Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

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Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/geomorphology

Subsurface structures of solution dolines inferred from electrical resistivity

tomography: A hypothesis on the evolutionary process of solution dolines at
the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau, southwest Japan
Naoyuki Yoshihara a, Naoya Hiramoto b, Tsuyoshi Hattanji c, *
a
Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8567, Japan
b
Kozo Keikaku Engineering Inc., 4-5-3 Chuo, Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-0011, Japan
c
Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The evolution of solution dolines is regulated by carbonate dissolution mediated by water and CO2. The sub­
Akiyoshi-dai surface structure influences the evolutionary pattern of the dolines. Despite the significant effects of enlarged
Epikarst joints or shafts on the development of solution dolines, a few studies have identified the subsurface structures of
Karst
multiple solution dolines. To this end, we utilized 2-D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) at 15 dolines and
Karst conduit
Limestone
an outcrop in the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau, Japan, which is composed of massive and fractured limestone lithology.
Shaft The results of ERT exhibited the following: (i) a similar range for electrical resistivity in parallel to the topo­
graphic relief; (ii) an increase in resistivity with depth, and; (iii) a low resistivity zone characterized by <400
Ωm, at shallow areas. Some electrical resistivity distributions exhibited high resistivity zones that were vertically
split by low or intermediate resistivity zones. Our results and interpretation revealed that the main shafts, which
play a substantial role in the evolution of solution dolines, can be formed around the doline bottoms rather than
in their central sectors. We propose a hypothesis that can better account for the subsurface structures and the
development of dolines in Akiyoshi-dai. Our hypothesis suggests that the role of main shafts in the evolution of
solution dolines can be superseded by another influential joint system with a potential shaft during their evo­
lution, resulting in the ubiquity of main shafts beneath the doline bottoms. This hypothesis would further our
understanding of the intricate role of shafts in the evolution of karst systems involving solution dolines.

1. Introduction
Dolines, or sinkholes, are enclosed depressions found in karst regions
(Williams, 1983; Klimchouk, 2004; Williams, 2004, 2008; Gutiérrez
et al., 2014; Hartmann et al., 2014; Parise, 2019, 2022). The evolution of
solution dolines is controlled by the dissolution of carbonate rock
mediated by water and CO2 derived from the atmosphere, vegetation,
and microbial activities in the soil (Buhmann and Dreybrodt, 1985;
Klimchouk, 1995; Hartmann et al., 2014). The superficial layer of car­
bonate rock, known as epikarst, plays a significant role in the landscape
evolution and aquifer recharge in karst regions, and the thickness of the
epikarst ranges from several tens of centimeters to a hundred meters
(Williams, 2008; Jones, 2013; Hartmann et al., 2014; Bakalowicz, 2019;
White, 2019; Berthelin and Hartmann, 2020; Wang et al., 2022).
Furthermore, the topography of the bedrock surface and resultant
pathways of water and CO2 supplies influence the spatial heterogeneity
of the dissolution of the epikarst (Bakalowicz, 2019). Therefore, the
subsurface structure plays a critical role in the evolutionary pattern of
solution dolines.
The evolution of solution dolines has been extensively studied.
Williams (1983) proposed a conceptual model in which dolines
comprise a soil layer, an epikarst layer, and fresh carbonate rock as the
bedrock. This model postulates that denudation rates increase in epi­
karst zones proximal to karst conduits — fissures or fractures that are
enlarged through the dissolution of carbonate rock — where preferential
dissolution occurs via an interaction with copious amounts of water and
CO2. Klimchouk (1995) and Williams (2008) recognized the impact of
karst conduits on doline evolution, suggesting that karst conduits with
high hydraulic conductivity facilitate the downward percolation of
water, resulting in limestone dissolution and the formation of enlarged

