Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77

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Sedimentary Geology
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Sedimentology of resedimented carbonates: Facies and geometrical characterisation

of an upper Cretaceous calciturbidite system in Albania
Yolaine Rubert a, Mohamed Jati a, Corinne Loisy a, Adrian Cerepi a,⁎, Gjergji Foto b, Kristaq Muska b
a
EA 4592 G&E, Université de Bordeaux, ENSEGID, 1, allée Daguin, 33607, Pessac, cedex, France
b
Fakulteti I Gjeologjisë dhe I Minierave, Universiteti Politeknik I Tiranës, ruga e Elbasanit, Tiranë, Albania

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Carbonate turbidite systems are not as well studied as their siliciclastic counterparts, resulting in a lack of
Received 3 May 2011 knowledge on their vertical and lateral organisation. Thus, a preliminary detailed sedimentological study
Received in revised form 23 February 2012 was undertaken in the upper Cretaceous limestones of Albania, which have been described as brecciated
Accepted 24 February 2012
limestones and, more recently, as calciturbidites. The sedimentological study of three outcrops (Piluri,
Available online 6 March 2012
Vanister and Muzina) allows the definition of different lithologies grading from fine- to coarse-grained
Editor: Dr. B. Jones sequences representing the calciturbidites, intercalated with debris flow deposits and thick slumped levels.
The thin-section examination of several facies defined in the field shows a dominance of mud-rich
Keywords: microfacies with variable granulometry, texture (mainly wackestone to packstone and floatstone), and the
Carbonate gravity deposits mixing of bioclastic and lithoclastic grains from both shallow-water (intertidal/infratidal) and deep-water
Sedimentology settings (slope/basin). The microfacies description and fauna determination support the gravity origin of
Microfacies these calciclastic limestones. According to previous studies of the Ionian Basin and the surrounding platforms,
Upper Cretaceous the upper Cretaceous calciturbidite system could be reasonably linked to regional tectonic instabilities in
Ionian basin
relation to the beginning of the convergence between the Africa and Eurasian plates. The lateral and vertical
Albania
organisation of these carbonate gravity deposits favours a depositional model over the apron model and that
these deposits were fed by material derived from either the Apulian or the Kruja platform, through faulted
shelf breaks.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction sedimentary characteristics similar to their siliciclastic counterparts

Siliciclastic turbiditic systems have been widely studied over the
last fifty years in both ancient and modern settings (Bouma, 1962;
Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1978; Normark, 1978; Mutti, 1992;
Shanmugan, 2000; Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Mulder et al.,
2010), motivated by the hydrocarbon and source rock potentials of
these deep-water environments (Shanmugan and Moiola, 1988). In
contrast to siliciclastic systems, carbonate gravity flow deposits have
been less studied. Nevertheless, the few studies published on modern
and ancient gravity-redeposited carbonates have permitted to precise
definition of the facies, the depositional models, and the controlling
factors (Mullins and Cooks, 1986; Eberli, 1987; Haak and Schlager,
1989; Betzler et al., 1999; Vigorito et al., 2005; Payros and Pujalte,
2008).
The global morphologies of carbonate and siliciclastic turbidite
systems have been compared by several authors, such as Colacicchi
and Baldanza (1986) and Eberli (1991). The study of the internal
sequence of calciturbidite beds (Meischner, 1964) revealed
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 33 5 57 12 10 11.
E-mail address: Adrian.CEREPI@egid.u-bordeaux3.fr (A. Cerepi).
(Bouma, 1962), such as the grading and the succession of sedimenta-
ry structures indicating a decelerating turbiditic current. Some other
features are proper to calciturbidites, such as the poorer sorting, the
local inverse grading, the secondary silicification (occurring as silica
nodules or layers), and the presence of an underbed (a diagenetic
micritic layer welded to the base of a turbidite) (Eberli, 1991).
Geometrical analysis of carbonate turbidite systems resulted in two
main models of deposition: (i) the slope and base-of-slope apron
model fed by a multiple linear source (Mullins and Cooks, 1986)
and (ii) the calciclastic submarine fan model fed by a localised source
through a main feeder channel system (Cook and Egbert, 1981;
Payros and Pujalte, 2008). The major factors controlling carbonate
gravity systems are sea level fluctuations (Shanmugan and Moiola,
1984; Eberli, 1991; Bernet et al., 2000), regional basin tectonics
(Eberli, 1987), source area (origin and nature of transported
elements), and slope declivity (Eberli, 1991; Payros and Pujalte,
2008). Authors, however, agree that calciclastic systems remain
under-investigated and that their general geometry, internal
organisation and petrophysical parameters lack good constrains, as
calciclastic systems usually are studied along sparse outcrops or seis-
mic profiles (Mullins and Cook, 1986; Betzler et al., 1999; Savary and
Ferry, 2004; Vigorito et al., 2005). However, resedimented carbonates

0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.02.009
64 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77

