Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

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Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/geomorphology

From landform inventories to landscape evolution? - Karst development in

the Central Styrian Karst (Austria)
C. Bauer a, *, T. Wagner b
a
Department of Geography and Regional Science, University of Graz, Heinrichstraße 36, A-8010 Graz, Austria
b
Department of Earth Sciences, NAWI Graz Geocenter, University of Graz, Heinrichstraße 26, A-8010 Graz, Austria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the Central Styrian Karst (CSK, Styria, Austria) 1158 karst landforms were used to obtain a better under­
Landform inventory standing of the landscape evolution in this region. An automatically delineated doline inventory was combined
Landscape evolution with an existing cave inventory to investigate surface and subsurface karst landforms in relation to their
Doline
elevation above the local base level at the transition zone between the Eastern Alps and the Pannonian Basin. The
Cave
Karst
landform entities analysed consist of 51 % dolines and 49 % caves and are related to various stages of landform
evolution and thus ages.
The CSK was ice-free during glacial times and therefore allow for a much longer preservation of surface
landforms compared to landforms that were reshaped during glaciations. Nevertheless, weathering and down­
wasting do re-shape and even may lead to the disappearance of surface landforms (i.e., dolines); however,
subsurface landforms (i.e., caves), if accessible, might preserve information about older geomorphological stages.
An old, a mature, and a young stage of landform evolution can be distinguished in the CSK and be related to
planation surfaces preserved in the area, presumably older than five Ma. The chosen approach is likely applicable
for other areas in the world too by implying karstification over million years' time scale.
Besides those regional implications, there are local (neo-) tectonic inferences derived from the analyses that
might explain some discrepancies in correlations of levels and planation surfaces, but requiring further more
detailed investigations. The automatic doline delineation in the forested karst of the CSK made an area not yet
mentioned in the literature become apparent.
With an increasing availability of high-resolution digital elevation models, remote-sensed inventories of
dolines (surface landforms) renew the question of dolines as diagnostic landforms for karstification. However, in
the CSK it is revealed that an absence of dolines due to e.g., surface erosion does not indicate the absence of
karstification. Therefore, landscape evolution should consider both surface (i.e., doline) and subsurface (i.e.,
cave) landforms.

1. Introduction fundamental work of Cvijić (1893), the focus of karst-geomorphological

Karst landscapes are both spectacular and peculiar and have always
fascinated people. Much of this interest has been related to karst springs
due to their importance for water supply. In Austria, karst areas cover
about 20 % of the nation's surface area and a total of 50 % of drinking
water is supplied from karst catchments (Bauer and Plan, 2022). From a
scientific perspective, karst is a term used to describe an area in the
border region of Slovenia and Italy. Due to the landforms found there,
the term “karst” evolved as a type locality for specific geomorphological
features that can be found in large parts of the earth. Based on the
research was for a long time on these specific (‘diagnostic’) karst land­
forms (e.g., dolines). The presence or absence of these landforms formed
also the basis for the classification of the distinctiveness of karst areas (e.
g., holokarst, merokarst). In recent decades, there has been a shift from
this dominant geomorphological perspective of karst (mainly repre­
sented by surface karst landforms) to a more hydrogeological definition
of karst (cf. De Waele and Gutierrez, 2022; Ford and Williams, 2007;
Klimchouk, 2015).
Considering karst as “a fluid flow system (geohydrodynamic system)
with a permeability structure evolved as a consequence of dissolutional

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: christian.bauer@uni-graz.at (C. Bauer).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2023.109024
Received 3 May 2023; Received in revised form 11 December 2023; Accepted 12 December 2023
Available online 19 December 2023
0169-555X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
enlargement of initial preferential flow pathways, dominated by inter­
connected voids and conduits, and organized to facilitate the circulation
of fluid in the downgradient direction due to the positive feedback be­
tween flow and conduit growth” (Klimchouk, 2015: 305), a focus on
single ‘physiognomic’ surface karst features cannot sufficiently reflect
the complexity of a karst environment. This definition of karst also no
longer supports the attribute of specific landforms (e.g., dolines) as
generally ‘diagnostic landforms’ of karst. Nevertheless, karst landforms
are evolutionary evidences of karstification and landscape evolution. In
order to reflect the above-mentioned definition, the focus in this paper is
not only on surface karst landforms (i.e., dolines), but also on speleo­
genesis (i.e., caves). The morphogenesis of the karst system, reflected by
karst landforms, is considered both as an indication and response to
landscape evolution (e.g., uplift, denudation, climatic variations).
The study area, the Central Styrian Karst (CSK) is a part of the
‘Styrian Block’ defined by Wagner et al. (2011). This tectonic unit rep­
resents a transition zone between the Alpine Orogen and the Pannonian
Basin (Fig. 1). It is bounded by the Mur–Mürz fault (north), the Lavanttal
fault (west), the Pohorje Mountain (south) and the Pannonian Basin
(east). The Styria Block was not affected by Pleistocene glacial erosion
that is otherwise typical for the Alpine regions (Fig. 1/A–B, Van Husen,
2011; Wagner et al., 2010). This block, and thus also the CSK, continues
to be a focus for studies on pre-glacial landscape evolution since its
morphological features are likely to have been preserved over pre-
Quaternary times. These studies especially investigated preserved low-
relief landscapes (paleosurfaces) at higher elevations as geomorpho­
logical remnants of discontinuous uplift events of the region during the
Neogene to Quaternary (cf., Legrain et al., 2014; Palmer, 1987; Robl
et al., 2008; Sölch, 1928; Winkler-Hermaden, 1957). The underlying
hypothesis is, that in phases of tectonic as well as climatic ‘quiescence’
the corresponding erosive capacity of drainage systems is reduced. Thus,
the lateral processes of the fluvial system will gradually ‘level’ the
landscape. The morphological evidence of levels in the CSK has long
been discussed (cf., Hilber, 1912; Sölch, 1928), with notable systematic
research across the whole region by Winkler-Hermaden (1955, 1957).
The various levels in the Styrian Block were named according to their
type localities. Unfortunately, this was not done consistently by the
respective authors, so some levels have different local names. This
article follows the nomenclature used in Wagner et al. (2011).
The interaction of discontinuous tectonic uplift and phases of stag­
nation increasingly attracted research attention also to the karst land­
forms of the region. As hydraulic gradient is the main driver for epigene
karstification, the corresponding local base level of karst systems con­
trols the development of karst landforms. If tectonic uplift and thus the
lowering of the local base level proceeds more rapidly, the formation of
karst systems is hindered. Hence, karst landforms may correlate with
phases of stagnation, and thus, with planation surface development (e.
g., Kuffner, 1998; Behrens et al., 1992). In contrast to the karst regions of
the Northern Calcareous Alps (cf., Kuffner, 1998; Plan et al., 2009), the
CSK is lacking the multitude of (known) extensive caves (i.e., cave
levels) that conclusively support this speleogenetic hypothesis. How­
ever, the surface karst landforms of the CSK offer a suitable setting for
studying planation surfaces in combination with caves.
Vormair (1940) examined dolines of the CSK and correlated their
sizes with the corresponding levels. The author observed that some
levels host particularly large landforms. Further studies confirmed that a
correlation of dolines and levels does not seem to be a local phenome­
non, but applies to large parts of the CSK (Bauer, 2015; Benischke et al.,
2016; Fabiani, 1973; Maurin, 1955, 1958, 1975; Maurin and Zötl, 1959;
Untersweg, 1982; Zötl, 1958). However, these studies are only compa­
rable with each other to a certain degree: (i) they each cover only a part
of the CSK. Especially the southern areas of the CSK (Leitha limestone,
see Section 2) were only briefly mentioned (if at all) and not included in
considerations on the landscape evolution; (ii) morphometric definitions
of dolines, and hence the methods of feature delineations are different.
In some studies, these methods are not even reported at all; (iii) they are
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Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
based on different data (which are also not always declared). Doline
inventories are based either on field surveys, topographic maps or, in
recent years, on high-resolution digital elevation models derived from
airborne laser scanning (ALS). It is therefore not surprising that some
studies had to deliberately focus ‘only’ on highly karstified areas, but
conversely, a few karstified areas remained unrevealed.
Caves in the CSK were also important karst morphological and
hydrogeological research objects from very early on with issues on karst
geomorphology and landscape evolution becoming important topics. A
clustering, and thus a correlation, of caves and palaeosurfaces was
established (Benischke et al., 2016; Maurin, 1975; Maurin and Zötl,
1959). As noted above, the CSK lacks numerous extensive and accessible
cave systems. Hence, cave-paleosurface correlation could only be
determined by cave passage lengths in exceptional cases (e.g., Lurgrotte,
Drachenhöhle). Apart from that, correlations were determined by taking
into account the elevations of cave entrances. Again, the problem
requiring information (landform inventories) for an area-wide analysis
emerges, especially with regard to the location accuracy of the caves (i.
e., entrances).
In recent years, geochronological dating methods have been used to
date cave deposits (clastic/fluvial sediments, carbonate precipitates)
from a few caves (e.g., Drachenhöhle, Lurgrotte, Katerloch) in the CSK (e.
g., Boch et al., 2010; Stumpf and Stüwe, 2019; Wagner et al., 2010,
2011). It is expected, that these studies will permit an increasingly
precise temporal classification of the hitherto prevailing morphological
interpretations of landscape evolution.
The present study aims at developing an understanding of landscape
evolution of a karst environment on the basis of karst landforms. It is
intended to close research gaps resulting from (i) the existing, hetero­
geneous doline inventories as well as (ii) areas that have not been
investigated in detail so far. This is done by conducting an area-wide
analysis of dolines on the basis of a standardized delineation process
using high resolution digital terrain models (DTMs; cf. Section 3.1), and
caves. The database of the Austrian Cave Register (ACR) is used for this
purpose as additional landform inventory. The inventory was assessed
according to quality criteria (location accuracy and completeness) and a
selection of caves was made based on this (cf. Section 3.2).
The key assertions for this study are as follows. (1) The Styrian Block
(and thus the CSK) behaved as a single tectonic unit since the Miocene.
(2) Tectonic processes led to phases of vertical motions of the block. In
times of tectonic quiescence(s), the landscape is levelled and different
palaeosurfaces are formed. Tectonic uplift(s) or in general relative base-
level change(s) initiate increased incision(s) of the drainage network. (3)
These recurring vertical motions (quiescence vs. incision) causes alter­
ations of the hydraulic gradient and thus of the karstification. (4) Karst
landforms (dolines on planation surfaces, cave levels) provide
morphological evidence of these phases of vertical motions and altered
hydraulic gradient(s) over time. A correlation of karst landforms and
palaeosurfaces should therefore be made through the elevation above
the local base level(s). (5) An area-wide, morphometric analysis of karst
landforms can contribute to the understanding of the landscape evolu­
tion of the CSK and beyond.
2. Study area - Central Styrian Karst
The study area (Fig. 1) is part of the Styrian Block (Wagner et al.,
2011) and comprises the main karst areas in the vicinity of the provin­
cial capital Graz (Styria, Austria), first termed by Bock (1913) as the
CSK. Bock's definition is primarily based on the criteria of natural
landscapes (cf. topography, mountain ranges) and less on geological-
tectonic criteria. It is therefore not surprising that the CSK was repeat­
edly delineated in publications in different ways by other authors. Ac­
cording to Bock (1913), the CSK extends from north to south for about
80 km and from west to east for about 50 km, with only isolated outcrops
of the carbonates of the Styrian Basin in the south. The CSK thus rep­
resents a varied landscape, characterised by heterogeneous geology and
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Fig. 1. Study Area. (A) Study area at the transition zone of the Eastern Alps and the Pannonian Basin, indicating also the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) extent. (B) The
study area and related fault systems, with details of the LGM distribution. (C) Geological map of the study area and the extents of the individual DAs (colour-coding of
the DAs refers to Table 2). The Schöckel facies was differentiated on account of the importance of the Schöckel limestone for karstification. Classification of the GP
according to Gasser et al. (2010). Data: DTM 1x1m, CC-BY-4.0: Land Steiermark - data.steiermark.gv.at; extent of LGM based on Ehlers et al. (2011).