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hattan@geoenv.tsukuba.ac.jp (T. Hattanji).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2023.108921
Received 27 February 2023; Received in revised form 23 August 2023; Accepted 24 September 2023
Available online 29 September 2023
0169-555X/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
N. Yoshihara et al.
fractures known as vertical shafts. Overall, the mechanism of doline
evolution can be explained by a positive feedback loop between the
dissolution rate and water flow: the widening of fractures due to
dissolution enhances downward water flow, facilitating further disso­
lution (Ford and Williams, 2007; Worthington and Ford, 2009; De Waele
et al., 2011; Lipar et al., 2021; De Waele and Gutiérrez, 2022). In
addition, the central sector of a doline is predicted to show a high
surface-lowering rate due to the dissolution of carbonates enhanced by
the centripetal water flow with biogenic CO2 (De Waele and Gutiérrez,
2022).
As the topography and subsurface structures of dolines are closely
related, identifying the subsurface structures is crucial for understand­
ing the regime of landscape evolution in karst terrains. However, a few
studies have revealed the detailed subsurface structures of solution
dolines. Notably, the constraints on the position of the shaft are not well
understood, even though the fracture system is a major factor that
controls the development of solution dolines (De Waele and Gutiérrez,
2022). This is attributed to the limited observational data on the rela­
tionship between the topography of dolines and the distribution of
fracture systems such as joints and shafts (e.g., Bauer et al., 2005;
Gutiérrez et al., 2008; Williams, 2008; Daura et al., 2014; Gutiérrez,
2016). Filling this knowledge gap would lead to a deeper understanding
of karst systems.
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) provides a 2-D or 3-D sub­
surface distribution of electrical resistivity (Loke, 2004; Perrone et al.,
2014; Leucci et al., 2016). ERT has been utilized in karst systems for
several purposes, including identifying groundwater flow systems
(Cheng et al., 2019; Le et al., 2023), determining subsurface structures of
dolines (Valois et al., 2011; Festa et al., 2012; Akiyama et al., 2015),
detecting macropores and sinkholes (Roth et al., 2002; Van Schoor,
2002; Ahmed and Carpenter, 2003; Margiotta et al., 2012; Pepe et al.,
2015; Carbonel et al., 2014, 2015; Bernatek-Jakiel and Kondracka,
2016; Margiotta et al., 2016; Romano et al., 2023), visualizing a pale­
olake (Romey et al., 2014), and observing hydrological responses
(Watlet et al., 2018). However, ERT has not been widely used to observe
subsurface structures of multiple dolines with varying sizes. Therefore,
the use of ERT with this aim can provide a deeper understanding of the
link between topography and subsurface structure in the evolutionary
process of solution dolines.
The purpose of this study is to reveal the subsurface structures
beneath 15 solution dolines in the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau in southwest
Japan by using ERT. At Akiyoshi-dai, a 1 m resolution digital elevation
model (1 m DEM) based on airborne Light Detection and Ranging
(LiDAR) data is available. High-resolution LiDAR data enables the
detection of dolines through topographic relief (e.g., Antonić et al.,
2001; Angel et al., 2004; Bauer, 2015; Hofierka et al., 2018; Zumpano
et al., 2019; Pisano et al., 2020).
In this study, the ERT survey lines were constructed to intersect the
slope and bottom sections of the target dolines. ERT was also conducted
along an outcrop in the study site to determine the electrical resistivity
range of the subsurface materials comprising the target dolines. The
results of the ERT were interpreted in conjunction with previous studies
to infer the subsurface structures of the dolines, and the 2-D distribution
of the soil, limestone bedrock, the mixture of soil and fractured lime­
stone, and enlarged joint (as the main shaft) beneath each survey line
was estimated. Note that, in this study, the term “shaft” refers to an
enlarged joint whose void space is filled with sediments of limestone
fragments and/or soil with high water content. We revealed that the
main shafts are formed around the doline bottoms rather than in their
central sectors, even though main shafts, which play a significant role in
the evolution of dolines, can facilitate the dissolution of nearby lime­
stone, thereby effectively lowering the ground surface. A conceptual
model was hypothesized to account for the inferred subsurface struc­
tures of the dolines and the specific role of shafts in the evolutionary
process of solution dolines in the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau.
2
Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921
2. Study site
Akiyoshi-dai, located in the Yamaguchi Prefecture of southwestern
Japan, is a 130 km2 limestone plateau (Fig. 1). This area features over
500 solution dolines (Matsushi et al., 2010) with limestone pinnacles.
The plateau's elevation ranges from 200 to 400 m a.s.l. Akiyoshi-dai is
characterized by a humid and temperate climate with an average annual
temperature and precipitation of 13.6 ◦ C and 1995 mm, respectively
(the precipitation mainly occurs between April and September). No
evidence of past glacial activity has been reported in this area. Most of
the area comprises anthropogenic grassland, except for some local areas
where original broad-leaved evergreen forests still exist. The grassland is
maintained by controlled burning every winter.
The lithology of the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau (i.e., Akiyoshi Limestone)
is Carboniferous-Permian metamorphosed accretionary limestone
(Matsuura et al., 2007; Geological Survey of Japan, 2023). The thickness
of the Akiyoshi Limestone varies within the range of several hundreds of
meters and locally reaches 1000 m (Fujikawa et al., 2019). The Akiyoshi
Limestone at this study site was formed by aggregations of broken
limestone and limestone breccia (Sano and Kanmera, 1991) and is
largely massive and unstratified (Sano et al., 2009). Faults develop in
this lithology but are rarely found in the vicinity of the target dolines
(Fig. 2). Therefore, the limestone lithology at the study site is probably
characterized by a fragmented structure derived from joints. Although
the information on the spatial distribution of the strike and dip of this
lithology is limited in and around the target dolines, Ota (1977) reported
the non-uniform direction of strike and dip of the bedding and joints of
the Akiyoshi Limestone around the study site.
Previous studies in Akiyoshi-dai have examined the landscape evo­
lution and dissolution rates of solution dolines. Matsushi et al. (2010)
determined the evolution of a solution doline based on cosmogenic 36Cl
in calcite. They found that the dissolution rates of the doline varied point
by point (from 63 ± 7 to 256 ± 26 g/m2/yr) and tended to increase with
the contributing area for each point within the doline. Akiyama et al.
(2015) conducted an in-situ dissolution experiment of limestone tablets
and found that the dissolution rate of limestone bedrock, which ranged
from 39 to 219 g/m2/yr, generally increased with depth from the ground
surface, likely due to a high water and CO2 supply. They also estimated
the 2-D subsurface structure of a doline using ERT, which revealed the
presence of shafts that enhance the dissolution of nearby limestone.
However, the study did not further discuss the applicability of ERT in
detecting shafts or karst conduits, as the information provided was
insufficient for a comprehensive understanding of the subsurface
structure of solution dolines.
The details of the 15 targeted dolines, including their locations and
topographic characteristics, are summarized in Table 1. The target
dolines are located within an area of 700 m × 800 m and an altitude
ranging from 300 to 390 m a.s.l. The contributing area for each doline
ranges from 826 to 20,024 m2 with an average size of 8414 m2 and a
standard deviation of 7248 m2. The depth of the dolines, defined as the
maximum relative height from the bottom to the ridge, varies from 6 to
60 m with an average value of 29 m and a standard deviation of 18 m.
Doline 8 was previously used by Matsushi et al. (2010) and Akiyama
et al. (2015) for their studies on denudation rates.
The Akiyoshi Cave is located within the Akiyoshi Limestone with an
elevation of 100–200 m a.s.l. Its network diminishes with increasing
altitude above 200 m a.s.l., and a few vertical and horizontal caves are
found above 350 and 300 m a.s.l., respectively (Matsui, 1980; Kawano,
1983). Collapse dolines are scarce in the study region (Ota, 1963),
implying there are little or no near-surface caves. Therefore, we assume
that the effects of the cave networks are negligible in our ERT, which
aims to estimate the subsurface structures several meters below the
ground surface of solution dolines (the details of the ERT are described
in the next section).
N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Fig. 1. (a) Overview of the study site with ERT lines, outlines of bottom and contributing areas of target dolines, and the location of the outcrop where observation
and ERT were performed. (b) A zoom image of doline 1. (c) A zoom image of doline 2. (d) A zoom image of dolines 3–11. (e) A zoom image of dolines 12–15. The red
straight lines represent survey lines for ERT. Orange stars and open circles denote the start and end points of ERT lines, respectively. Contributing area for each target
doline is outlined in blue. Ellipses with dashed lines denote the area of the doline bottom. The background image (generated from 1-m resolution DEM) shows hill
shade and elevation.