have been described as potential reservoir rocks (Mullins and Cook,
1986; Casabianca et al., 2002; Van Geet et al., 2002) and should con-
stitute future exploration targets for petroleum exploitation.
In the southwestern part of Albania, the upper Cretaceous deep
marine limestones cropout as a result of uplift linked to the Tertiary
Alpine orogeny. These limestones were described as calciturbidites
(Meço and Aliaj, 2000; Van Geet et al., 2002), but little is known
about their detailed stratigraphic organisation and facies variation.
In the central part of Albania, mainly under the Peri-Adriatic depres-
sion and adjacent areas, some of these upper Cretaceous carbonate
successions form hydrocarbon reservoirs in sub-thrust plays (Xhavo,
2002). This study focuses on resedimented carbonates deposited
from the Santonian to the Maastrichtian in the Albanian area of the
Ionian Basin, whose overall palaeogeographical and structural evolu-
tion are well constrained. These carbonate gravity deposits are
remarkably well exposed in the Piluri, Muzina and Vanister sites,
allowing for a detailed facies analysis. Based on a combined field
and petrographical study, this paper aims to unravel the different fa-
cies and their associated microfacies and to analyse the geometrical
organisation of this calciturbidite system. These interpretations will
be integrated in a regional framework to address the main controlling
factors triggering the carbonate gravity flows. A comparison with pro-
posed depositional models will also be made.
2. Geological setting
The tectonic map of Albania (Fig. 1A) shows a general NNW–SSE
trending succession of thrusts limiting W-verging tectonic nappes
(Moisiu and Gurabardhi, 2005) (Fig. 1B). This nappe stacking consti-
tutes the Albanides belt formed during the Tertiary Alpine orogeny.
In the southwestern part of Albania, the Krasta–Cukali, the Kruja,
and the Ionian tectonic zones correspond to the external Albanides.
The Sazani zone is autochthonous and belongs to the Apulian domain
(Fig. 1A). The thrusted formations of the external nappes are Triassic
to Eocene in age. Northward, the Ionian and Kruja nappes are buried
under the post-Eocene sediments of the peri-Adriatic depression,
under which some formations constitute reservoir rocks for current
petroleum exploitation (Xhavo, 2002) (Fig. 1B). The evolution of the
Ionian region is marked by a Triassic-to-Eocene phase of passive mar-
gin conditions followed by an Oligocene-to-Quaternary phase of
orogeny (Fig. 2). The Early and Middle Triassic correspond to intra-
continental rifting related to the Neo-Tethysian rifting (Stampfli and
Borel, 2002). In the Sazani and Ionian zones, the Late Triassic sedi-
ments consist of dolomites and evaporites deposited in a lagoonal/
shallow-water environment (Meço and Aliaj, 2000). The Liassic for-
mations display variations in facies and thickness, marking the former
tilted fault block system (Roure et al., 2004). From the Middle Jurassic
to Eocene, the sedimentation of the Ionian basin reflects a deep-water
carbonate depositional system limited on the both sides by the Sazani
and Kruja platforms (Figs. 2 and 3). The Middle Jurassic-to-Early
Cretaceous Ionian deposits constitute a monotonous succession of pe-
lagic limestone and cherts. The Late Cretaceous-to-Eocene sediments
correspond to allochthonous turbidites, breccias, debris flows, and
slumps (Bosellini et al., 1993; Borgomano, 2000; Meço and Aliaj,
2000; Heba and Prichonnet, 2009).
During Tertiary times, the African and Eurasian plate convergence
involved the closure of the Neo-Tethysian Ocean and the formation of
the Albanides belt (Kilias et al., 2001). In the Ionian zone, the Oligo-
cene sediments consist of synflexural flysch. From Miocene to Quater-
nary times, synkinematic molassic sediments were deposited into

A B

Fig. 1. Geological context of the study. A: Simplified tectonic map of Albania with the different tectonic zones and locations of the studied outcrops (star) (after Moisiu
and Gurabardhi, 2005). The dashed line represents the cross-section in B, and the dashed rectangle represents the location of the detailed geological map in C. B: Seismic line
interpretation of the external Albanides (after Roure et al., 2004), legend given in C. C: Detailed geological map of southern Albania with the studied Piluri, Muzina, and Vanister
outcrops indicated (after Moisiu and Gurabardhi, 2005).
 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77 65

Cenozoic
thrusts

Synorogenic
sequence
Foredeep
Piggy-back Miocene-Quat.
basin
basins synkinematic
sequence
Eoc.-Paleoc.
Upper Oligocene
Cretaceous
Passive margin sequence

synflexural
Lower sequence
Cretaceous
Malm
Dogger
Passive margin
Liassic sequence

Upper
Triassic

Mesozoic
Sazani rifting
Ionian
zone faults zone
Limestone Dolostone Evaporite

Oolitic limestone Dolostone & limestone Posidonia shale

Rudist limestone Dolostone & mudstone Siliciclastic formation

Cherty limestone

Gravitary limestone

Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic column and schematic relations between the platform settings represented by the Sazani zone and the basin settings represented by the Ionian zone (after
Meço and Aliaj, 2000; Roure et al., 2004).

foredeep and piggy-back basins. The décollements levels of the Ionian
zone are into Triassic evaporites, Toarcian Posidonia shales, and Oli-
gocene flysch (Roure et al., 2004) (Fig. 2).
The three upper Cretaceous outcrops studied are located in the
Ionian zone: i.e., the Piluri outcrop in the Cika tectonic sub-zone,
and the Muzina and Vanister outcrops in the Kurveleshi tectonic
sub-zone (Fig. 1A and C) (Moisiu and Gurabardhi, 2005). Palaeogeo-
graphically, the outcrops belong to the pelagic and hemipelagic
limestones and the chert-bearing limestones of the Ionian Basin
(Meço and Aliaj, 2000). This basin is narrow, and the platform/basin
transition is faulted and involves deposit discontinuities and lateral
facies variations (Zappaterra, 1994) (Fig. 3A and B). A biostratigraphic
study of the outcrops was performed by Brahimi et al. (1987) for
Muzina and by Brahimi et al. (1992) for Piluri and aided in locating
the Cretaceous–Palaeogene boundary.
3. Methodology
Sedimentologic data were acquired through detailed section log-
ging in the Piluri, Muzina, and Vanister outcrops. Samples were col-
lected for both microfacies and biostratigraphical analysis.
In the Piluri outcrop, two sections were logged with an approxi-
mately 350-m distance along a WSW–ENE transect (Fig. 4). The
total thickness of the reference section reached 227 m. In the Muzina
outcrop, two sections approximately 1 km apart were logged along an
E–W transect, and the total thickness was approximately 260 m
(Fig. 4). In the Vanister outcrop, situated 8 km northwest of Muzina,
a 150 m-thick section was logged in the equivalent upper part of
the Muzina succession (Fig. 4). In the field, sedimentary sequences
were distinguished based on their sedimentary structures and their
granulometry (calcilutite, calcarenite, calcirudite, pebbly/cobbly cal-
cirudite). For the sedimentary structures, the siliciclastic facies
model of Bouma (1962) was used, with the Ta to Tf divisions. Then,
we interpreted the resedimented carbonate facies according to the
classification of Mutti (1992), who described three main groups of
turbidite sandstones. The very coarse-grained facies are F1 deposits
resulting from cohesive debris flows, and the F2–F3 deposits resulting
from hyperconcentrated flows. The coarse-grained facies include WF,
F4, F5, and F6 sediments resulting from gravelly high-density turbid-
ity currents. The fine-grained F7, F8, and F9 facies are considered to be
the result of low-density turbidity currents.
Microfacies analysis was performed on 120 samples relative to
several facies that were defined in the field. Uncovered, unpolished
thin sections were studied by optical microscopy (Olympus BH-2)
with magnification from 15 × to 200× (oculars ×10 and Olympus
MSPlan objectives × 1.5, ×5, × 10, and ×20). Microfacies were classi-
fied according to the expanded classification of Embry and Klovan
(1971).
The biostratigraphical analysis was performed on samples collect-
ed at Muzina and Piluri, especially at the base of the sections and in
the uppermost part, close to the supposed Cretaceous–Palaeogene
boundary (Brahimi et al., 1987; Brahimi et al., 1992). The fauna anal-
ysis focused on finer-grained intervals and assumed that planktonic
foraminifera represented the least-reworked elements for each
sequence.
4. Sedimentary and petrographical description
The sequence is divided into deformed and stratified levels, and
the outcrops are correlated based on the alternation of these levels
66 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77