3
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

large vertical differences. To the west, north and east of Graz, mountain
ranges with elevations up to ~1700 m a.s.l. (Hochlantsch, 1720 m)
prevail. In the south, the elevations decrease to 350 m a.s.l. at Wildon,
the lowest value is reached at the Styrian-Slovenian border with <300
m a.s.l. The area largely has a closed and dense vegetation cover. Only
the peaks of the highest elevations are characterised by sparse vegeta­
tion (cf. mount Schöckl) or locally by the absence of vegetation cover at
all (cf. summit of mount Hochlantsch). The CSK therefore belongs to the
forested karst type (Benischke et al., 2016).
Three major tectonic units have to be considered to understand the
karstification, its potential allogenic input (binary karst) and thus, the
morphological evolution of the CSK (Fig. 1 and Table 1): (i) crystalline
rocks. They are not part of the CSK but border it to the west (Koralm
Crystalline), to the north (Gleinalm Crystalline) and to the east (Anger
Crystalline). Except for some caves in local marble deposits (e.g., Koralm
Crystalline), crystalline rocks (mainly metamorphic) form the base of
the CSK acting as less permeable formations (e.g., Radegunder Crystal­
line). (ii) Palaeozoic of Graz (GP): The GP consists of late Silurian to
early Devonian sequences (limestones, dolostones, sandstones and
slates) that were partly subjected to metamorphic overprinting. The GP
is separated by a major thrust (Rannach thrust) into an upper-, and a
lower nappe system. The two nappes differ in the degree and intensity of
deformation and metamorphosis, with the lower nappe system having
been affected by more intense deformation processes (Gasser et al.,
2010). Flügel and Hubmann (2000) differentiated 35 stratigraphic for­
mations within the GP, which were merged into five sedimentological
facies by Gasser et al. (2010). The Schöckel facies (Schöckel Fm.
[Schöckel limestone]), Rannach facies (Plabutsch Fm. [Barrandei lime­
stone], Kollerkogel Fm. [Kanzel limestone]) and Hochlantsch facies
(Hochlantsch Fm. [Hochlantsch limestone]) are all susceptible to kar­
stification. Due to the dominant occurrence of dissolutional landforms in
the carbonates of the GP (especially within the Schöckel limestone),
karst studies on the CSK have focused almost exclusively on these areas.
Therefore, several studies (e.g., Bauer and Zötl, 1972; Benischke et al.,
2016; Vormair, 1940; Wagner et al., 2011) use the boundaries of the
tectonic unit of the GP synonymously with the area of the CSK, but this is
– sensu stricto – not correct. The GP is overlain by a Late Cretaceous
basin (Gosau Basin) to the southwest (east of the Graden Creek; Fig. 1).
The basin consists of alluvial/shallow-water facies to marine facies,
originated from north and northeast (Ebner and Rantitsch, 2000). The
sediments (conglomerates, marls, partly limestone, sandstone, clay­
stone) seem not to be affected by karstification. According to Bock
(1913), the CSK also includes the Palaeozoic rocks of the Sausal, 30 km
south of Graz. Their position or affiliation to the GP has not yet been
fully clarified (Hubmann et al., 2006). Apart from one small cave formed
in calcareous slates (Demmerkogelhöhle), there are no documented karst
landform so far.
(iii) Neogene Basin: The Styrian Basin, the westernmost part of the
Pannonian Basin System, borders the GP to the south and southeast and
crystalline rocks to the west. It is divided by the Middle Styrian Swell,
into a shallower West Styrian Basin and a deeper East Styrian Basin
(Gross et al., 2007). Along this swell, Miocene carbonates (Leitha
limestone) form isolated areas in different facies and stratigraphic po­
sitions in a narrow strip from Wildon to Spielfeld near the Slovenian
border (Friebe, 1990). The karst occurrences (especially the surface
karst landforms) of the Leitha limestone have recently received
increasing research attention (cf. Bauer and Weissinger, 2020).
The CSK is drained by several streams towards the S and SE, with the
Mur River being the most important river today (average discharge at
the city of Graz: ~100 m3/s). Fig. 2 illustrates the profiles of selected
streams in the CSK (cf. Fig. 1). The Kainach Creek and its tributaries (e.
g., Gradenbach Creek) flow into the Mur River at Wildon. The Raab
River and its tributaries (e.g., Weiz Creek) belong also to the catchment
of the Mur River, although their junction is outside (downstream) of
Styria. Compared to the Mur River, all tributaries show an increased
steepness towards their headwaters at the contact with the resistant li­
thologies of the PG. In contrast, the Mur River has a well-equilibrated
channel profile and is in a transport-limited state rather than a detach­
ment limited state (Wagner et al., 2010). According to Wagner et al.
(2010) and Stüwe and Hohmann (2021), the S and SE drainage of the
CSK was established about 4 Ma ago due to the Pliocene uplift history.
As a result of stream piracy events, the streams get increasing water
input and thus increasing erosion rates causing deep valley incisions
(Wagner et al., 2011).

3. Methods and data – The landform inventories

Table 1
Geology of the CSK. Formations of the GP based on Flügel and Hubmann (2000); Landform inventories are the basis for further analysis on landscape
formations less liable to karstification in brackets. evolution on a regional scale. The inventories analysed in this publica­
Tectonic Subdivision Sedimentological Formations and lithologies tion consist of dolines and caves. An automated delineation process
unit facies affected by karstification using high-resolution DTMs provided an area-wide inventory for
Crystalline Marble dolines. Based on this inventory, the geological/tectonic characteristics
rocks and local catchment areas, we define seven doline areas (DAs) in this
Palaeozoic Lower nappe Schöckel facies Schöckel Fm., (Raasberg study based on local base levels (Table 2; Fig. 1). To enable compara­
of Graz system Fm.)
bility of both inventories, the caves of the CSK are also assigned to the
Kalkschiefer facies Hochschlag Fm., (Kogler
Fm.), (Hubenhalt Fm.) DAs.
Laufnitzdorf facies
Upper nappe Rannach facies Plabutsch Fm., Kollerkogel 3.1. Doline inventory
system Fm., (Parmasegg Fm.),
(Flösserkogel Fm.),
(Raasberg Fm.), (Steinberg The CSK is a forested karst with a predominantly dense and high-
Fm.), (Sanzenkogel Fm.), grown tree cover. A high resolution, vegetation-penetrating ALS data
(Draxler Fm.) with a horizontal accuracy of 1 × 1 m is available (cf. Bauer, 2015;
Hochlantsch facies Hochlantsch Fm., Hofierka et al., 2018; Telbisz et al., 2016). These allow us to (i) delineate
Zachenspitz Fm., Osser
Fm., Tyrnaueralm Fm.,
dolines based on an automatic GIS-algorithm using ALS data and to (ii)
Bärenschütz Fm., delineate dolines through a morphometric parameter that definitely
(Schweinegg Fm.), relates to karstification, i.e., enclosed depressions. The delineation
(Fahrneck Fm.) process (Fig. 3/A) is based on the filling up of the doline from the
Kalkschiefer facies Plabtusch Fm., (Heigger
deepest point within the feature (sink) to the elevation of their rim
Fm.), (Bameder Fm.),
(Draxler Fm.) (Fig. 3/A, position 1 and 2), using the algorithm of Wang and Liu (2006).
Neogene Calcareous Leitha limestone The feature extraction is then done by subtracting the original DTM from
Basin sediments the filled DTM (Fig. 3/A, position 3). The boundary of the doline is
Non-calcareous defined by the outermost closed contour line of the subtracted DTM with
sediments
a contour interval of 0.5 m. This is done (i) in order to simplify and