3. Materials and methods
Two-dimensional ERT was employed to examine the subsurface
structures of 15 dolines in Akiyoshi-dai. ERT was also performed along
an outcrop exposed on a part of a road cut (34.254◦ N, 131.315◦ E) found
350 m southeast of the target doline 2 to determine the range of elec­
trical resistivity representing each subsurface material in the study site
(Fig. 1a). The horizontal and vertical lengths of the outcrop are
approximately 24 and 5 m, respectively (Fig. 3a). Details of ERT,
including the unit electrode spacing, date of the survey, length of the
survey line, number of channels, and antecedent precipitation, are
presented in Table 2. Apparent electrical resistivity was measured using
Syscal Junior (IRIS Instruments, France) with 36 or 48 steel rods
(approximately 35 cm in length and 0.8 cm in diameter) as electrodes.
Our survey lines in the dolines avoided overlapping limestone out­
croppings (i.e., pinnacles) and thickets of Miscanthus sinensis as much as
possible because they cause measurement errors due to the exception­
ally high ground resistance of electrodes.
The ERT for dolines measured the apparent electrical resistivity
along 14 survey lines intersecting one or two dolines. The resistivity
values beneath the contiguous dolines 3 and 4 were determined by
conducting ERT along a single survey line with a slope distance of 117.5
m (Fig. 1d). The same procedure was performed for dolines 5 and 6.
Lines 11NS and 11EW cross at the center of the bottom of doline 11.
The start and end points of all survey lines for the dolines were sit­
uated on the slope sections or near ridges of dolines (Fig. 1). The ERT
lines generally traversed the central sectors of the doline bottoms. The
coordinates of the endpoints were obtained using a Mobile Mapper CX

3
N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Fig. 2. Geological setting of the study area (Akiyoshi-dai Plateau) with slope map as background image. The simplified lithological distribution (1:200,000 scale) is
based on the Geological Survey of Japan (2023). The distribution of faults, strikes, and dips of basement rocks and the direction of joints were extracted from
Ota (1977).

(Magellan, France).
From the results of the portable cone penetration test and ERT at one
doline in Akiyoshi-dai, Akiyama et al. (2015) estimated the maximum
soil thickness to be 10 m. To identify the bottom of soil layers located at
such a depth and measure the electrical resistivity of soil, limestone
bedrock, and their mixture, the electrode spacing was set at 2.5 m for all
measurements at the target dolines. In this setting, the maximum
exploration depth reached approximately 16 and 19 m when the survey
lines were 87.5 and 117.5 m long, respectively.
For ERT at the outcrop, the electrode spacing was set to 0.5 m to
collate more data points with the materials comprising the outcropping
area. This setting offers an exploration depth of 4.5 m at maximum. The
ERT survey line was linearly aligned at 1 m inland from the edge of the
outcrop.
Beneath the target dolines, the physical properties of subsurface
materials are expected to vary in the vertical rather than the horizontal
direction because the subsurface structure presumably consists of hori­
zontally continuous layers of soil, bedrock, and their mixture. Consid­
ering such a structure, the Wenner-Schlumberger array configuration
was applied in the present study. This electrode array offers good
sensitivity to vertical variations of electrical resistivity than the Wenner
array. It helps obtain data with a higher signal-to-noise ratio than the
dipole-dipole array (Loke, 2004). Additionally, to enhance the signal-to-
noise ratio of apparent electrical resistivity data, 3–6 stacks were per­
formed in each measurement. An electric current at a voltage of 12 mV
was applied for 0.5 s in all measurements.
In the present study, ERT was conducted during the seasons
following the complete melting of snow in 2018, 2019, and 2023