N
A
Croatia Bosnia
Ad Herzogovina
ria
tic Adriatic
Ba
sin Platform
Italy

M
ird
ita
-P
Ion

ind
ian

os
Ba

zo
sin

n
e
Kr
Tyrrhenian Apulian

uja
sea Platform

pla
tfo
r
m
Ionian sea
100 km
SW NE
B Pre-Apulian Ionian
Kruja
Mirdita-Pindos
Sazani platform basin ocean

Basinal carbonates Oceanic crust

Platform carbonates Ophiolite
Continental basement 30 km

Fig. 3. Palaeogeographic context of the Ionian Basin. A: Palaeogeographic map of the Ionian basin and the surrounding Apulian and Kruja platforms and its continuation in the
Adriatic platform, during the middle Liassic to late Cretaceous (after Zappaterra, 1994). The straight line indicates the approximate location of the cross-section in B. B: Palaeogeo-
graphic cross-section between the Sazani zone and the Mirdita–Pindos ocean during the upper Cretaceous (after Roberston and Shallo, 2000; Nieuwland et al., 2001). The dashed
rectangles indicate the palaeogeographic position of the studied outcrops.

(Fig. 5). The base of the sections is not biostratigraphically fixed. In
the Muzina and Vanister outcrops, the upper boundary of the sections
is marked by a Palaeocene slumped level, based on biostratigraphic
analysis. In the Piluri outcrop, the Palaeocene is represented by the
deposition of a concordant stratified level.
4.1. Biostratigraphic analysis
The base of the Muzina section starts at the transition between
phosphatic limestones and brecciated limestones. The samples were
collected into the section C (see Figs. 4 and 5 for the location). Thin
section examination shows the occurrence of Marginotruncana sp.
and Dicarinella asymetrica, providing a Santonian age. This is
consistent with the data reported by Brahimi et al. (1987), who
dated the phosphatic limestones as Coniacian and the beginning of
the brecciated limestones as Santonian. In the topmost part, we col-
lected samples into section A (Figs. 4 and 5), close to the supposed
Cretaceous–Palaeogene limit reported by Brahimi et al. (1987). The
uppermost Cretaceous samples contain Globotruncanita stuarti and
Globotruncana sp., indicating a Maastrichtian age. Above, the samples
contain Globigerina eugubina and small globular planktonic foraminif-
era, indicating a Palaeocene age.
In the Piluri outcrop, the samples of section A (Figs. 4 and 5)
contain Marginotruncana sp., as in Muzina, indicating a Santonian
age. The samples of the topmost Cretaceous that were defined by
Brahimi et al. (1992) were collected in section E (Figs. 4 and 5). The
identification of Globotruncanita stuarti, G. angulata, Contusotruncana
(Rosita) contusa, Heterohelix globulosa, and Rugoglobigerina sp. all
suggest a Maastrichtian age. The uppermost samples from section E
display the presence of Heterohelix sp., Guembelitria sp., Globigerina
eugubina, and G. pseudobulloides, supporting a Palaeocene age.
4.2. Logged section description
For the Muzina and Vanister outcrops, the logged sections are
subdivided into seven units (Figs. 4 and 5): three main decametric
deformed levels (S1 to S3) intercalated within four plurimetric-to-
hectometric units of stratified deposits (t1 to t4). In the Piluri outcrop,
the distribution of these units is less clear because deformed levels
are more numerous and thinner. For the Piluri and Muzina outcrops,
key beds were chosen (P0 to P15 and M1 to M7, respectively) based
on their visibility and continuity throughout the cross-sections.
Unit t1 is approximately 130 m thick at Muzina and approximate-
ly 150 m thick at Piluri. Both in the Muzina and Piluri outcrops, the
 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77 67

ENE WSW
PILURI
-P15-
-P15-
-P13- D
e ne
Paleog

fau
-P13- -P9-
-P8- -P5-

lt
-P15- -P0-
C A

-P9- -P8- -P1-

E B
~100 m
W E
MUZINA
-M5 -M7
-M3 - - t3
E - -M6
-
D
-M2 S1 t2 S2
- S3
Ph
osp -M1 t1 t4 Pale
hat - o gene
ic l
eve
ls
-M4-
C

B
~500 m
A

SW NE
VANISTER
S3 t4
S2 Paleo
gene
t2

S1

t1 ~100 m

Fig. 4. Outcrop panoramas. For each outcrop panorama, the deformed units (named S1 to S3 for Muzina and Vanister outcrops) are intercalated within the stratified units (named t1
to t4 for Muzina and Vanister outcrops). The thick white lines are the position of the logged sections. The Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary was inferred from reports by Brahimi et al.
(1987) and Brahimi et al. (1992). In the Muzina outcrop, 5 sections (A to E) were logged, and several key beds (M1 to M7) were identified along the outcrop. The two phosphatic
levels are visible in the landscape due to the well-developed vegetation. They are middle Turonian and late Turonian–early Coniacian in age (Brahimi et al., 1987; Roure et al., 2004).
The Vanister outcrop is the upper equivalent of the Muzina sections, 8 km northward. For the Piluri outcrop, five sections (A to E) were logged, and several key beds (P8, P9, P13,
and P15) were followed along a NE–SW transect.