4
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Fig. 2. Stream profile analysis. A: Profiles from selected streams, starting at 280 m a.s.l. up to the headwaters, or for the Mur River up to kilometre 100 based on ALS-
DTM. The distances of the summits are related to the nearest local base level (cf. Fig. 1). Data: CC-BY-4.0: Land Steiermark - data.steiermark.gv.at; B: View from Mt.
Röthelstein to the south. The wide, flat valley floor of the already well-equilibrated channel profile of the Mur River is clearly visible.; C: The Raab-gorge, view to the
south. D: The Weiz-gorge, view to the north; E: The Gradenbach Creek (a tributary of the Kainach Creek), view to the southeast. Aerial photograph © Kurt Stüwe.

smooth out the serrated shape that results from the grid-based analysis
(Fig. 3/A, position 3 and 4) and (ii) to avoid errors in flat dolines (<0.5
m) where the elevation difference is below the z-coordinate accuracy of
the DTM (±15 cm) and which would subsequently lead to the delinea­
tion of very large polygons. The minimum depth of a doline of 0.2 m and
the minimum area of 5 m2 was set as lower limits for doline detection/
delineation. Field campaigns were conducted in every DA to verify some
of the results (e.g., differentiate dolines from man-made depressions).
Finally, the extracted landforms are stored as polygonal vector data
(Fig. 3/A, position 5). In order to quantify the spatial extent of dolines

5
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Table 2 important for the localisation of cave entrances. To provide an estimate

Investigated doline areas. of the horizontal position accuracy, the ACR includes accuracy classes
DA-Nr.a Doline area Abbreviation Localities/ based on a rough maximum expected horizontal deviation depending on
summits the used measurement method (ALS-data = 5 m; topographic maps =
Hochlantsch facies in the Hochlantsch- Schwaigeralm 500 m; verbal description = 1000). In this study, the data from the ACR
catchment of the Mur Fz./Mur Nechnitz was retrieved on November 2022 and thus reflects the status of the ACR
River (Hochlantsch) Hochlantsch at this time.
(1720 m a.s.l.) For the analysis made herein, it is noted that the majority of caves in
Schöckel facies in the Schöckel-Fz./ Himmelreich
catchment of the Mur Mur/Tanneben Tanneben
the CSK are small in terms of their passage lengths (often due to blockage
River (Tanneben) Hochglaser (910 of the passage by sediment fill or being remnants of presumably larger
m a.s.l.) cave systems) and also vertical extent, as such the correlation of cave
Schöckel facies in the Schöckel-Fz./ Leber and palaeosurface is determined by the elevation of the (main) cave
catchment of the Mur Mur/Schöckl Schöckl (1445 m
entrance and the maximum horizontal extent. The final selection of
River (Schöckl) a.s.l.)
Rannach facies in the Rannach-Fz./ Plesch caves for the cave inventory is based on: (a) the classes of horizontal
catchment of the Mur Mur Kugelberg location accuracy in the ACR of ≤500 m; (b) the vertical position ac­
River Steinkogel curacy is derived by calculation of the maximum difference between the
Feliferhof given elevation of the cave entrance in the ACR and the computed
Buchkogel
Plesch (1061 m a.
elevation of the cave entrance by intersecting its horizontal position
s.l.) with the ALS-DTM. A threshold value of maximum ±75 m is used, which
Plabutsch (754 m is (i) a small deviation in especially steep terrain and (ii) improves the
a.s.l.) horizontal position accuracy indirectly as it assures a valid localisation
Leitha limestone in the Leitha Sukdull
of cave entrances. This selection is required to provide a comparison of
catchment of the Mur limestone/Mur Wildoner
River Buchkogel (550 the remote-sensed (ALS-based) doline inventory and the cave inventory
m a.s.l.) that is derived from different data and developed over time; (c) data of
Schöckel facies in the Schöckel-Fz./ Schachen maximum horizontal extent of the cave. For the cave analysis, a set of
catchment of the river Raab Zetz (1271 m a.s. morphometric indices was calculated for each feature within each DA:
Raab l.)
length, depth (max., min., mean, and median, respectively), max. hor­
Burgstaller Höhe
(754 m a.s.l.) izontal length and elevation above local base level (given in m a.l.b.l.).
Schöckel facies in the Schöckel-Fz./ Gradenberg
catchment of the river Kainach Zigöllerkogel 3.3. Stream analysis
Kainach (684 m a.s.l.)
All data
In order to correlate dolines and caves to the local base level, for each
a
entity the elevation above the nearest stream was determined. This
Colour codes for all graphics in this paper. stream analysis is based on the 1 × 1 m ALS-DTM, which was resampled
to 10 × 10 m bilinear for this purpose. The flow paths are calculated
covered by vegetation, a tree-canopy analysis was carried out. The tree- from an elevation of 280 m a.s.l. upstream. Below this elevation, there
canopy data is based on a combined derivation from the same ALS- are no more significant karst occurrences in any of the streams in Styria
digital elevation models (DTM and digital surface model) of the doline (except for smaller areas of Leitha limestone in the south of the Mur
delineation analysis and additional satellite images (Schardt et al., River, cf. Bauer and Weissinger, 2020). The elevation relationship of the
2015). For doline analysis, a set of morphometric indices was calculated dolines and caves above local base level is analysed using the nearest
for each feature within each DA: area, perimeter, depth, volume (max., distance between the landform and the stream (Fig. 4/A–B). For dolines,
min., mean, median, respectively), elevation above local base level the lowest point of the entity (sink) is chosen as the reference point for
(given in m a.l.b.l.) and the doline elongation. Doline elongation anal­ the elevation above stream (local base level), for caves the elevation of
ysis is obtained by calculating the azimuth of the longest straight line the (main) entrance above the local base level.
within every single doline polygon. Nearly circular shapes were
excluded from this analysis. This was done by calculating the Circularity 4. Results
Index (Ci) according to Seale (2005) and setting a threshold value for the
minimum deviation of the shape from the perfect circle of Ci ≥ 1.05 (for Based on the automatic delineation process, a complete doline in­
details refer to Bauer, 2015). ventory could be compiled for the entire CSK (Table 3, cf. Fig. 1). In
doing so, dolines were also detected in areas that had not been consid­
3.2. Cave inventory ered in any study before (e.g., locality Kugelberg, near Gratwein), or had
only received little attention (e.g., locality Gradenbach and Zigöllerko­
In Austria, the documentation of caves is carried out by caving clubs. gel near Voitsberg; Maurin, 1955). In total, 595 dolines could be
All the information is merged into the Austrian Cave Register (ACR). A delineated for further analysis. The distribution of the doline inventory
documented cave in the ACR contains as a minimum the location of the by DA is shown in Fig. 5/A. Fig. 5/B illustrates the analysis of the
entrance(s), a plan view and an elongated vertical profile (Fig. 3/B, delineated dolines and their tree-canopy cover: only 7 % of all dolines
position 1 and 2). The collected data are summarized and stored also by are located entirely outside of tree-canopies, approximately 8 % are
the Austrian Speleological Association in the GIS database Spelix (for partly covered and thus 85 % of all dolines are entirely covered by tree-
more details see Herrmann and Plan, 2016). These documentations of canopies. The analysis supports the classification of the study area as
caves date back to the beginning of the 20th century and accordingly forested karst and emphasizes the need for a DTM-based delineation
there have been and still are technical innovations in measuring process of dolines.
methods (e.g., location of caves by (i) verbal description, (ii) on topo­ The cave inventory (Table 3) reflects the state of research in each
graphic maps, (iii) using differential GPS (dGPS) and high resolutions individual DA. Areas in close vicinity to the Mur valley have in general a
DTMs; cave surveying by using (i) tape or (ii) laser rangefinders). The more complete database due to a comprehensive updating of these areas
long period of time during which the ACR has been developed has also in recent years (e.g., Wallner, 2019). The distribution of the cave in­
resulted in varying data quality for some areas. This is particularly ventory by DAs is shown in Fig. 5/C. In total, 563 of 867 caves comply

6
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Fig. 3. Doline and cave inventories. A: Doline delineation process. Details concerning the numbers 1 to 5 refer to Section 3.2. B: Cave inventory. Plan view (position
1) and elongated vertical profile (position 2) of the Rillenhöhle (modified cave map drawn by Wallner, 2020).