4
N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Table 1 smoothness-constrained least-squares inversion (L2-norm) method was

Location and topographic characteristics of solution dolines. applied, and the topographic relief (i.e., an elevation profile along the
Doline Longitude Latitude Contributing Maximum Crossing survey line) was incorporated except for the case of ERT at the outcrop.
ID of the of the area (m2) relative ERT line The data for the topographic relief was generated from the 1 m DEM
center of center of height (m) constructed in 2013–2014. Inversion results with root mean square
doline doline
(RMS) errors of <8% were obtained by running 5–10 iterations except
bottom (◦ E) bottom (◦
N) for dolines 12 and 13, which showed RMS errors of 10.58% and 15.12%,
respectively. The resistivity distributions were visualized using a Python
1 131.3120 34.2581 19,273 45 1
2 131.3132 34.2563 6579 25 2
script based on “ERTplot.py” (a script file provided by Halloran, 2018).
3 131.3110 34.2604 1137 12 3–4
4 131.3108 34.2603 2380 12 3–4 4. Results
5 131.3113 34.2603 1397 6 5–6
6 131.3112 34.2601 826 6 5–6
7 131.3101 34.2609 2510 11 7
The outcrop exposed on a part of a road cut near the target dolines
8 131.3100 34.2599 18,834 57 8 helped collating materials within the study site with their electrical re­
9 131.3096 34.2602 20,024 49 9 sistivity ranges, although the image of the outcrop does not necessarily
10 131.3109 34.2590 12,382 30 10 allow for the reconstruction of a three-dimensional structure (Fig. 3).
11 131.3100 34.2588 16,953 46 11NS,
The outcrop showed a fine soil layer on the southern side and the sur­
11EW
12 131.3072 34.2612 13,676 60 12 ficial zone, a massive limestone bedrock on the middle part, and a
13 131.3070 34.2609 4065 25 13 mixture of soil and fractured limestone on the northern side of the
14 131.3077 34.2607 3352 14 14 outcrop (Fig. 3a). The result of the ERT using an electrode spacing of 0.5
15 131.3069 34.2602 2816 29 15 m along the outcrop indicated that resistivities of the soil layer and
limestone bedrock ranged from 20 to 400 and 1000 to 12,800 Ωm,
(Table 2). ERT along survey lines 1 and 2 was performed a day after a respectively (Fig. 3b). The resistivity of the soil layer reaching a depth of
15.5 mm rainfall at the Japan Meteorological Agency Station of ~0.5 m from the ground surface was higher than 400 Ωm, probably due
Akiyoshidai (34.235◦ N, 131.307◦ E). In other cases, rainfall was not to the lower water saturation compared to the deeper layers. The soil-
observed since a day before ERT. bedrock interface diagonally running at the middle part of the outcrop
The apparent electrical resistivity data were inverted using showed an abrupt spatial change in electrical resistivity ranging from
RES2DINV (Loke, 2004) to obtain the 2-D electrical resistivity distri­ 400 to 1600 Ωm.
butions beneath the targeted dolines. The parameters employed for the The electrical resistivity structures beneath the 15 solution dolines
inversion processes are summarized in Table 3. Data points with were constructed using ERT along 14 survey lines (Fig. 4). Our inversion
apparent resistivity values that were either extremely high or negative results for the dolines revealed that the electrical resistivities in the 5th,
were excluded from the inversion analysis. During the inversion, the 25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th percentiles were 71, 181, 555, 7.86 × 103,
and 1.35 × 105 Ωm, respectively. The mean and percentile values of the

Fig. 3. A composite photograph of an outcrop (a) and the inversion result of ERT performed immediately above the outcrop (b). Fig. 3a contains observed (true)
interfaces of subsurface materials. Fig. 3b contains the estimated subsurface structure beneath the ERT line.

5
N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Table 2
Settings of electrical resistivity tomography.
Line ID Date Electrode spacing (m) Length (m) Number of channels Antecedent precipitation (mm)a

30 days 7 days 1 day

1 17/3/2018 2.5 117.5 48 158.5 27.0 15.5

2 17/3/2018 2.5 87.5 36 158.5 27.0 15.5
3–4 30/4/2018 2.5 117.5 48 100.5 43.5 0
5–6 30/4/2018 2.5 117.5 48 100.5 43.5 0
7 30/4/2018 2.5 87.5 36 100.5 43.5 0
8 1/5/2018 2.5 117.5 48 100.5 43.5 0
9 1/5/2018 2.5 87.5 36 100.5 43.5 0
10 1/5/2018 2.5 117.5 48 100.5 43.5 0
11NS 1/5/2018 2.5 117.5 48 100.5 43.5 0
11EW 3/5/2019 2.5 117.5 48 137.5 65.0 0
12 2/5/2019 2.5 117.5 48 137.5 65.0 0
13 2/5/2019 2.5 87.5 36 137.5 65.0 0
14 2/5/2019 2.5 87.5 36 137.5 65.0 0
15 3/5/2019 2.5 87.5 36 137.5 65.0 0
Outcrop 1/8/2023 0.5 23.5 48 296.0 2.0 0
a
Data are from the Japan Meteorological Agency Station of Akiyoshidai (34.235◦ N, 131.307◦ E).

