expedition of the Thousand (1860):

The Expedition of the Thousand was a military campaign led by Giuseppe Garibaldi to
liberate southern Italy from Bourbon rule. Garibaldi and his volunteer army landed in Sicily
and swiftly conquered the island before marching northward to Naples. The success of the
Expedition of the Thousand further weakened the Bourbon regime and paved the way for the
unification of Italy.

e. Annexation of Venetia and Rome:

The final stages of Italian unification involved the annexation of Venetia and Rome into the
Kingdom of Italy. Venetia was annexed in 1866 following the Austro-Prussian War, while
Rome was annexed in 1870 after the withdrawal of French troops protecting the Papal
States.

2. Geneva Convention of 1864:

Background:
The Geneva Convention of 1864 was an international treaty aimed at improving the
treatment of wounded soldiers and prisoners of war during armed conflict. It was inspired by
the efforts of Henry Dunant, a Swiss humanitarian activist who witnessed the suffering of
wounded soldiers at the Battle of Solferino in 1859.

Key Provisions:
1. Protection of Wounded Soldiers: The convention established principles of
humanitarian law requiring the humane treatment and medical care of wounded soldiers on
the battlefield.
2. Neutrality of Medical Personnel: The convention recognized the neutrality of medical
personnel and facilities, ensuring their protection from attack and allowing them to provide
medical assistance to all wounded soldiers regardless of their nationality.
3. Use of Red Cross Emblem: The convention adopted the Red Cross emblem as a symbol
of protection for medical personnel, facilities, and transports engaged in humanitarian
activities during armed conflict. The emblem signaled to combatants that medical personnel
were non-combatants and should be respected and protected.

Significance:
1. Humanitarian Principles The Geneva Convention of 1864 represented a significant
advancement in the development of international humanitarian law, establishing principles
aimed at protecting the rights and dignity of individuals affected by armed conflict.
2. Standardization of MBy establishing rules and regulations governing the treatment of
wounded soldiers, the convention helped to standardize the provision of medical care on the
battlefield and mitigate the suffering of combatants.
3. Influence on Future Conventions: The principles outlined in the Geneva Convention of
1864 laid the groundwork for subsequent treaties and conventions aimed at regulating
armed conflict and promoting peace and security on the international stage.

In summary, the Unification of Italy was a complex and multifaceted process that involved
the efforts of numerous individuals, including Garibaldi, Cavour, and Mazzini, as well as a
series of political, military, and diplomatic events. The Geneva Convention of 1864,
meanwhile, represented a significant milestone in the development of international
humanitarian law, establishing principles aimed at protecting the rights and dignity of
individuals affected by armed conflict. Together, these developments shaped the course of
European history and contributed to the advancement of humanitarian principles and
international cooperation.

d. The Unification of Germany

1. The Unification of Germany:

Background:
During the 19th century, Germany was fragmented into numerous independent states and
territories, each with its own ruler and government. The German Confederation, established
in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, comprised 39 states, including Prussia and Austria. The
desire for national unity and the rise of German nationalism fueled the movement for
German unification.

Key Figures:

a. Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898):

Bismarck, a Prussian statesman and diplomat, played a central role in the unification of
Germany. Known as the "Iron Chancellor," Bismarck pursued a policy of realpolitik, using
diplomacy, military force, and alliances to achieve his goals. He served as the chief architect
of German unification and became the first Chancellor of the German Empire in 1871.

b. Wilhelm I (1797-1888):
Wilhelm I, King of Prussia and later Emperor of Germany, played a crucial role in the
unification process. His close collaboration with Bismarck and his support for military reforms
helped pave the way for German unity. Wilhelm's proclamation as Emperor in 1871 marked
the official establishment of the German Empire.

c. Helmuth von Moltke (1800-1891):

Moltke, a Prussian military strategist and Chief of the Prussian General Staff, played a key
role in the military campaigns that led to German unification. His tactical brilliance and
organizational skills contributed to Prussia's victories in the wars against Denmark, Austria,
and France.

Key Events:
a. Danish War (1864):
The Danish War, also known as the First Schleswig War, was fought between Prussia and
Austria on one side and Denmark on the other. The conflict arose from disputes over the
status of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia and Austria emerged victorious,
leading to the annexation of Schleswig and Holstein by Prussia.

b. Austro-Prussian War (1866):

The Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks' War, was fought between
Prussia and Austria over the leadership of the German Confederation. Bismarck engineered
a diplomatic crisis that provoked Austria into declaring war on Prussia. The Prussian army,
led by Moltke, achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgrätz, leading to the
dissolution of the German Confederation and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs.

c. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71):

The Franco-Prussian War was the final conflict that led to the unification of Germany.
Bismarck manipulated tensions between France and Prussia to provoke a war, which he
hoped would rally the southern German states to Prussia's side. The Prussian army,
supported by its allies, achieved a series of victories, culminating in the capture of Napoleon
III at the Battle of Sedan. The war ended with the capture of Paris and the establishment of
the German Empire.

Factors Contributing to Unification:

a. Prussian Leadership:
Prussia emerged as the driving force behind German unification, thanks to its strong military,
efficient bureaucracy, and dynamic leadership under figures like Bismarck and Wilhelm I.

b. Realpolitik and Diplomacy:

Bismarck's policy of realpolitik, characterized by pragmatism and opportunism, allowed
Prussia to exploit diplomatic opportunities and manipulate rivalries to achieve its goals.

c. Military Victories:
Prussia's military victories in the Danish War, Austro-Prussian War, and Franco-Prussian
War demonstrated its military superiority and consolidated its position as the dominant power
in Germany.

d. Nationalist Sentiment:
The rise of German nationalism and the desire for national unity inspired widespread support
for the unification movement, particularly among the middle classes, intellectuals, and liberal
reformers.

e. Economic Integration:
The growth of industry, trade, and transportation networks facilitated economic integration
and fostered a sense of shared economic interests among the German states.

f. Decline of Austrian Influence:

The defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War and its subsequent exclusion from German
affairs weakened its influence in the German states and paved the way for Prussian
hegemony.

g. External Pressures:
External pressures, such as the threat of French intervention and the shifting balance of
power in Europe, created opportunities for Prussia to assert its dominance and pursue its
ambitions for German unification.

In summary, the Unification of Germany was a complex and multifaceted process that
involved the efforts of numerous individuals, including Bismarck, Wilhelm I, and Moltke, as
well as a series of political, military, and diplomatic events. Through a combination of
realpolitik, military victories, and nationalist sentiment, Prussia succeeded in uniting the
German states and establishing the German Empire in 1871, fundamentally reshaping the
political landscape of Europe.