Fig. 4. Stream analysis – example of Wildon (Leitha limestone). A: Hillshade visualisation. B: an example of a doline (blue dot) and its elevation above local base
level (Mur River); Data: DGM 1 × 1 m, CC-BY-4.0: Land Steiermark - data.steiermark.gv.at. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

7
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Table 3
Morphometric characteristics of the two landform inventories.
Morphometric parameter DA-1 DA-2 DA-3 DA-4 DA-5 DA-6 DA-7

Dolines Number of dolines 7 148 66 171 168 16 19

Percent of total [%] 1.2 24.9 11.1 28.7 28.2 2.7 3.2
Area max. [m2] 1239 12,679 4672 8870 1673 2856 535
Area min. [m2] 15 7 16 6 6 27 8
Area mean [m2] 376 1467 822 374 159 698 110
Area median [m2] 148 661 572 50 64 274 77
Elongationa 7b (100 %) 133 (90 %) 65 (98 %) 142 (83 %) 122 (72 %) 15b (94 %) 15b (79 %)
Depth max. [m] 4.6 21.9 8.8 16.1 6.9 4.6 3.2
Depth min. [m] 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4
Depth mean [m] 1.8 4.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.6
Depth median [m] 1.2 3.1 1.5 1.4 1.9 1.4 1.3
Volume max. [m3] 2136 83,848 11,990 56,144 4774 3052 642
Volume min. [m3] 1.6 0.5 1.4 0.4 0.7 1.6 1.6
Volume mean [m3] 380 5173 1528 1103 266 760 93
Volume median [m3] 95 866 423 26 59 156 32
Caves Number of caves 89 203 19 27 1 167 47
Percent of total [%]c 15.8 36.1 3.4 4.8 0.2 29.7 8.3
Length max [m] 4187 5975 240 340 54 1500 215
Length min [m] 5 3 3 1 54 3 3
Length mean [m] 97 77 65 36 – 48 30
Length median [m] 27 15 45 15 – 14 13
Depth max. [m] 239 273 100 67 6 133 27
Depth min. [m] 0 0 2 1 6 0 0
Depth mean [m] 15 10 27 10 – 9 5
Depth median [m] 9 4 15 6 – 4 3
a
Number of dolines and [%] of total that meets the Ci-criteria.
b
The number of dolines within DA is too small to make valid statements about their elongation.
c
Caves that are not assigned to a doline area are excluded (a total of 1.7 % of the total cave inventory of the CSK as defined herein; see Fig. 5/C).

with the accuracy and quality requirements described above (Fig. 5/D).
In total, 1158 landforms (51 % dolines and 49 % caves) are used in
this study to derive a better understanding of landscape evolution in the
CSK.
4.1. Cumulative doline area
With only seven delineated landforms, DA-1 has the lowest number
of dolines of all DAs. With a doline area of 1239 m2, it also contains the
feature with the smallest maximum value (Table 3, area max.) in the
catchment of the Mur River. Compared to all other DAs, the cumulative
percentage of areas for the DA-1 (Fig. 6) is rather small compared to its
high elevation. DA-2 contains the absolute maximum of all investigated
DAs and also the largest mean and median values (Table 3). The cu­
mulative percentages (Fig. 6) of the 148 analysed dolines (=24.9 %)
illustrates the above-average size of the landforms. DA-3 hosts 66
dolines (=11.1 %). Fig. 6 illustrates that up to 90 % of the dolines are
larger than the average of all investigated landforms. DA-4 has the
highest number of dolines (171, =28.7 %). Fig. 6 shows a steep increase
up to 80 % for DA-4, i.e., small landforms dominate. From 90 % the
curve flattens out considerably due to the presence of some large
dolines. This considerable difference is also reflected in a large deviation
of the mean from the median value. With 168 delineated dolines, the
DA-5 takes second rank of all DAs (=28.2 %). The dominance of small
dolines is evident: 90 % of the landforms are smaller than 500 m2. DA-6
is characterised by a low number of delineated landforms (16, = 2.7 %).
The areas of the dolines vary significantly. Within DA-7, 19 small dolines
(= 3.2 %) are delineated. 90 % of the dolines in the DA are smaller than
200 m2.
4.2. Doline morphometry
Dolines can originate from different morphogenetic processes: so­
lution, subsidence, suffusion, drop-out, or collapse (e.g., De Waele and
Gutierrez, 2022; Ford and Williams, 2007; Sauro, 2003; White, 1988).
Since the genesis of dolines is not yet sufficiently understood, a classi­
fication is usually based on morphology (especially for studies with large
doline populations). The most important quantifiable morphometric
parameters are length, width, perimeter, area, depth and volume (e.g.,
Bondesan et al., 1992). Depending on topographic and geomorphologic
settings, dolines are also re-shaped by interaction of different (non-
karstic) geomorphologic processes (e.g., burial, filling). Thus, these
rather simple morphological parameters may not be sufficiently precise
enough for a detailed classification of polygenetic landforms (a detailed
morphometric analysis of the dolines is out of scope of this paper).
However, due to the topographic and geomorphological setting of the
study area (e.g., no glacial overprint, partly thick soil cover, intensive
subsurface karstification with many caves), it is expected that the
dominant doline forming processes are solution or subsidence and only
to a minor extent collapse. Considering the solution origin of dolines,
deepening of dolines at their base is coupled with widening at their rim
and consequent area-widening (White, 1988). Fig. 7/A–B illustrates the
area:depth and area:volume ratio for all dolines in all DAs. Both ratios
indicate a distinct correlation between area and the two respective pa­
rameters (Fig. 7/A–B, position 1), supporting the dominance of solution
origin of landforms. However, two types of outliers emerge. The first are
dolines with a large area, but shallow depth, resulting in a low volume
(Fig. 7/A–B, position 2). These dolines are coated by thick soil cover and
are also partly subject to anthropogenic modification. The second outlier
relates to a single doline whose area is small compared to its depth and
especially its volume (Fig. 7/A–B, position 3). For this type, a collapse
process of formation seems evident (cf. Fig. 11/C, position 2/iii; Behrens
et al., 1992).
Fig. 7/C–F illustrates the elongation of dolines within the DAs. For
DA-1, 6 and -7, the number of dolines is too low to make valid state­
ments about their elongation. DA-2 (Fig. 7/C) shows a distinct NW-SE
elongation of the dolines. This preferred direction is also evident at
DA-4 (Fig. 7/E), although a second significant elongation from SW to NE
emerges. DA-3 (Fig. 7/D) shows two directions: NE-SW and, less
prominent, NW-SE. Within DA-5 (Fig. 7/F) it is remarkable that (i) many
dolines (28 %; 46 entities) have an almost circular shape and have
therefore been excluded from further analysis (Table 3) and (ii) the rose
plot shows a rather disperse elongation with a slight maximum from N to
S.