cross-sections start with limestones whose general granulometry and
bed thickness are less than that of the whole of the remaining succes-
sion (i.e., from 0 to 54 m for Muzina-E section and from 0 to 114 m for
Piluri WSW section; Fig. 5). In the Piluri-ENE section, a localised de-
formed level was identified at 22 m, without any equivalent in the
other sections (Figs. 4 and 5).
The slump S1 is well developed in the Muzina (43 to 47 m thick)
and Vanister (50 m thick) sections. In the Piluri outcrop, the first con-
tinuous slumped level does not exceed 10 m in thickness and displays
weakly deformed strata.
The t2 stratified unit in Muzina and Vanister reaches, respectively,
29 m and 25 m in thickness and consists of calcilutites to calcirudites.
In the Piluri outcrop, the potentially correlated t2 unit is less thick (5
to 7 m), and the succession consists of calcilutitic to calcarenitic beds.
The S2 deformed level in the Muzina-E section is thinner (15 m
thick) than in Vanister section (22 m thick) (Fig. 5). In the Piluri out-
crop, the potentially correlated S2 level is represented by undulating
strata zones intercalated with stratified beds, reaching a total thick-
ness of 15 m.
The t3 stratified unit is less thick in the Muzina-E section (14 m)
than in the Piluri outcrop, where the assumed equivalent t3 is ap-
proximately 19 m (WSW section) and 24 m in thickness (ENE sec-
tion). The general granulometry is coarser in Piluri than in Muzina.
On the northern side of the Vanister Valley, the t3 unit is absent
(Fig. 5). On the southern side of the Vanister Valley, a bundle of
stratified strata (11.5 m-thick and 60 m-long) was observed at the
base of the S3 level. This structure may correspond to a non-
deformed slided block or to a non-eroded part of the t3 unit.
The S3 deformed level is more developed in Vanister (approxi-
mately 25 m in thickness) than in Muzina-E (13 m in thickness)
(Fig. 5). In the Piluri outcrop, the potentially correlated S3 unit dis-
plays an intermediate thickness (21 m) between that of the Muzina-
E and Vanister sections.
The t4 stratified unit displays rather similar thicknesses between
Muzina (12 m) and Vanister (14 m). In Piluri, the thicknesses are
more variable between Piluri ENE (17 m) and Piluri WSW (approxi-
mately 10 m).
4.3. Facies description and associated microfacies
The facies description is largely based on the observations from
the Muzina and Vanister outcrops because of the good outcropping
conditions. Seven facies are defined based on the sedimentary struc-
tures, the lithology variations, and the sequence thicknesses. The var-
ious internal sedimentary structures encountered are presented in
Fig. 6. Original bed surfaces are often invisible because they are either
stylolitised or they are welded to the underlying bed, as a conse-
quence of diagenetic processes (Eberli, 1991). Among the different fa-
cies defined, several were sampled to visualise the microfacies and
the nature of the rock constituents.
68 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77
 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77 69

Undulated parallel lamination Current ripple

climbing ripples

in Tb or Td intervals in Tc interval
Cross-bedding stratification Convolute lamination
parallel planar parallel planar
lamination lamination

ripples

in Tc interval in Tc interval
Loadcast Intraclast

at the sequence base in Tc interval

Bioturbation Large-scale oblique lamination

in Te-Tf intervals in Tc interval

Fig. 6. Sedimentary structures observed in the field (black arrows) and their inferred Bouma (1962) equivalent (given in the lower description). The entire scale represents 5 cm.
The most common sedimentary structures are plane parallel lamination, undulated parallel lamination (which, locally, corresponds to in-phase climbing ripples), cross-bedding
stratification, current ripples, and bioturbations. Convolute lamination, large-scale oblique lamination, basal loadcasts, and intraclasts are uncommon. Additional sedimentary struc-
tures are indicated.

4.3.1. Background sedimentation mudstone interval of the resedimented sequences because of their
In the field, the background sedimentation can be described as a similarities. We assumed that bioturbation indicates the transition
mudstone with or without bioturbation. Nevertheless, it is difficult between resedimented mudstone and the background sedimentation
to distinguish the background sedimentation from the uppermost (Eberli, 1987). In the first 20 m of the Muzina outcrop, the

Fig. 5. Lithostratigraphic logs of the Piluri, Vanister, and Muzina sections. Biostratigraphical position of the sections on the right side is given according to Brahimi et al. (1987) and
completed by planktonic foraminifera determinations. The logged sections consist of deformed units (named S1 to S3) intercalated within stratified units (t1 to t4). The different
encountered facies are as follows: the autochthonous sedimentation represented by pelagic limestones; the fine-, medium-, and coarse-grained resedimented sequences associated
with the F9, F7/F8–F9, and F4/F5–F9 facies of Mutti (1992), respectively; the mass flow deposits; the deformed levels; and the particular medium-grained sequence showing large-
scale sedimentary structures. See Section 5.1 for the association of field facies to the facies model of Mutti (1992). See the discussion for the correlation between the Piluri and
Muzina–Vanister outcrops, (Section 5.2).
70 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77

Fine-grained sequence

Tf
Tf bioturbation
1m

Te/Tf
Td Te Te
Clu Cca Cru

Td

5 cm
Td Tc
F9 Mutti (1992)
Medium-grained sequence
Te-Tf Td
1m
Td
Te/Tf
Td Tc
Tc
Tb
Clu Cca Cru
Tc
Tc
Ta Tc
F7/F8-F9 Mutti (1992)
Large-scale lamination
sequence

1m
Td
Tc
Tb
Clu Cca Cru
20 cm

F6 Mutti (1992)
Coarse-grained sequence

Te/Tf
Td
Tc
1m
Tb Tb-Te
Ta
Ta
Ta
Clu Cca Cru
40 cm

5 cm

F4/F5-F9 Mutti (1992)

Pebbly/Cobbly sequence

1m

Clu Cca Cru

5m

F1/F2 Mutti (1992)

 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77 71

A B

50 µm 500 µm

C D

500 µm 500 µm

E F

500 µm 500 µm

Fig. 8. Microfacies characteristics of the resedimented carbonates of the Muzina and Piluri sections. A: Radiolarian mudstone, possibly with sponge spicules (arrow) representing
autochthonous sedimentation. B: Recrystallised wackestone-to-packstone with oblique lamination (double-arrow). C: Grain-oriented bio-lithoclastic wackestone–floatstone. D:
Bio-lithoclastic wackestone–floatstone. E: Bio-lithoclastic packstone-to-rudstone. F: Extraclastic floatstone–rudstone.