5. Discussion
Table 3
Parameters for inversion.
5.1. Interpretation of the results
Line ID Number of Number Average initial Number of RMS
data points of grids resistivity iterations error
We interpret the results of ERT to estimate 2-D subsurface structures
(Ωm) (%)
of solution dolines. We first delimit the bounds of electrical resistivity
1 519 336 325 7 4.02 corresponding to the soil, limestone bedrock, and their mixture to ach­
2 292 211 358 6 1.30
3–4 522 336 784 7 5.39
ieve a robust interpretation, based on the outcrop observation and the
5–6 522 336 605 7 3.13 ERT results of this study as well as previous reports from several regions
7 287 211 708 7 7.20 including Akiyoshi-dai Plateau. Subsequently, we apply the correspon­
8 522 336 310 6 4.13 dence between subsurface materials and electrical resistivity to the re­
9 293 211 449 5 4.78
sults of ERT. Finally, we estimate subsurface structures beneath the ERT
10 521 336 311 7 2.10
11NS 488 331 510 10 5.67 lines. In this study, we assume that the shafts are not derived from faults,
11EW 522 336 661 7 7.98 but stem from joints within the massive and fractured Akiyoshi Lime­
12 522 336 1009 7 10.58 stone because, apparently, the distribution of the faults does not highly
13 297 255 832 8 15.12 regulate the spatial distribution of dolines and shafts in the study site
14 297 255 674 6 4.57
15 297 211 479 7 4.97
(Fig. 2). Moreover, given that well-developed collapse dolines are rarely
Outcrop 565 381 329 6 3.88 found at the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau (Ota, 1963), the effect of caves on our
ERT results is assumed to be negligible.

inversion result of the ERT along each survey line are summarized in
Table 4. The electrical resistivity distributions showed the following: (i)
a similar range of resistivity was observed parallel to the topography; (ii)
the electrical resistivity vertically increased with depth, and; (iii) a low
resistivity zone showing <400 Ωm was generally observed at the shal­
lower part of the doline. Most electrical resistivity distributions exhibi­
ted thicker low resistivity zones at the doline bottoms and thinner low
resistivity bands at the slope sections. High resistivity zones in the order
of 103 Ωm or more were generally observed at the deeper parts of
electrical resistivity distributions. Deeper parts of all dolines, except for
doline 2, exhibited high electrical resistivity, exceeding 12,800 Ωm. All
target dolines had zones with intermediate electrical resistivities of
102–103 Ωm which were intercalated with the low and high resistivity
zones. Low to intermediate electrical resistivity zones were also
observed in the proximity of the pinnacles.
Some electrical resistivity distributions exhibited high resistivity
zones vertically split by low or intermediate resistivity zones. A low
resistivity zone, with 200–400 Ωm, was found to be vertically pene­
trating beneath the center of the bottom of doline 2 (Fig. 4b). Similar
zones were also observed beneath dolines 3, 4, 5, 9, and 10; however,
these zones deviated from the centers of the doline bottoms (Fig. 4c, d, g,
and h). The electrical resistivity distributions below dolines 1, 7, 8, and
11 indicated sunken resistivity structures, exhibiting 3200–6400 Ωm
(Fig. 4a, e, f, j, and k). The results of ERT along lines 6 and 12–15 dis­
played no evidence of vertically continuous low-resistivity anomalies
(Fig. 4d and k–n), contrary to the results along the other survey lines.
5.1.1. Representative ranges of electrical resistivity for subsurface materials
This section delimits the bounds of electrical resistivity representing
subsurface materials (soil, limestone bedrock, and their mixture) based
on the outcrop observation from the study site and the literature. Table 5
summarizes this relationship. A detailed explanation is described below.
The in-field observation at the outcrop near the target dolines
revealed that the soil layer exhibited lower resistivity than that of the
bedrock zone, except for the surficial zone shallower than 0.5 m in depth
(Fig. 3). Moreover, the soil-bedrock interface was characterized by an
abrupt spatial change in electrical resistivity. These features are largely
consistent with the findings of Akiyama et al. (2015), who found that the
soil-bedrock boundary of a solution doline in Akiyoshi-dai (doline 8 in
the present study) exhibits electrical resistivity ranging from 250 to 350
Ωm. This finding supports the assumption that the electrical resistivity
of the bottom part of a soil layer is a few-hundreds of ohmmeters. It can
also be assumed that an abrupt spatial change in electrical resistivity,
ranging from 400 to 1600 Ωm, indicates a discontinuity of subsurface
material around the soil depth (i.e., the lower limit of the soil layer)
(Table 5).
In addition, the ERT result at the outcrop indicated that the electrical
resistivity of massive limestone bedrock is >1000 Ωm. Akiyama et al.
(2015) found that the electrical resistivity of a mixture of clayey soils
and limestone ranges from 350 to 1000 Ωm in Akiyoshi-dai and that
hard bedrock can exhibit >10,000 Ωm, irrespective of antecedent pre­
cipitation. In other regions, the electrical resistivity of limestone
bedrock exceeds 200 Ωm (Siart et al., 2012) and usually exhibits >1000

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N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Fig. 4. Results of ERT without interpretation. Orange stars and open circles denote the start and end points of ERT lines, respectively. Gray triangles represent the
locations of neighbor pinnacles (i.e., bedrock outcrops) along the ERT lines. Topographic reliefs along the ERT lines are classified into slope and bottom sections. The
same legends in Fig. 4 are used to show the electrical resistivity value, start and end points of the ERT line, and pinnacles in Figs. 5–9.