8
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
Fig. 5. The landform inventories. A: Pie chart of dolines by DAs. B: Doline tree-canopy analysis; C: Pie chart of caves by DAs. 0.2 % relate to DA-5. D: Cave inventory
accuracy assessment. Details refer to Sections 3.1 and 3.2.
4.3. Elevation of dolines above local base level
The two localities where dolines are predominantly found at DA-1
(Fig. 8/A; cf. Table 2) are characterised by a low number of small
dolines, arranged at elevations of about 520 m (Nechnitz) and 400 m a.l.
b.l. (Schwaigeralm). Fig. 8/B depicts the DA-2, showing a significant
clustering of large dolines at elevations of about 300–450 m a.l.b.l. for
the Tanneben locality. The vertical distribution of the dolines at Him­
melreich is more disperse and the landforms are located at lower ele­
vations (80–250 m a.l.b.l.). Similar to the DA-2, DA-3 (Fig. 8/C) has a
cluster of dolines at an elevation of 300–450 m a.l.b.l. (Leber), but the
landforms are smaller. The general higher elevated Schöckl locality is
characterised by a lower number of dolines where doline area decreases
with increasing elevation. Within DA-4 (Fig. 8/D), the highest dolines
are situated on Pleschkogel (600–650 m a.l.b.l.). Also in this DA, there is
a pronounced, narrow cluster of large dolines (Steinkogel and Plab­
tusch) situated at elevations of 300–350 m a.l.b.l.. The lower localities
(Buchkogel, Felieferhof, and Kugelberg) are characterised by a high
number of rather small dolines. The dominantly small dolines of DA-5
9
Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
(Fig. 8/E) show considerable differences in elevation within a short
horizontal distance (<3 km): to the west (Wildoner Buchkogel), the
dolines are located at 180–240 m a.l.b.l., whereas to the east (Sukdull)
they are located at 40–100 m a.l.b.l. Fig. 8/F depicts both DA-6 and DA-
7. The distribution of dolines of DA-6 shows two localities with signifi­
cant vertical distance: (1) Schachen at an elevation of 100–200 m a.l.b.l.
and (2) Burgstaller Höhe at an elevation of 500–550 m a.l.b.l. The
dolines with a larger area are situated at higher altitudes. DA-7 shows
two levels. The dolines at Zigöllerkogel are very small and arranged at
elevations of 40–50 m a.l.b.l., whereas the dolines at Gradenberg are
arranged at elevations of about 250–270 m a.l.b.l..
4.4. Cave inventory
In terms of passage lengths, most caves in the CSK are rather small
(often due to sediment blockage or caves being remnants of presumably
larger cave systems that have been dissected or eroded in the meantime).
Fig. 9/A–B shows the cumulative percentage of horizontal cave lengths,
differentiated into the individual DAs. It is evident that >95 % of all
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
Fig. 6. Doline inventory, cumulative percentage of areas per DA. A: linear plot; B: semi-logarithmic plot. Grey line is the total cumulative percentage of areas over all
DAs. Colour-coding refers to Fig. 5.
registered caves are shorter than 200 m in maximum horizontal passage
length and all caves have a median vertical extent of only 5 m (thus
entrance elevation as proxy for mean altitudinal development of caves).
Compared to the doline inventory, the distribution of caves related to
individual DAs (Fig. 10) shows significant differences (cf. Table 3).
Whereas only 7 dolines (=1.2 %) are located in the DA-1, 89 caves
(=15.8 %) are located there. The dimensions of the caves also reflect the
importance of the subsurface karst features within the DA: the median
length of 27 m is the second highest value of all investigated DAs. With a
length of 4187 m and a depth of 239 m, the second longest and second
deepest cave of the CSK (Drachenhöhle) is also located in this DA. The
intense karstification of the DA-2 is evident not only in the number of
dolines (148 = 24.9 %) but also in the number of caves (203 = 36.1 %).
It also contains the highest mean lengths (77 m). With a length of 5975
m and a depth of 273 m, the DA also contains the longest and deepest
(and partly still water-active) cave (Lurgrotte) in the CSK. In DA-3 only
19 caves (=3.4 %) are known with a mean length of 65 m. DA-4 is
characterised by a significant difference in the number of karst land­
forms: while the maximum number of dolines per DA is found here (171
= 28.7 %), only 27 caves (=4.8 %) are located in this DA. With only one
known cave (=0.2 %), DA-5 has the smallest number of caves in the CSK.
It is also the DA with the most significant difference between the number
of surface and subsurface karst landforms (168 = 28.2 %). DA-6 also has
a significant difference in the number of surface and subsurface karst
landforms. Here, 167 caves dominate over 16 dolines (Table 3).
Compared to the other DAs, the mean length of caves is rather long (48
m). DA-7 hosts 47 caves (=8.3 %). The minimum mean values of lengths
(30.3 m) and depths (4.7 m), excluding DA-5, indicate a dominant small
dimension of the caves.
5. Landscape evolution discussion
5.1. Vertical succession – The influence of base level change
Considering the hypotheses presented earlier (Section 1), the
morphometric parameters (e.g., size, position) of the studied karst
landforms are related to the changing position of the local base level and
thus provide morphological evidence of altered hydraulic gradients.
These geomorphological considerations are based on the principle of the
“cycle of erosion” postulated by Davis (1899) and have already been
adapted for karst evolution by Grund (1914) and Cvijić (1918). Based on
the premise that the local base level remains stable for a long period of
time, erosion will cause the (almost) complete levelling of the landscape
10
Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
and landforms. If, instead, the local base level is lowered again before
this complete levelling, erosive processes are rejuvenated and a new
incision (and consequently an altered hydraulic gradient) ensues.
Presuming that the landforms have not been completely levelled up to
this event, they persist. How long they persist and whether they are still
evident in the landscape today depends on: (i) the factor of time. Karst
evolution in particular is associated with long periods of time (c.f. De
Waele and Gutierrez, 2022; some tens of thousands of years to 100 k
years for limestone caves) and hence changing environmental condi­
tions; (ii) the activity of further geomorphological agents that succes­
sively shape the landforms (due to, e.g., erosion, infilling, dissection,
sealing) and (iii) the resilience of the landforms (concept of karst im­
munity) to these geomorphological agents (e.g., reduced surface erosion
capacity due to underground drainage). Successive phases of quiescence
and activity create a polycyclic sequence of landscape (resp. landform)
stages - with a general temporal sequence from top (old) to bottom
(young).
In the CSK, the morphometry of the surface karst landforms reveals a
distinct correlation with the vertical succession. Table 4 shows the cat­
egorisation of the studied localities per DA according to the regional
planation surface (level). Based on the analysis of cosmogenic nuclides
in cave sediments in the CSK, Wagner et al. (2010, 2011) dated the
formation of the level TH, in the upper part of the Drachenhöhle in DA-1
at an elevation of 500–600 m a.l.b.l., to about 4 Ma ago. On the basis of
the proposed ages (for details refer to Wagner et al., 2011), the levels are
thus classified into three stages (old, mature, and young). Fig. 10 shows
the two investigated karst landforms plotted against elevation above
local base level and in relation to one morphometric parameter (dolines
= area; caves = max. horizontal extent).
In the following, the three stages of landscape evolution from old to
mature and then young are discussed in light of the combination of
surface and subsurface karst landforms and their evolution over time.
(1) Old stage: The highest levels consist of KOR, WOL, HUB and TH
(Table 4). At the two highest levels (KOR, WOL) no dolines could
be detected. The levels HUB and TH are characterised by few and
small dolines, but a considerable number of caves are present
(Fig. 10 and Table 4). All four levels are interpreted as an old-age
stage of karst landscape evolution. Karstification is no longer the
dominant morphogenetic process. As a result, dolines have
already been re-shaped by other geomorphological processes into
polygenetic landforms. Fig. 11/C (position 1) shows a re-shaped
doline on the DA-3. A small water reservoir is visible, indicating a
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Fig. 7. Doline morphometry. A: area:depth ratio; B: area:volume ratio. Details concerning the numbers 1 to 3 refer to Section 4.3. C-F: Doline elongation with plotted
reverse azimuth; only dolines within a DA that meet the Ci-criteria are displayed (Table 3). Colour-coding refers to Fig. 5.

11
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
Fig. 8. Doline inventory per DA, elevation above local base level. Coloured bands refer to localities mentioned in Section 4.4; colour-coding refers to Fig. 5.
sealed doline. The doline has an indistinct outer delineation but
appears to be semi-circular. Further semi-circular, re-shaped
dolines can be found in the close vicinity, and also in other DAs
related to this old stage (e.g., DA-6, locality Burgstaller Höhe; DA-
4, locality Pleschkogel). Once dolines have been severely re-
shaped, their morphometry also no longer meets the criteria for
the doline delineation process (enclosed depressions). Speleo­
genesis at this stage is inactive and caves are in a relict stage
(truncated, intercepted). However, caves can persist for a long
period of time until erosion finally destroys them completely.
This also explains the high number of caves compared to dolines
at this stage: many dolines have already been strongly re-shaped,
12
Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
caves, even if speleogenetically inactive, have been preserved
until today. This is also confirmed by the 4.2 km long Dra­
chenhöhle, the second longest cave in the CSK. The cave passages
are partly vertical, however the prominent main passage (approx.
20 m wide and 500 m long) corresponds to the old-age stage. The
lower passages of the Drachenhöhle may be interpreted as a lower
level correlated to the HS (Wagner et al., 2010, 2011).
(2) Mature stage: The two levels HS and SB/ZB between 180 and 450
m a.l.b.l. are characterised by a conspicuous density of karst
landforms. Yet not only the number of landforms, but also their
dimensions are outstanding for the CSK at these levels. They are
interpreted as a mature stage of karst landscape evolution. The
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
Fig. 9. Cave morphometry. A: Cumulative percentage of horizontal cave length. The black dashed polygon marks the detail insert; B: Detail insert. Colour-coding
refers to Fig. 5.
landforms are distinctly the result of karstification and indicate
only a moderate re-shaping by further geomorphological pro­
cesses (cf. Section 5.2). Hydraulic connectivity to the lower levels
(young stage) may be high. Large parts of the probably most
famous karst area in the CSK, the Tanneben massif (DA-2) also
belongs to this stage. The morphometry of dolines confirms the
intensive karstification of this DA (cf. Table 3): absolute
maximum, largest mean and median area, depth, and volume of
all Das. Remarkably, the positions of the dolines at the Himmel­
reich locality, separated by the Badlgraben creek, are signifi­
cantly lower than those at Tanneben. They belong to the SB/ZB
level (cf. Maurin, 1994: 119). Fig. 11/C (position 2) shows large
solution dolines at DA-2. Only one doline near the entrance of the
cave Lurgrotte, indicates a collapse origin (Fig. 11/C, position 2/
iii and v). The ~6 km long (=longest cave in the CSK), partly
water active cave Lurgrotte passes through the Tanneben massif
from Semriach to Peggau and descends 275 m (cf., Bauer and
Plan, 2022). Cave passages are arranged into three phreatic levels
(Behrens et al., 1992), with the higher cave passages (near
entrance Semriach) belonging to the mature stage. Collapse of
cave passages and abundant speleothems are characteristic for
these relict passages. The mature stage is also in good accordance
with the collapse origin of the doline mentioned above. The
growth of the speleothems is still continuing, but the current
environmental conditions may not be sufficient to explain the
giant speleothems in the cave (see Section 5.2). The cliff in the
west of DA-2 (“Peggauer Wand”, Fig. 11/B, position 2) gives clear
evidence of the erosive power of the Mur River. In the upper part
of the cliff, horizontal cave passages (mainly of phreatic origin)
and the distinct arrangement of cave entrances at specific ele­
vations indicate former base levels (Behrens et al., 1992; Wagner
et al., 2011). Springs in the lower part of the cliff are also evi­
dence of a still active speleogenesis today (see Young Stage). The
cluster of dolines at locality Leber (DA-3) also belongs to the
mature stage. However, the mature stage is not only evident in
the DAs of the Schöckl-Fz. Numerous and large dolines are also
found in the DA-4 (Rannach-Fz.; localities Kugelberg, Steinkogel,
Plabutsch, and Buchkogel). The large dolines at Steinkogel have
received little attention so far. The dolines at Kugelberg have
neither been documented nor scientifically investigated until
now. What is striking in this DA is that the high number of dolines
(29 % of all DAs) does not coincide with a correspondingly high
number of caves (4.8 %). This contrast is even more significant
13
Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
for DA-5: there are 168 dolines (28 % of all DAs) and only one
cave (0.2 % of all DAs). The vertical position of the dolines in this
DA reveals a distinct separation into two areas, with the dolines
of Wildoner Buchkogel assigned to the SB/ZB and thus to the
mature stage. Similar to other DAs at this elevation above local
base level, the numerous dolines of Wildoner Buchkogel are ev­
idence for intensive karstification. However, in contrast to other
DAs, small dolines dominate (Fig. 11/C, position 3). An expla­
nation for the small shaped dolines of Wildoner Buchkogel and its
relation to Sukdull (see young stage) in the east across the Mur
River might be found in neotectonic movements of the Styrian
Basin (cf. Section 5.3).
(3) Young stage: While the SB/ZB also marks the last pre-glacial
level, the lower levels (UTG, MTG, LTG) correspond to Pleisto­
cene terraces (cf. Section 5.2). The three terraces are clearly
expressed in the foreland of the Styrian Basin, whereas they are
only barely distinguishable in the PG due to the erosive power of
the rivers. In many cases they are only preserved as dissected
fragments (cf. Wagner et al., 2011). These lower levels are
interpreted as a young stage of karst landscape evolution.
Accordingly, karstification at this stage is still active. Visible ev­
idence of active speleogenesis are large karst springs emerging at
the base of the valleys (e.g., Schmelzbach and Hammerbach at
Peggau, DA-2; Andritz Ursprung at Leber, DA-3). For the two
springs at Hammerbach (Fig. 11/B, position 2/i) and Andritz-
Ursprung, research has revealed a deeper karstification than the
current outlet of the springs. This is because the streams have
already been deeply incised and later sedimentation had subse­
quently filled up the valley; e.g., Mur River, in a transport-limited
state (Maurin and Zötl, 1972; Wagner et al., 2011; Weber, 1969;
cf. Section 5.2).
As mentioned above, the positions of dolines at DA-5 have a clear
vertical duality in the order of 100 m: the higher situated dolines of
Wildoner Buchkogel (approx. 180–240 m a.l.b.l.) and the dolines of
Sukdull, situated considerably lower (approx. 40–100 m a.l.b.l.). The
carbonate outcrop of Sukdull is also narrow (<1 km), but in contrast to
Wildoner Buchkogel, it is not hydrologically separated from allogenic
inputs (cf. Section 5.4). In terms of depth and area, the dolines of Sukdull
are very small, with some acting as ponors. One of these ponors is also
the only cave known so far (Frauenhöhle) in the DA-5 (Fig. 4; cf., Bauer
and Weissinger, 2020). In addition to the small dolines, the active
ponors and the almost complete absence of caves, water-active, enlarged
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Fig. 10. Caves versus dolines above local base level. Red box = cave entity depicted with the respective maximum horizontal extent (x-axis) versus elevation above
local base level (y-axis); blue box = doline entity with the respective doline area (x-axis) versus elevation above local base level (y-axis); boxes of various colours
depict the approximate elevation of regional levels from Table 4 and geomorphological stages are indicated. Note: The longest cave in the CSK (Lurgrotte) is missing in
the plot as no complete cave survey exists so far. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