background sedimentation facies is dominant (Fig. 5). The microfa-
cies are represented by radiolarian mudstones (Fig. 8A) with pelagic
foraminifera, oxides, and collophane fragments (Fig. 10). Some con-
stituents could correspond to sponge spicules (Fig. 8A).
4.3.2. Fine-grained sequence
The fine-grained sequences with bed thicknesses from 20 to
150 cm include only calcilutitic strata (Fig. 7). The sharp and
straight-to-slightly undulated base is rarely erosive. The typical pre-
dominant succession starts with a recrystallised mudstone showing
planar or undulated parallel lamination. The overlying mudstone
sometimes displays cherts and bioturbations in the upper part. Bio-
turbations can locally delineate the recrystallised mudstone from
the overlying mudstone. In the field, the recrystallised limestone is
generally more crystalline and shows a colour that is pinker than
the non-recrystallised limestones. Microfacies in laminated intervals
are represented by mudstones to fine-grained wackestones (grains
approximately 50 μm) with pelagic foraminifera and uncharacterised
bioclasts.
4.3.3. Medium-grained sequence
The medium-grained resedimented facies consists of strata with
thicknesses from 30 to 200 cm, with a normal grading from calcare-
nite to calcilutite (Fig. 7). The sharp and straight-to-slightly undulat-
ed base is rarely erosive. The laminated intervals are well developed:
a basal interval with parallel planar lamination, an overlying interval
with current ripples (± cross-bedding, convolute lamination, and
climbing ripples), followed by parallel undulated lamination and a
topmost interval with parallel planar stratification. The parallel undu-
lated lamination (Fig. 6) locally corresponds to in-phase climbing rip-
ples. These laminated intervals are often recrystallised. Above, a
calcilutitic level shows bioturbations and contains cherts occurring
in semi-continuous layers or nodules. Microfacies in laminated inter-
vals are represented by laminated wackestones to packstones
(100 b grain size b 200 μm), containing shallow-water bioclasts and
planktonic foraminifera (see Section 4.4. for a detailed description
of the fauna) (Fig. 8B). The thin lamination (0.5 to 3 mm in thickness)
is marked by variation in mud proportion and/or by levels where the
micritic matrix is recrystallised into microsparite and sparite. A

Fig. 7. Facies of carbonate gravity deposits encountered in the field. On the left side are the predominant schematic sequences for each facies with the Ta to Tf divisions observed
relative to Bouma (1962) and their association with the facies classification of Mutti (1992). On the right side, pairs of photographs illustrate the different facies. The entire scale bar
represents 10 cm, except when otherwise indicated. The legend is given in Fig. 12.
72 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77

second microfacies consists of an oblique laminated bioclastic wack-
estones to floatstones, which is less sorted, with a grain granulometry
of approximately 300 μm to 4 mm (Fig. 8C). The identified constitu-
ents are shallow-water and deep-water bioclasts (see Section 4.4.),
platform extraclasts, and some mudclasts. Microfacies in the upper
plane laminated interval and the topmost calcilutite interval are sim-
ilar to the foraminifera mudstone to fine wackestone described above.
Within some medium-grained sequences, the laminated intervals are
amalgamated, as in the example on the right in Fig. 7 (the location
through the sections is indicated in Fig. 5).
4.3.4. Sequence with large-scale sedimentary structures
Some medium-grained sequences display, in the current ripple in-
terval, particular large-scale sedimentary structures, such as oblique
lamination, cross-bedding, and through cross-bedding (Fig. 7). The
normal grading is commonly from calcarenite to calcilutite with
rare sequences where the basal level is calciruditic. The position of
this particular facies within the logged sections is indicated in Fig. 5
(named F6).
4.3.5. Coarse-grained sequence
The coarse-grained sequences are 120 to 240 cm in thickness with
calciruditic to calcilutitic granulometry (Fig. 7). The base of the se-
quence is represented by a pluridecimetric level of calcirudite, either
mud- or grain-supported, with dominant normal grading and local
inverse grading. The rare sedimentary structures are oblique and pla-
nar lamination. The matrix is predominantly calcarenitic. The overly-
ing levels consist of calcarenite to calcilutite, with parallel undulated,
planar, and oblique bedding. Few cherts are present in the calcilutitic
top of the sequence. Microfacies in the basal calciruditic consist of i)
bioclastic/lithoclastic wackestones to floatstones, with poor sorting
(100 μm b grain size b 7 mm), containing shallow and deep water bio-
clasts (see Section 4.4.), intraclasts, and platform extraclasts (Fig. 8D);
ii) bioclastic/lithoclastic packstones to rudstones, moderately to poor-
ly sorted (200 μm b grain size b 1 cm) (Fig. 8E), containing bioclasts of
shallow and deep water settings and, to a lesser degree, lithoclasts
with mainly extraclasts; iii) very poorly sorted extraclastic float-
stone–rudstone containing shallow-water rounded extraclasts,
1 mm to 1 cm in size (Fig. 8F), within a wackestone matrix including