Table 4 Table 5
Mean and percentile values of inversion results (true electrical resistivity) along Ranges of electrical resistivity representing the subsurface materials.
the ERT survey lines.
Layer Description
Line ID Electrical resistivity (Ωm)
Soil The electrical resistivity of the soil layer mainly falls below
Mean 5% 25% 50% 75% 95% 400 Ωm. The bottom of the soil layer shows an abrupt
spatial change in electrical resistivity within the range of
1 2316 47 87 247 1297 7918 400–1600 Ωm.
2 395 135 188 301 445 710 Mixture of soil and Intermediate resistivity zone compared to the resistivity for
3–4 7391 85 410 2010 14,510 25,130 limestone a soil layer and a bedrock zone.
5–6 6140 75 273 1253 7140 25,358 Bedrock More than 1000 Ωm. The bedrock surface shows an abrupt
7 10,536 83 398 2362 13,686 53,985 spatial change in resistivity ranging from 1000 to 10,000
8 10,017 65 108 195 981 19,232 Ωm.
9 5206 77 188 374 1838 17,775
10 689 68 120 273 590 2657
11NS 17,355 70 175 855 19,056 114,085
or 10,000 Ωm (e.g., Breg Valjavec, 2014; Nyquist et al., 2007; Xu et al.,
11EW 20,254 93 235 1158 8236 150,770
12 201,218 106 260 4220 406,303 710,307 2016; Sun et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2019). Taking these findings into
13 52,098 75 278 2424 116,160 179,159 consideration, we assumed that an abrupt spatial change in electrical
14 5906 152 285 468 6213 28,599 resistivity to a value of 1000–10,000 Ωm indicates the bedrock surface
15 8773 83 147 428 17,656 30,525
(Table 5).
Outcrop 836 81 195 347 816 3835
In summary, according to the outcrop observation and the literature
reviewed above, the soil and bedrock zones in our study region can be
defined as the zones exhibiting electrical resistivities of <400 Ωm and
>1000 Ωm, respectively. The mixture layer (i.e., the limestone layer