conduits below the recent valley floor also provide evidence of a young
(ongoing) karstification. These conduits were encountered at a depth of
− 8 m a.l.b.l. during drilling as part of a geological survey for the con­
struction of a power plant (Gamerith, 2006).
The three stages proposed here are similar to that described in the
Northern Calcareous Alps, where there are also three main levels and
stages of karstification (e.g., Häuselmann et al., 2020). Based on burial
ages of cave sediments, the oldest dated samples indicate much older
geomorphological stages in the NCA compared to the ones dated in the
CSK. Further research is required to correlate stages of the NCA with
stages/planation surfaces in the CSK.
5.2. The complex and inherent influence of climate
The evolution of karst landforms does not only have to be a conse­
quence of stable or altered hydraulic gradients, but can also be the result
of climate changes – or an interaction of both agents (Ford and Williams,
2007). The long geological timespan from the initial landscape forma­
tion and origin of the landforms (TH = old-age stage = ~4 Ma ago;
Wagner et al., 2010, 2011) to the present has also been accompanied by
climatic variations that have affected the landscape and its landforms. If
the climate variations persist long enough, their impacts (e.g., changing
dissolution regime, changing erosion capacity) can be expressed in the
landscape and its landforms, respectively. If the influence of a later
climate variation is of a high magnitude, the imprints of the previous
variation(s) may be completely obscured at the surface. This is what has
typically happened in the Alpine karst due to Pleistocene glaciations (cf.
Bauer and Plan, 2022). For the CSK, geomorphological evidence of
climate variations is hypothesised for subtropical-tropical influences on
one hand (Bauer and Zötl, 1972; Maurin, 1975; Paschinger, 1965) and
for indirect glacial and direct periglacial influences on the other
(Untersweg, 1982). At least there were no direct impacts (glacial
erosion) of Pleistocene glaciation on the CSK (Fig. 1, Van Husen, 2011).
Several authors have considered the formation of the rough/erratic
relief that occurs at Tanneben, Steinkogel, Plabutsch, and Buchkogel
belonging to the HS (mature stage) to be due to a more humid, tropical
climate. The relief is interpreted as residual hills protruding from a
younger alluvial surface (cf. Paschinger, 1965; Untersweg, 1982).

14
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Table 4
Overview of regional levels/planation surfaces described in the literature and related DAs, localities and wider level classification.
Level regionala,b Elev. above local base level [m. a.l.b.l.]b Proposed ageb DAsc Localitiesc Level wider
d
Kor [KOR] 1200–1500 Upper Sarmatian No evidence – Old
Wolschenek [WOL] 900–1000 Lower Pannonian No evidenced – Old
Hubenhalt [HUB] 700–800 Middle Pannonian DA-3 Schöckl Old
Trahütten [TH] 500–600 Upper Pannonian DA-1 Nechnitz Old
DA-4 Pleschkogel
DA-3 Schöckl
Hochstraden [HS] 325–450 Uppermost Pliocene DA-1 Schwaigeralm Mature
DA-2 Tanneben
DA-3 Leber
DA-4 Steinkogel, Plabutsch
Stadelberg/Zahrerberg [SB/ZB] 180–300 Pliocene/Pleistocene DA-2 Tanneben Mature
DA-2 Himmelreich
DA-4 Buchkogel
DA-4 Kugelberg
DA-5 Wildoner Buchkogel
Upper Terrace Group [UTG] 80–120 Early Pleistocene-Günz DA-5 Sukdull Young
Middle Terrace Group [MTG] 40–100 Günz/Mindel-Mindel/Riss No evidenced – Young
Lower Terrace Group [LTG] 25–40 Riss-Würm DA-2 Tannebene Young
DA-5 Sukdulle
a
Abbreviations according to Wagner et al. (2011).
b
Details see Wagner et al. (2011).
c
Due to the size and vertical extent of the areas, multiple entries are possible.
d
In the CSK these levels are present but there is no evidence for dolines.
e
Active speleogenesis still takes place in the lower part of these areas.

Dolines at this level would therefore be younger than the residual hills
(Paschinger, 1965). The significant clustering of dolines and caves, as
well as the dominance of large landforms (both dolines and caves) at the
mature stage, allow their origin to be explained not only by a long
stagnant base level, but also by optimal climate conditions for kar­
stification (cf. Bauer and Zötl, 1972; Maurin, 1975). Evidence for a
warmer climate is provided by the deposits of red clays (Terra rossa) at
the mature stage. At Tanneben, these soils are found as infillings in
dolines but also as autogenic sediments in caves (that may block cave
passages completely). A survey note about the artificial opening of a
cave (Geßmann-Doline) at the bottom of a doline mentions a sedimentary
deposit of 12 m (Weissensteiner, 1966). Also, the Wildemannloch cave is
known for its thick red clay deposits (Maurin, 1994; Weissensteiner,
1972). In this context the artificial tunnel system at the base of the cliff
in the west of Tanneben (Fig. 11/B, position 2) is interesting. Shafts
intercepted by the artificial tunnel excavated in 1944 were filled with
plastic clays which are still flowing out of fissures and conduits (cf.
Weissensteiner, 1969). There is widespread disagreement about the age
or origin of the soils. Some authors place the origin in the Pliocene (e.g.,
Flügel, 1975). Behrens et al. (1992) see them as evidence for a warmer
Quaternary period. It must be clarified whether the climatic conditions
in interstadial times were sufficient for such profound weathering
leaving only iron oxides. An argument for a Quaternary origin of the
soils are the existing dates of speleothem formation in the CSK (Boch
et al., 2009, 2010). These samples prove ice-free, soil-covered conditions
in periods of ~230, ~100 and ~70–80 ka (Wagner et al., 2011). How­
ever, the role of warmer climate periods on the landscape evolution in
the CSK requires further investigation.
The asymmetries of many dolines (locality Tanneben, Himmelreich,
and Steinberg) are a notable discovery from this work, revealed due to
the use of recently available vegetation penetrating high-resolution
DTMs. The shapes show a NW-SE elongation, with steeper slopes fac­
ing S-to-SE, and flatter ones facing N-to-NW (Fig. 11/C, position 2/iv;
Fig. 7/C/E). It is remarkable that the shapes of dolines at Leber (DA-3),
in close vicinity to the most prominent fault in the CSK (Leber fault;
Gasser et al., 2010), do not show any peculiar asymmetries, but dolines
at localities without major fault systems show obvious asymmetries. The
imprint of tectonics is also not conclusive in explaining the asymmetries
of the dolines. Moreover, they are found both in the older HS level
(higher localities Tanneben and Steinberg) and in the younger SB/ZB
level (lower locality Himmelreich). This contradicts a syngenetic origin,
and a re-shaping of the landforms after their primary origin is assumed.
Similar asymmetries of dolines at high elevations (1500 to 2200 m a.s.l.)
in the Northern Calcareous Alps were interpreted as the effects of snow-
patches (Schappelwein, 1966; Sölch, 1928). Thereby, predominant wind
directions cause an accumulation of snow in the lee side of dolines.
During melting, more corrosive water is available in these parts of the
doline. Over a longer period of time, this produces asymmetrical shapes
(cf. Chabot, 1927). Ford and Williams (2007) call this type “nival” karst.
The precondition for this type is, that the terrain was not affected by
glacial erosion and deep permafrost (hence restricted or blocked sub­
surface drainage). At this point, it is important to mention that recent
studies in some areas in the Northern Calcareous Alps have not
confirmed the asymmetries of dolines due to snow-patches (Plan and
Decker, 2006). However, the CSK meets the climate preconditions for
the development of nival karst during the Pleistocene, i.e., an overprint
after the actual doline development due to corrosive water from snow­
melt. Evidence for periglacial influences are Pleistocene slope debris in
the higher parts of the CSK (e.g., DA-3). Consequently, a widespread
absence of vegetation is also to be expected (Untersweg, 1982). The
asymmetries are not found in all dolines at these levels (e.g., Leber lo­
cality). As a possible explanation, wind-shadowing effects, which have
prevented the accumulation of snow, can be assumed here. An alter­
native explanation also related to wind-shadowing effects is the depo­
sition of fine (aeolian) sediments on parts of the doline. However,
preferential wind directions would need to have been from the opposite
direction as for the “nival” development, as sediments would also de­
posit at the lee side of dolines. Comparing these two “opposing” pro­
cesses, dolines without the asymmetries hint towards general wind
directions that favor the nival processes.
Even though Pleistocene glaciations likely had no direct impact on
the CSK, the glacial - interglacial cycles led to a complex series of
sediment depositions and re-incisions of the Mur River, as evidenced by
its terraces. The enormous load of mobilized sediments, abundantly
present in the headwaters of the Mur River catchment in times of glacial
retreat, hence filled up the valley in the CSK and thus re-adjusted the
local base level for karstification. The present Mur River is in a transport-
limited state, thus incising into the sediments of the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM). Drillings Fig. 11/B, position 2/ii) in the vicinity of the
Hammerbach spring (Fig. 11/B, position 2/i) confirm the occurrence of