A B

C D

~5m

N N
E G

Fig. 9. Slumped levels in the Muzina, Vanister, and Piluri sections. A to E: S1 slumped level in the Muzina outcrop. A: Base of the slump with sliding surfaces. B: Folded calciturbiditic
beds. C: Detail of fine-grained sequence with distorted recrystallised and laminated calcilutite (black arrow) and a bioturbated mudstone (white arrow). D: Slumped level overlain
by calciruditic level with an undulated base and flat top. E: Equal-angle projection in the lower hemisphere of fold and basal sliding surfaces axes measured in unit S1 (crosses) and
of stratification (diamond and dashed line); the right stereogram represents the axis direction after rotation relative to the stratification. F: Slumped strata observed in unit S3 of the
Vanister section. G: Upper slumped level observed in the Piluri outcrop with slight deformation of the beds. Scale bar represents 20 cm, except when otherwise indicated.
 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77
planktonic foraminifera and bioclasts (200 μm to 1 mm in size). The
later microfacies was observed only in three coarse levels of the Piluri
outcrop. Microfacies in the overlying laminated interval and topmost
calcilutite interval are similar to those described for the medium-
grained sequences (i.e., shallow-water bioclast and planktonic
foraminifera laminated wackestones to packstones).
4.3.6. Pebbly/cobbly calcirudite sequence
The pebbly/cobbly calcirudite levels are from 60 cm to 5 m in
thickness without visible sedimentary structure or internal stratifica-
tion (Fig. 7). At the uppermost part, the granulometry decreases, and
laminations are visible (oblique, parallel planar, and parallel undulat-
ed). The texture is mainly mud-supported with pluri–millimetric
until pluri–centimetric grains within a calcarenitic-to-calciruditic ma-
trix. This facies appears isolated, such as between the key beds M1
and M2 in Muzina-E (at 33 m) and as below the S1 level in Muzina
(at 118 m) and Vanister outcrops (at 130 m) (Fig. 5). This facies is
also associated with deformed levels. In the Muzina outcrop, slump
S1 is overlain by a pebbly/cobbly calcirudite with an irregular base
and a flat top (Fig. 9D). Unit S2 in the Muzina-E section consists of a
massive pebbly/cobbly calcirudite. The upper level of the unit S3 cor-
responds to a 7-m-thick pebbly/cobbly calcirudite with an irregular
base and a flat top (Fig. 5). The associated microfacies are bioclastic/
lithoclastic wackestones to floatstones and bioclastic/lithoclastic
packstones to rudstones, as described above (Fig. 8D and E).
4.3.7. Deformed levels
The deformed levels observed in each section consist of more or
less slumped beds. In the Muzina and Vanister outcrops, the S1 level
shows deformed beds, concave-up glide planes (Fig. 9A and B) and
contains relic beds as in stratified units (Fig. 9C). In the Muzina-E sec-
tion, measurements of the fold axis and basal gliding plane of the S1
slumped level indicate a main direction of approximately E–W
(Fig. 9E). This direction is slightly oblique relative to the palaeogeo-
graphic reconstruction of Zappaterra (1994), wherein he orients the
basin along a NW–SE trend. In the Vanister section, unit S2 consists
A B
500 µm
C D
100 µm
Fig. 10. Elements in resedimented carbonates. A: Rudist fragment. B: Siderolites calcitrapoïdes. C: Planktonic foraminifera. D: Collophane fragment.
73
of slumped beds (Fig. 9F). The S3 level in Muzina-E sections corre-
sponds to a 6-m-thick lower level of undulating stratified beds. The
S3 level in the Vanister section consists of a slump overlain by a
calcarenite-to-calcirudite level. In the Piluri outcrop, conditions do
not allow for detailed study of the deformed levels. Additionally, the
deformation is weaker, giving an undulating strata aspect with
small-scale folding of the beds (Fig. 9G).
4.4. Constituents
Shallow-water fauna commonly encountered through microscop-
ic observations consist of fragments of rudists (Fig. 10A) and other
undifferentiated thick-shelled bivalves, echinoderms, benthic forami-
nifera, such as miliolids, rotaliids, Orbitoides sp., and Siderolites sp.
(Fig. 10B). The rare shallow-water bioclasts are Cuneolina sp., Baci-
nella/Lithocodium, Omphalocyclus macroporous sp., Lepidorbitoides
sp., and Sulcoperculina sp. The deep-water fauna are represented by
planktonic foraminifera (Fig. 10C), radiolaria, and possible sponge
spicules that occur in the finer grain-sized strata. The planktonic fora-
minifera tests appear either complete or broken. Collophane frag-
ments were occasionally observed and identified by scanning
electron microscope with EDX probe (Fig. 10D).
In coarse granulometries, lithoclasts are generally larger than bio-
clasts and are represented mainly by extraclasts reflecting various
lithofacies, namely, fenestral mudstone (Fig. 11A), mudstone with os-
tracod fragments, mudstone with miliolids, peloidal wackestone with
laminites, packstone to grainstone with micritised benthic foraminif-
era (miliolids, textularids) (Fig. 11B), grainstone containing large-
shelled unidentified bioclasts, bivalves and benthic foraminifera
(e.g., siderolites or orbitoides sp.), and ooid grainstone with calcitised
dolomite rhombs (Fig. 11C). Locally, some lithoclasts consist of some-
what laminated wackestones to packstones, containing unidentified
calcite fragments, peloids, thin-shelled debris, and foraminifera
debris. These lithoclasts are interpreted as turbidite-like facies
intraclasts (Fig. 11D).
500 µm
50 µm
74 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77
A B
500 µm
C D
100 µm
Fig. 11. Lithoclasts in resedimented carbonates. A: Peloidal and fenestral mudstone. B: Grainstone with micritised grains and benthic foraminifera (miliolid sp., textularia sp.).
C: Grainstone with oolites and calcitised dolomite rhombs. D: Packstone with planktonic foraminifera debris and thin-shelled bivalve fragments, interpreted as an intraclast.
5. Interpretation and discussion
5.1. Facies interpretation
The different facies observed in the field display characteristics as-
sociated with carbonate gravity deposits, as do the upper Cretaceous
carbonates in the northern part of the Ionian zone (Van Geet et al.,
2002; Dewever et al., 2007). Some general features observed in this
study allow the exclusion of storm and contour current deposits.
The moderate bioturbation is localised in thinner intervals, differing
from the intense bioturbation occurring in a complete contourites se-
quence (Stow et al., 1998; Viana et al., 1998). Bottom marks are rare,
which is a common feature in calciturbidites and results from the lack
of cohesion of calcareous sediments and/or from diagenetic processes
welding the base of the turbidite to the underlying bed (Eberli, 1991).
The progressive grain size distribution observed here is uncommon in
tempestites, which often show a bimodal grain size distribution
(Einsele and Seilacher, 1991). The occurrence of metre-thick rudites
and inverse grading excludes storm depositional settings (Einsele
and Seilacher, 1991). Cherts are characteristic in calcareous turbi-
dites, and the silica is assumed to originate from the dissolution of
sponge spicules and radiolaria (Eberli, 1991).
The typical fine-grained sequences presented in Fig. 7 can be com-
pared with the Td–Te/Tf divisions of Bouma (1962). According to the
classification of Mutti (1992), these sequences are associated with the
F9 facies. The medium-grained sequences present a succession simi-
lar to Tb–Tc–Td–Te/Tf or Tc–Td–Te/Tf divisions of Bouma (1962)
and are associated with the F7–F8–F9 facies group of Mutti (1992).
The outcrop conditions did not allowed the identification of the F7 fa-
cies traction carpets. Both sequences are interpreted as the result of
low-density turbidity currents (Shanmugan, 2000). The particular
medium-grained sequences with large-scale oblique lamination and
through cross-bedding (Fig. 7) have been previously described as
the F6 facies for siliciclastic turbidites (Mutti, 1992). These sequences
should correspond to megaripples resulting from a hydraulic jump
between high-density and low-density turbidity currents. The
coarse-grained sequences (Fig. 7) can be compared with the Ta–Tb–
Tc–Td–Te/Tf divisions of Bouma (1962) and are associated with the
500 µm
500 µm
F4–F5 facies group of Mutti (1992). Outcrop conditions did not
enabled us to observe any internal structures in the basal calciruditic
interval to differentiate the F4 facies with traction carpets from the F5
facies with fluid escape structures. These sequences are interpreted as
the result of high-density turbidity currents classified in Shanmugan
(2000). The pebbly/cobbly calciruditic strata (Fig. 7) display charac-
teristics (mud-supported dominant facies, pluri–millimetric to
pluri–centimetric granulometry, decreasing granulometry at the top
with sedimentary structures) similar to the debris flow deposits
described in Mullins and Cook (1986) and are classified as muddy
debris flow deposits. According to Mutti (1992), these deposits
could belong to F1 or F2 facies. The lack of internal visibility did not
allow us to distinguish upward-projecting clasts involving inverse
grading, as described for the F1 facies. The pebbly/cobbly calcirudite
levels with an irregular base and flat-top observed at the top of
the S1 and S3 slumps in Muzina appear to show the progressive
transformation of the mass slide into mass flow (Mutti, 1992). In
the Muzina-E sections in the lower part of the S3 level, the undulated
aspect of the beds could reflect creeping processes (Mulder and
Cochonnat, 1996).
5.2. Outcrop comparisons
Lateral variations in thicknesses are minor between Muzina-E and
Muzina-W, which are 1 km apart along an E–W transect. The identi-
fied units and the key beds appear continuous in thickness through
the entire outcrop with minor variations in granulometry (Fig. 12).
Between the Muzina and Vanister outcrops, despite the slight differ-
ences in the slumped levels (thickness, facies), the succession is gen-
erally similar and shows continuity of the slumped units S1 to S3 over
8 km, along a NW–SE transect.
Comparing the three outcrops, several differences indicate the
proximal character of Piluri, which is consistent with the palaeogeo-
graphic reconstruction of Zappaterra (1994). The Piluri sections dis-
play higher average grain size with more numerous calcirudites. The
Piluri calciturbidites are thick-bedded and display some relatively
rapid lateral variations of thickness and granulometry (Fig. 12). In
the Piluri outcrop, the deformed levels are thinner and consist of
 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77 75