7
N. Yoshihara et al.
whose fracture is filled with soil) is expected to show the intermediate
resistivity value compared to those for soil and bedrock, although its
resistivity range cannot be directly specified as it displays spatial het­
erogeneity in physical properties incorporating soils, boulders, and
carbonate rocks with variable weathering degree. Eventually, the zone
with a mixture of soil and limestone is defined as intermediately resis­
tive zones that are intercalated with the soil layer and bedrock which
exhibit distinct resistivity ranges each other.
5.1.2. Estimation of subsurface structures of solution dolines
The assumptions and definitions described above facilitate esti­
mating the subsurface structures beneath 15 dolines. Our results and
interpretation imply that the soil layer at the doline bottom and
downslope is thicker than at the upper slope. Doline 2 has a soil layer
>10 m in thickness (as illustrated in Fig. 5b). Dolines 3–7, 11–13, and 15
indicate soil coverage thinner than 5 m (Figs. 6, 7a, 8, 9a, b, and d).
Dolines 1, 8–10, and 14 have soil layers between 5 and 10 m in thickness
(Figs. 5a, 7b–d, and 9c). Most of the mixture of soil and limestone we
identified has a thickness ranging from a few meters to 10 m. The depth
of the bedrock surface is generally >5 m from the ground surface.
Concave topography with karst conduits is also inferred at the center
of the bottom of doline 2 (Fig. 5b) and around one side of the bottom of
dolines 1, 3, 4, 8, 9, and 10 (Figs. 5a, 6a, and 7b–d). Two pillar-shaped
zones of resistivity with 3200–6400 Ωm in the bedrock zone were
observed below the ERT line 3–4 (Fig. 6a). These zones showed lower
resistivity than the adjacent bedrock zones with resistivities of approx­
imately 6400–25,600 Ωm. Such a spatial difference in resistivity may
indicate the inclusion of karst conduits or narrow shafts with void spaces
filled with sediments of limestone fragments and/or soil with high
moisture. Resistivity model blocks involving fractures filled with sedi­
ments, soil, and water would exhibit an electrical resistivity range lower
than that of the intact limestone bedrock, although their resistivity range
varies with the mixing ratio of conductive materials (soil and water) and
resistive materials (limestone). Sunken resistivity structures observed
below ERT lines 7, 11NS, and 11EW may also indicate narrow shafts
(Figs. 7a and 8). An enlarged shaft is estimated beneath the north-facing
slope of doline 5 (Fig. 6b). Similarly, matured shafts, or developed karst
conduits, are inferred around the bottoms of dolines 1 and 8 (Figs. 5a
and 7b).
No indications of shafts are observed in the cases of dolines 6 and
12–15 (Figs. 6b and 9). Although electrical resistivity distributions
beneath dolines 7, and 11 show sunken resistivity structures, the exis­
tence of shafts seems less evident (Figs. 7a and 8). Therefore, there are
two possibilities. The first possibility is that dolines 6, 7, and 11–15 do
Fig. 5. Interpretation of the results of ERT along lines 1 (a) and 2 (b). Upward arrows indicate the locations of potential shafts. The definitions of soil, bedrock, and
their mixture (i.e., soil and bedrock) are described in Table 5.
8
Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921
not involve shafts. The second possibility is that, the ERT resulted in a
false negative outcome because the shafts were not detected despite
their presence due to their small apertures or their existence outside the
exploration range of the ERT.
5.2. Evolutionary process of solution dolines in Akiyoshi-dai
Our results and interpretation suggest that the main shafts, which
would essentially control the landform change of solution dolines, are
formed around the doline bottoms rather than in their central sectors,
while previous studies focusing on the doline development have not
explored the positional relationship between the main shafts and the
doline bottoms (e.g., Bauer et al., 2005; Gutiérrez et al., 2008; Williams,
2008; Daura et al., 2014; Gutiérrez, 2016). Here, we propose a hy­
pothesis that can account for the unique subsurface structure of dolines
estimated in Akiyoshi-dai. In short, we suggest that the main shafts
during the evolution of dolines could be superseded by other adjacent
fracture systems that involve potential shafts at some point from the
initiation of dolines to the present time (Fig. 10). A detailed explanation
of this hypothesis is described below, along with the application in the
evolutionary process of the solution dolines that have been investigated
in this study.
Considering the massive and fractured limestone lithology in
Akiyoshi-dai Plateau (Ota, 1963; Sano et al., 2009), we presuppose that
joints, which play a role in karst conduits, are well developed beneath
the target dolines; in contrast, faults are rarely found there (Fig. 2).
In this geological setting, the ubiquity of main shafts beneath the
doline bottoms can be attributed to the emergence of joint-derived main
shafts, which are not identical to the original one, during the evolution
of solution dolines. The original main shaft can contribute less to lime­
stone dissolution compared to a potential shaft. This can occur either
when the original main shaft diminishes or a joint as the potential shaft
is connected to the epikarst zone during surface lowering (Fig. 10a and
b). In this case, the main shaft would be superseded by the newly con­
nected shaft. The positional shift of the main shaft modifies the location
at which denudation occurs most rapidly, resulting in the development
of the main shaft around the edge of doline bottoms during the
geological timescale (0.3–4.89 Ma in the case of the Akiyoshi-dai
Plateau as estimated by Fujii, 2005; Matsushi et al., 2010). Moreover,
the positional shift of the main shafts eventually causes the deviation of
the main shafts from the centers of the doline bottoms (Fig. 10c). The
geomorphic processes hypothesized above would account for the gap
between the locations of the centers of doline bottoms and the locations
of the main shafts.
N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Fig. 6. Interpretation of the results of ERT along lines 3–4 (a) and 5–6 (b).

Fig. 7. Interpretation of the results of ERT along lines 7 (a), 8 (b), 9 (c), and 10 (d).

If a main shaft solely exists (i.e., there are no other potential shafts)
under the doline bottoms, it continues to function as the main shaft,
thereby locating itself at the lowest part of the doline bottom due to the
rapid limestone dissolution (Fig. 10d). This process would locate the
main shaft at the center of the doline bottom.
Geomorphic factors other than limestone dissolution, such as
collapsing of dolines and formation of denuded caves (i.e., caves
exposed due to surface lowering caused by denudation and/or collapse;
Ferk and Lipar, 2023; Knez and Slabe, 2023), might also be considered.
However, their contribution to the evolution of dolines at the Akiyoshi-
dai Plateau is insignificant because (i) collapse dolines are scarcely
observed (Ota, 1963), (ii) most dolines have funneled shapes covered
with soil, vegetation, and pinnacles, and (iii) the horizontal caves are
rarely found above 300 m a.s.l. (Matsui, 1980; Kawano, 1983). Such
topographic features would reduce the significance of the collapse and
denuded caves on the formation of dolines at the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau.
Moreover, Ota (1963) reported that >90% of dolines are classified as
solution dolines at the Akiyoshi-dai Plateau. Therefore, limestone
dissolution is assumed to be the most significant contributor to the
formation of dolines in this area. In this context, the existence of
enlarged fractures, including potential shafts, would be one of the major
factors that control the formation of solution dolines at the Akiyoshi-dai
Plateau.
Given that our hypothesis regarding the target dolines is true, the

9
N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Fig. 8. Interpretation of the results of ERT along lines 11NS (a) and 11EW (b).