15
C. Bauer and T. Wagner Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024

Fig. 11. Landscape evolution. A: schematic profile (courtesy of Bauer, A.); 1: DA-3; 2: DA-2; 3: DA-5. B: field impressions from the respective areas 1 to 3. C:
Hillshade- visualisation based on 1 × 1 m ALS-DTM. Note the equal scale for all DTM sections (C1 to C3), thereby highlighting differences in scale of the dolines
encountered; D: detail photographs of dolines. D1: ~70 m diameter; D2: ~80 m diameter, D3: ~5 m diameter.

16
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
glacial gravels at a maximum depth of 40 m (Weber, 1969). Gravel
deposits in other caves at Peggau also indicate that passages of the lower
level were once inundated due to altered base levels (Wagner et al.,
2010, 2011).
5.3. W-E dissimilarities – The influence of (neo-)tectonics and rock
properties
Within the CSK, there are considerable W-E differences along the
Mur River. For all DAs with the Mur River as the local base level, it is
remarkable that DAs to the west of the river have a significantly lower
number of caves than those to the east (Table 3 and Fig. 1). The dif­
ferences are not related to the nappe systems of GP. Indeed, the Mur
valley is not parallel to the direction of the Rannach thrust, the structure
separating the upper from the lower nappe systems. The evolution of the
Mur River within the CSK is not yet fully understood. The current geo­
morphologic interpretation is that up to the Upper Pliocene, drainage
proceeded over the Tanneben massif 3 km to the east of the village
Semriach. The drainage went through the present-day Kesselfall-gorge
to the south. However, the drainage gradually shifted westwards, and
probably in the Lower Pleistocene it rapidly deepened into the less
resistant lithologies of the GP (Maurin, 1994). The related altered hy­
draulic gradient increased subsurface drainage (stream piracy, cf.
Wagner et al., 2011) and finally the complete cut-off of the surface
drainage path. The westward shift of the Mur River is also seen as the
reason why the caves in the eastern part are more numerous and also
have relatively long passages, while they are rare and small in the west
(e.g., Behrens et al., 1992).
Another explanation for the W-E differences could be the rock
properties of the karst rocks and their geographical distribution of the
different facies. Fig. 1 depicts that both the Schöckel-Fz. and the
Hochlantsch-Fz. occur dominantly east of the Mur River. In terms of
lithology, it is evident that the carbonates of these two formations host a
particularly high number of caves. Especially, the suitability of the
Schöckel limestone for karstification is also manifested in the area of the
DA-6 and DA-7. DA-6 contains approx. 30 % of all caves, DA-7 approx. 8
% and in total 78 % of all caves are situated in the Schöckel-Fz.. It is the
dominance of caves in the Hochlantsch-Fz. and the Schöckel-Fz. that
caused the other facies in the CSK to have received less investigation (cf.
Benischke et al., 2016). The suitability and dominance of the Schöckel-
Fz. for karstification has also been emphasized for dolines. Vormair
(1940) noted that dolines occur predominantly in the Schöckel lime­
stone. A more varied result emerges when analyzing the entire CSK:
according to the analysis presented here, DAs belonging to the Schöckel-
Fz. comprise almost 42 % of all delineated dolines. Even if this cumu­
lative value is the highest for all facies, it cannot justify the attribute
“predominantly” used by Vormair (1940) as >50 % of dolines are found
elsewhere in the CSK. DA-4 (Rannach-Fz.) and DA-5 (Leitha limestone)
also host a high number of dolines, including several large landforms.
DA-4 is characterised by (i) a high number of dolines (28.7 % of total);
(ii) a distinctive vertical zonation of the dolines at all three stages (old,
mature, and young stage) and (iii) a distinctive correlation between
elevation above local base level and size of landforms. Large dolines are
dominantly located in the mature stage, while the dolines in the young
stage are, apart from one entity, smaller than 1500 m2 (Fig. 6/D and
Fig. 8/D).
DA-5 is characterised by an intensive doline formation: 28.2 % of all
delineated dolines are within DA-5 and are characterised by convergent
morphometry, dominated by numerous smaller forms (cf. Table 3 and
Fig. 6/E). Leitha limestone outcrops are located both to the east and to
the west of the Mur River near Wildon (cf. Fig. 1). The DA shows
remarkable differences in the elevations of dolines at the two localities
(Section 5.1): the dolines at Wildoner Buchkogel are related to the SB/
ZB-level and are situated between 180 and 240 m a.l.b.l., while those
at Sukdull are related to the MTG-level (Fig. 8/E) and are significantly
lower (40–100 m a.l.b.l.). Since the developmental period of the
17
Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
Badenian Leitha limestone (coral patch reefs that formed approx. 13 Ma
ago) is identical for both localities (Friebe, 1990), a syngenetic origin for
the difference in elevation has to be discarded. The significant vertical
differences within short horizontal distances could be indicative of a
post-Badenian tectonic displacement, which could have involved either
subsidence of the eastern part (Sukdull), uplift of the western part
(Wildoner Buchkogel), or a combination of both. Winkler-Hermaden
(1951) and Flügel (1953) reported a NNW-SSE trending fault at Wildon
and hypothesised a connection to the Leber fault in the north (Fig. 1/B),
which might be of syngenetic origin but may have remained active (or
has been reactivated) in recent geological times. Wagner (2010) found
evidence of (neo-) tectonic displacement(s) along man-made under­
ground tunnels in the Graz Schlossberg and Maurin (1953) reported
neotectonic displacements in the lowest level of the Lurgrotte cave
system. The morphometry of the dolines in DA-5 also indicates a
dominant elongation in this NNW-SSE direction (Fig. 7/F). The presence
and characteristics of (neo-) tectonic displacement(s) in the Styrian
Basin remain a research gap.
5.4. Morphogenesis of karst landforms associated with allogenic input
As mentioned before, the CSK is not a continuous karst area, but
rather consists of multiple carbonate areas surrounded by or embedded
within rocks that are not suitable for karstification. Where allogenic
water from neighbouring or overlying non-karst rocks comes into con­
tact with carbonate rock outcrops, contact karst can be formed (cf. Ford
and Williams, 2007; Gams, 1994). The likely most prominent example of
contact karst in the CSK is the allogenic catchment area of Lurbach (a
blind valley, cf. Fig. 1 and Fig. 11/C, position 2/v) and its underground
drainage through the Tanneben massif (cf., Benischke and Harum, 1994)
where stream piracy during the incision of the Mur River in the last few
million years has occurred (e.g., Wagner et al., 2011). An integrated
drainage pattern has formed in the non-karst bedrock of the GP over a
long period of time. The contact karst in the Styrian Basin is charac­
terised by a higher number of rather small dolines that often act as
concentrated inflows of allogenic waters. This is evident at Zigöllerkogel
(contact with the Schöckel-Fz.; Maurin, 1955) and at Feliferhof (contact
with the Rannach-Fz.; Zötl, 1953) by a distinct row of small, and partly
no longer active dolines/ponors, as well as at Sukdull (contact with the
Leitha limestone; Bauer and Weissinger, 2020). Also, those landforms
associated with contact karst follow the pattern of old to mature to
young stages. For the old stage, no particular example can be presented,
which may be due to complete erosion. Well-developed landforms in the
mature stage (e.g., Lurbach) are present, whereas only small dolines/
ponors in the young stage (e.g., Sukdull) are to be reported.
5.5. From landform inventories to landscape evolution
Fig. 11 summarizes the above elaborated landscape (and landform)
evolution as deciphered from a combination of landform inventories.
The interplay of surface karst landform evolution (towards complete
erosion) and subsurface karst feature evolution (if detected and acces­
sible to cavers) can present a useful picture of how a landscape may have
evolved over time that reflects periods of relative quiescence alternating
with periods of tectonic and/or climatic changes. It is important to note
that this is a schematic representation reduced to three stages (positions
1–3). The three different stages correspond to a gradation of age from
old (1) to mature (2) to young (3). In the CSK we can identify several
stages though (cf., Fig. 10 and Table 4). Fig. 11/B–D (position 1–3)
provides examples of the stages within the CSK. Fig. 11/B shows a
landscape image of the corresponding DAs. Fig. 11/C illustrates a hill­
shade visualisation of the surface karst landforms. Fig. 11/D shows an
example of a doline from the respective DAs.
(1) Old stage (Fig. 11/A, position 1): Karstification may no longer be
the dominant morphogenetic process. Dolines have already been
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
re-shaped by other geomorphological processes (e.g., erosion, in-
filling). The low distinctiveness of the surface karst landforms, or
even their absence, does not necessarily mean karstification is no
longer active. Accordingly, caves are more frequent than dolines
in this area due to their resilience in respect to surface erosion.
Regarding the CSK (Fig. 11/B–D), at higher elevated DAs, geomor­
phic processes have overprinted the more ancient karst landforms. This
resulted in a significant re-shaping of the dolines into semi-circular
forms, whose delineation criteria and thus classification as solely
karst-based landforms is not easy to carry out. That karstification was,
nevertheless, of significant importance at this old stage is proven by the
presence of several caves (cf. Wagner et al., 2010; DA-1: 15.8 % of all
caves; Table 3 and Fig. 5).
(2) Mature stage (Fig. 11/A, position 2): Karstification is charac­
terised by distinctive karst-related hydrology and both surface
and subsurface landforms. So far, these landforms have only been
moderately re-shaped by further geomorphological processes.
Where karstification tends to develop a doline topography, they