M4
PILURI

Gravity flow deposit identified

Level no identified as gravity flow deposit

MUZINA

1m

C
C
C
lu
ca
ru
Planar parallel bedding
Cross-bedding
Oblique lamination
Current ripple bedding
Undulated parallel bedding
Convolute lamination
Bioturbation
Pebbly/cobbly
calcirudite
Recrystallised limestone
1m Chert
Calcilutite (~<100µm)
Calcarenite
C
C
C
lu
ca
ru Calcirudite (>2 mm)
C
C
C
lu
ca
ru

Fig. 12. Example of the sedimentary successions in Piluri and Muzina. In Piluri, some sequences display lateral variations in granulometry and facies, whereas in Muzina and
Vanister, the sequences are more continuous and homogeneous.

undulating beds, which are less folded than those found in Vanister
and Muzina.
Between the Piluri and Vanister–Muzina outcrops, the deformed
levels S1 to S3 could be correlated, as shown in Fig. 5, but no data
allow us to confirm their continuity. Additionally, in the Piluri-ENE
section, a fourth slumped level was observed (Figs. 4 and 5). The dis-
tance between the Piluri and Vanister–Muzina outcrops is approxi-
mately 35 km. As indicated by the NW–SE trend of the basin
(Zappaterra, 1994) and the alpine tectonic shortening (Roure et al.,
2004), the initial distance between the Piluri and Vanister–Muzina
outcrops was at least 30 km. Relative to the palaeogeography of the
narrow Ionian Basin (Fig. 3), the Vanister and Muzina sections were
distant enough from the bordering platforms to be fed either by the
Sazani and/or by the Kruja platforms. The microfacies and fauna com-
parison between the surrounding platforms and the resedimented
carbonates does not, however, allow us to discriminate the platform
source. Despite the lack of data to correlate the slumped levels be-
tween the Piluri and Vanister–Muzina outcrops, the carbonate gravity
system seems to be spread over at least a width of approximately
10 km and a length of 30 km. Taking into consideration a continuity
with the calciturbidites that was detected approximately 45 km to
the north of Piluri, it is possible that this system could be even more
widespread (Van Geet et al., 2002; Dewever et al., 2007).
5.3. Interpretation of microfacies
The background sedimentation, which is represented by a radio-
larian mudstone (possibly with sponge spicules), demonstrates a
deep-water sedimentation environment, such as slope or basin set-
tings. For resedimented microfacies, the planktonic foraminifera,
both with complete and reworked tests, indicate a deep-water setting
on either the slope or deeper in the basin. The identified shallow-
water bioclasts are typical of subtidal-to-intertidal environments
and are encountered in the surrounding Adriatic (Heba and
Prichonnet, 2009) and Apulian (Schlüter et al., 2008) platforms. The
extraclast microfacies have been previously described in platform set-
tings, such as tidal flat, lagoon or open shelf environments (Ruberti,
1997; Carannante et al., 2000).
Deep-water fauna occurrences support the turbiditic nature of the
resedimented carbonates and exclude a misinterpretation of shallower
tempestites (Einsele and Seilacher, 1991). The observation of shallow-
water fauna and extraclasts distinguishes the studied deposits from
bottom currents (Stow et al., 1998). This finding is supported by the
absence of grain iron staining or ferro-manganese coating observed in
sandy contourites (Viana et al., 1998). The poor sorting of the microfa-
cies in medium-to-coarse-grained and pebbly/cobbly sequences is an
additional typical feature of calciturbidites (Eberli, 1991).
76 Y. Rubert et al. / Sedimentary Geology 257–260 (2012) 63–77
5.4. Comparison with regional studies and triggering mechanisms
The sedimentological study confirms the gravity origin of the
upper Cretaceous limestones in the Ionian zone (Meço and Aliaj,
2000; Van Geet et al., 2002; Dewever et al., 2007).
Several studies in the Ionian Basin and surrounding platforms dis-
played a phase of instability and resedimentation both during the
upper Cretaceous and beyond. Heba and Prichonnet (2009) described
stratigraphic hiatuses and polygenic breccias in the upper Santonian
to Palaeogene carbonates of the Kruja platform. Along the eastern
border of the Adriatic platform, Dragićević and Velić (2002) described
brecciated limestones originating from the disintegration of the plat-
form. Into the Adriatic Basin, sea-level rise favoured the development
of seismoturbidites during the Campanian to Palaeocene (Bice et al.,
2007). Into the Apulian platform (Maiella area), late Cenomanian-
to-Campanian breccias and calciturbidites have been correlated
from the platform to the basin (Casabianca et al., 2002). In the Gar-
gano–Murge area, the lower Cretaceous-to-Maastrichtian base-of-
slope carbonates are composed of grain flows, debris flows, slumps,
and turbidites (Borgomano, 2000). In the lower Maastrichtian, periti-
dal limestones of the Murge area, three major levels of soft-sediment
deformation have been interpreted as the results of seismic events
(Spalluto et al., 2007). In the Greek Ionian zone, the Senonian, a mas-
sive influx of calciclastic material was also detected (Skourtsis-
Coroneou et al., 1995; Karakitsios and Rigakis, 2007). For several of
these gravity sediments, tectonism is evoked as a triggering factor
(Skourtsis-Coroneou et al., 1995; Borgomano, 2000; Dragićević and
Velić, 2002; Heba and Prichonnet, 2009). This demonstrates a region-
al genetic relation in which we can reasonably include the Piluri,
Muzina, and Vanister gravity system. This tectonism is likely related
to the first movements of the convergence between the African and