Fig. 9. Interpretation of the results of ERT along lines 12 (a), 13 (b), 14 (c), and 15 (d).

following can be predicted: (i) if the center of the doline bottom co­
incides with the location of the main shaft (in this study, doline 2;
Fig. 5b), the main shaft at its current position will act as a hotspot of
surface lowering during the development of the doline (from an early
stage to the present time); (ii) if the center of the doline bottom deviates
from the location of main shafts (dolines 1, 3–5, 7–10, and potentially
11; Figs. 5a and 6–8), the current main shafts would have superseded the
original in terms of their influence on doline evolution, and; (iii) if the
enlarged shafts or karst conduits cannot be identified (potentially
dolines 6 and 12–15; Figs. 6b and 9), the dolines would have developed
with narrow karst conduits that cannot be detected by 2-D ERT with the
electrode spacing that we used (2.5 m), or the original main shafts would
have disappeared by denudation. However, it must be noted that a 2-D
ERT, with a single survey line on a doline, may result in a false negative
outcome. At least, our hypothesis accounts for the ubiquity of the main
shafts beneath the doline bottoms.
Of the investigated dolines in the present study, doline 2 is the
typical case where the shift of the main shaft is less evident (as illus­
trated in Fig. 10d). This doline has a main shaft around the center of the
doline bottom, implying that the main shaft significantly facilitated
limestone dissolution and resultant surface lowering on a time scale of
hundreds of thousands to millions of years. In contrast, dolines 1, 3–5,
and 7–10 (and potentially 11) would be affected by multiple shaft sys­
tems during their evolutionary processes at the geological time scale;

10
N. Yoshihara et al. Geomorphology 442 (2023) 108921

Fig. 10. Hypothesized evolutionary processes of solution dolines in Akiyoshi-dai. (a) Initial condition inferred from the interpretation of the ERT results. (b–c) The
developmental process of solution dolines with potential shafts, which possibly causes rapid surface lowering in the vicinity. (d) The shape of a solution doline that is
unaffected by potential shafts, thereby causing rapid surface lowering above the single main shaft.

these dolines have main shafts that deviated from the center of the
doline bottoms (Fig. 10b and c). This type of subsurface structure implies
that the shift of the main shaft occurred at some time, thereby changing
the positional relationship between the main shaft and the doline bot­
tom from the initial stage of the development of the solution dolines. In
such a case, it is expected that denudation occurs most rapidly in the
vicinity of the present main shaft, not where the main shaft was previ­
ously located, resulting in an asymmetrical morphology of dolines.
Our hypothesis is applicable if a carbonate rock forming the solution
dolines has a massive, fractured, and unstratified structure without
faults, like the limestone lithology in the Akiyoshi-dai area. In such a
geological setting, some joint-derived shafts significantly contribute to
the evolution of solution dolines. Further investigation is required to
validate our hypothetical conceptual model to solution dolines devel­
oped in other geological conditions (e.g., stratified carbonate or evap­
orite layers).
5.3. Future work
Future work should address two significant limitations to applying
ERT to dolines and the evolution of solution dolines. Firstly, using an
ERT with broader coverage and higher spatial resolution is essential to
extracting more reliable subsurface information from the electrical re­
sistivity distribution. Ideally, 3-D ERT that employs multiple survey
lines parallelly aligned should be implemented to discern the presence of
main shafts with a low false negative rate. Extending the area coverage
of ERT with higher spatial data resolution would lead to a more robust
interpretation of ERT results. It will help detect the joints and verify the
assumption that the cave network does not appear in the ERT results of
the present study. Additionally, utilizing ERT with an electrode spacing
narrower than that we used (2.5 m) would aid in identifying anomalies
such as karst conduits or shafts with small apertures because ERT with
narrow spacing, which provides us with spatially dense measurement
data points, is expected to detect smaller anomalies. Combining other
geophysical methods such as induced polarization and/or seismic
refraction survey may aid in a more reliable interpretation of the ERT
results (Pueyo-Anchuela et al., 2009; Chalikakis et al., 2011; Valois
et al., 2011; Carrière et al., 2013; Albritton and Kromhout, 2023). Sec­
ondly, the evolutionary process of solution dolines hypothesized in this
study requires verification using other methods and analyses. The

11
N. Yoshihara et al.
predicted supersedure of the main shaft during the evolution of solution
dolines should be tested based on further in-field observations, disso­
lution tests, laboratory tests, and numerical simulations.
6. Conclusion
This study estimated the subsurface structures of 15 solution dolines
by using ERT. The results and interpretation indicate that ERT is an
effective tool for understanding the subsurface structures of solution
dolines, particularly in determining the spatial distribution of soil,
bedrock, their mixture, and main shafts. Additionally, the main shafts
can be located around the bottoms of dolines rather than in their central
sectors, whereas previous studies focusing on the developmental process
of dolines have provided a limited discussion on the positional rela­
tionship between the main shaft and the doline bottom (e.g., Bauer et al.,
2005; Gutiérrez et al., 2008; Williams, 2008; Daura et al., 2014;
Gutiérrez, 2016). A hypothesis on the evolution of solution dolines in
Akiyoshi-dai was proposed to account for the positional characteristics
of the main shafts inferred from ERT. Our hypothesis, which pre­
conditions a developed joint system within a massive limestone, sug­
gests that the role of the main shafts in the evolution of solution dolines
can be superseded by other fracture systems involving potential shafts.
Such a process leads to the ubiquity of the main shafts beneath the doline
bottoms. This new concept would aid in understanding the specific role
of shafts or karst conduits in the evolution of solution dolines.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Naoyuki Yoshihara: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualiza­
tion, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing. Naoya Hiramoto: Conceptualization, Investigation, Formal
analysis, Project administration, Writing – original draft. Tsuyoshi
Hattanji: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration,
Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
The 1 m DEM, based on airborne LiDAR data, was offered by the
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan. The authors thank Mr.
Akinori Nawata and Mr. Takatoshi Kawano for assisting with the ERT
survey. We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.com) for English
language editing.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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