are well developed. Subsurface karst landforms (caves) are also
well developed. The distinctiveness of karst landforms and the
dominance of karstification must be interpreted in terms of a
general suitability for the process. Apart from the similar litho­
logical preconditions, these include, above all, a stable hydraulic
gradient over long time and a climate related, ‘optimal’ dissolu­
tion regime. The latter depends on the availability of liquid water
and carbon dioxide from a significant soil cover.
Regarding the CSK (Fig. 11/B–D), this stage hosts the most promi­
nent karst areas in the CSK (e.g., Tanneben massif). Considering all DAs
belonging to this stage, the dominance and intensity of karstification is
evident both by the number of dolines and their morphometry (area,
depth, and volume). Caves (partly with abundant speleothem decora­
tion) with long horizontal extent are predominantly found here, and
thus also provide evidence for the distinctiveness of karstification at this
stage (Fig. 10 and Table 4).
(3) Young stage (Fig. 11/A, position 3): Karstification is active and a
dominant process at this stage. The doline topography is char­
acterised by small morphometric parameters (area, depth, and
volume). The time required for the dolines to evolve into larger
landforms or for the individuals to coalesce appears not to have
been sufficient. Large karst springs emerging at the base of the
valley and the presence of a well-developed underground karst
drainage network (not necessarily accessible caves) provide evi­
dence of active speleogenesis. Regarding the CSK (Fig. 11/B–D),
this stage can be found at all DAs. Clear evidence of small mor­
phometries of dolines are found in the DA-5. Dolines at Feliferhof
(DA-4) and Sukdull (DA-5) function as direct connections to the
groundwater system(s) (ponors). Examples of large karst springs
emerging at this stage are Schmelzbach and Hammerbach at
Peggau, and Andritz Ursprung at Leber.
To conclude, the difference in the number and/or morphometric
parameters of surface and subsurface karst landforms may point towards
a geomorphological stage and thus age. If surface landforms are mainly
absent, but subsurface landforms are (still) present this may mean old
age. Vice versa, if surface landforms are obvious (although rather small
in dimensions) but subsurface landforms are absent (or at least not yet
known / accessible) this may point towards a state of ongoing devel­
opment which may mean young age. The former stage may be exem­
plified by the Hochlantsch area (DA-1); the latter by the area of Wildon
(DA-5). However, the area around the DA-4 with an obvious surface
development (highlighted in this work) and basically an absence of
caves simply may be related to the inaccessibility of caves.
18
Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
5.6. Research agenda
A doline inventory based on quantitative morphometric criteria,
delineated on a high-resolution ALS-DTM proves to be well suited for the
presented research. Correlating morphometric parameters such as area,
depth, and perimeter would be problematic with a manually-mapped
inventory, especially for landforms that are indistinct (cf. Fig. 11/C,
position 1). As a result of the area-wide survey, dolines could be detected
at localities which have not been mentioned so far (e.g., Kugelberg in
DA-4, cf. Fig. 1). However, since doline formation is a process that may
have been active since long times, the current morphometry of the
landforms is not necessarily congruent with that of their initial forma­
tion. Thus, classifying the genesis of dolines based solely on the corre­
lation of their planar area and depth using ALS-DTMs may be subject to
uncertainties. Two main issues should be considered: (1) convergence of
forms: as slope degradation may re-shape dolines of collapse origin,
resulting in them being attributed as solution dolines (cf. Gökkaya et al.,
2021; Ford and Williams, 2007); and (2) incomplete representation of
forms: as the CSK belongs to the type of forested karst, the area is widely
covered with soils that especially tend to accumulate at the bottoms of
dolines. ALS-DTM analysis can only determine the surface morphometry
of the form (doline + soil and/or scree cover), which is not necessarily
identical to the morphometry of the dolines without soil and/or scree
cover. Therefore, subsurface investigations of dolines by means of
geophysical methods (e.g., Siart et al., 2013) represent a necessary
research task, that might also resolve the issue of “nival” karst
development.
The morphometric information and the quality of the cave inventory
provides information of rather simple morphometric parameters (e.g.,
correlation of cave entrance and elevation above local base level;
maximum horizontal extent). For detailed analyses on genesis of the
caves in relation to landscape evolution (e.g., correlation of dominant
cave passages and base level changes; frequency distribution of cave
passages with respect to elevation; cf. Plan et al., 2009; Filipponi et al.,
2010), the required georeferenced, digital polygonal information of cave
passages is missing for almost all caves in the CSK. Therefore, surveying
the caves with digital methods is a further research task. However, due
to the multitude of caves, this may need a large effort in cooperation
with speleological associations.
An important research agenda is the influence of climate on karst
development and landscape evolution in the CSK (and beyond). To
correlate morphological analysis of the inventories (e.g., correlation of
size and elevation above local base level) in a relative temporal
sequence, further dating using numerical methods is necessary. It must
be noted that cave sediments, especially clastic ones, can be affected by
sequences of erosion and re-deposition (cf., De Waele and Gutierrez,
2022). Wagner et al. (2010, 2011) used terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides
to determine the burial ages from siliceous rock (quartz) pebbles of 13
caves in the CSK. They further correlated the data with optically stim­
ulated luminescence (OSL) ages of a stream terrace and with U-Th ages
from speleothem samples. U-Th ages provide conclusions about climatic
conditions and alterations during speleothem formations. In addition to
the findings by Wagner et al. (2011) on U-Th ages, Boch et al. (2009,
2010) revealed rapid climatic oscillations dating back to 10,000, 9100
and 8200 years based on stalagmites from the Katerloch (DA-6). U-Pb
dating may shed further light onto speleothems that are too old for U-Th
dating, if low common Pb concentrations are present coupled with
relatively high U content (e.g., Cliff et al., 2010). In the case of the CSK
low U content and potentially high common Pb concentrations may limit
the application of U-Pb dating though (Boch et al., 2010).
The morphometric analysis of dolines at DA-5 indicates possible
post-Badenian tectonic displacement(s). The analysis of these (possible)
displacement(s) represents an important further research agenda for
understanding the landscape evolution of the CSK and the Pannonian
Basin – Eastern Alps transition zone in general (e.g., Wagner et al.,
2011). Again here, geophysical methods (at a different scale than for the
C. Bauer and T. Wagner
dolines and their soil cover) may be necessary.
Coming back to the landform inventories themselves, digital poly­
gons of cave systems would provide valuable data for a more detailed
analysis. Yet, the absence of caves in an inventory does not mean that
there are no caves present. The Kugelberg and Steinkogel localities (both
DA-4) may present an interesting area of further (re)search.
6. Conclusions
This study provides a comprehensive inventory of dolines and
combines it with the current stage of a cave inventory to decipher their
implications for landscape evolution within the Central Styrian Karst
(CSK). In total 1158 karst landforms (595 dolines and 563 caves) were
analysed. For the first time, the inventories include the Leitha limestone
areas located to the east and west of Wildon south of Graz. Moreover, a
doline-area could be located south-east of Gratwein not mentioned so
far.
This study shows that dolines are deceptive diagnostic features for
the stage of karstification. The absence of dolines does not indicate the
absence of karst hydrological processes. In an old stage of karstification
dolines may be eroded or re-shaped but caves may still be present. In the
CSK the low number of dolines compared to the high number of caves in
DA-1 and DA-6 are prominent examples of such a stage of landscape
evolution.
In a young stage of karstification dolines may already be well
developed features. In contrast, caves may be in active speleogenesis
limiting their exploration. For the CSK, this means that DAs with a high
number of (small) dolines but only a low number of caves in the ACR
cannot be designated as areas of less relevance for karstification (e.g.,
DA-4 and DA-5). Combining both surface and subsurface landform in­
ventories provide insights into landscape evolution. The analysis of
morphometric parameters of landforms and their correlation to plan­
tation surfaces in the entire CSK reveals three different stages of kar­
stification and thus landscape evolution from old to mature to young.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
C. Bauer: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Inves­
tigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original
draft, Writing – review & editing. T. Wagner: Conceptualization, Data
curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation,
Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
Andreas Bauer is acknowledged for the graphic visualisation of the
landscape evolution (schematic profile in Fig. 11/A) and Kurt Stüwe for
providing the arial photograph of the Gradenbach Creek in Fig. 2/A.
Sincere thanks to the many speleologists who have spent countless hours
to generate and refine the cave inventory of the CSK. We also would like
to thank the referees L. Bruxelles, L. Plan and J. De Waele and the editor
for their very constructive feedback that helped to improve the manu­
script considerably.
19
Geomorphology 447 (2024) 109024
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