Eurasian plates beginning in the Late Cretaceous (Dercourt et al.,
1986). This instability is associated with emergences affecting plat-
forms (Heba and Prichonnet, 2009) and could explain the vertical
evolution of the Muzina and Piluri sections if the proximal/distal
characteristics of the sediments are taken into account (Mullins and
Cook, 1986). At the base, the sediments are composed mainly of pe-
lagic limestones that are overlain by fine calciturbidites that become
coarser upward, with slumped levels. However, the lack of ichnofa-
cies data through the cross-sections does not permit confirmation of
this theory. The vertical evolution of gravity systems is also depen-
dent on eustatic fluctuations and sediment supply (Eberli, 1991).
The sedimentation of carbonate gravity deposits is favoured during
highstand sea-level periods when carbonate production is high
(Haak and Schlager, 1989; Eberli, 1991; Bernet et al., 2000). Never-
theless, the influence of the global eustatic sea-level might be obliter-
ated by local sea-level changes induced by tectonic instabilities.
5.5. Comparison with other depositional models
In the Muzina and Vanister outcrops, none of channelised systems
and their associated geometry (erosive surfaces, lenticular/sigmoidal-
shaped deposits, and lateral accretion features) were observed. These
observations conflict with studies performed on submarine fan de-
posits, no matter their location relative to the system (inner, middle,
or outer fan) or the mean granulometry of the system (Payros and
Pujalte, 2008). The lateral continuity of the sequences over hundreds
of metres (Muzina) to several kilometres (between Muzina and Van-
ister) is more common in slope/base-of-slope apron models
(Colacicchi and Baldanza, 1986; Mullins and Cooks, 1986). For the
Piluri proximal outcrop, channel-like lateral variations in thickness
over tens of metres were observed. These bodies exist both in the
proximal zone of apron models and in the inner part of submarine
fan models. Payros and Pujalte (2008) showed that sedimentation
rates are higher in ancient submarine fans than in ancient apron sys-
tems. In the Muzina outcrop, the calculated maximum sedimentation
rate (1.4 cm/ky) is globally lower than those for ancient calciclastic
submarine fan systems. Payros and Pujalte (2008) also showed that
siliciclastic submarine fan systems form on a gently dipping (b5°),
distally steepened carbonate ramp. The apron models are favoured
on higher angle ramp or rimmed shelve settings. The transition be-
tween the Ionian Basin and the Apulian and Kruja platforms were
faulted and scarped, involving steep slopes (Zappaterra, 1994;
Borgomano, 2000; Heba and Prichonnet, 2009). This preliminary sed-
imentological study appears to favour the geometry of an apron sys-
tem fed from the bordering platforms through faulted shelf breaks,
as suggested by Borgomano (2000). However, to improve our knowl-
edge of the extension of this system and to refine its architecture, ad-
ditional data (cartography, other sedimentological logging) are
necessary.
6. Conclusions
Based on the detailed sedimentological reconnaissance of
Santonian-to-Maastrichtian limestones in the Ionian zone in Albania,
from both field and microscopic study, the following can be
concluded:
– The limestones were deposited into sequences with granulometry
variations, thicknesses variations, sedimentary structures, and
other features (cherts, bioturbation) that are assumed to be the
result of gravity currents. Some beds corresponding to the back-
ground sedimentation facies are dominant in the basal Santonian
of Muzina section and occur in isolation throughout the sections.
For coarser and thicker levels, the outcrop conditions do not
allow us to accurately describe or to precisely differentiate them
as the F4 and F5 or the F1 and F2 facies of Mutti (1992). All of
the facies described belong to a carbonate gravity system that
was deposited from the Santonian to the Maastrichtian, which
continued into the Palaeocene.
– Microfacies in the background sedimentation display the presence
of planktonic foraminifera and radiolaria (possibly with sponge
spicules), indicating slope environments or deeper settings. Thin
section examination of resedimented carbonates showed a mix-
ture of shallow-water and deep-water faunas, such as rudists
and benthic and planktonic foraminifera. This mixing excludes
storm or bottom current environments and supports the gravity
origin inferred from the sedimentological field study.
– This gravity system is not present only in the Ionian Basin. Previ-
ous studies allowed the detection of turbidites, breccias, and
slumps in the Adriatic Basin and in the surrounding platforms.
The fact that these features affect a large region is indicative of tec-
tonic instabilities that were associated with the first movements
of convergence between the African and Eurasian plates. This con-
vergence corresponds to the beginning of the Alpine orogen in-
volving the formation of the Albanides belt.
– Several observations (little or no lateral variation, no well-developed
channels, sedimentation rate, spreading of the system, and context
of the feeding platform) favour a slope/base-of-slope apron setting.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to M. Caron and G. Heba for the identification of
planktonic foraminifera in the biostratigraphical determination of
our logged sections. We gratefully acknowledge the reviews, com-
ments and suggestions of R. Swennen and the second reviewer.
Thanks to the Editor for improving the English text.
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