Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

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Sedimentary Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Unravelling the fabrics preserved inside early diagenetic concretions:

Insights for the distribution, accumulation and preservation of
organic-rich mud in the interior of epicontinental basins
Germán Otharán a,⁎, Carlos Zavala a,b, Juergen Schieber c, Daniela Olivera a,d, Marcelo Martínez a,d, Pablo Díaz d,
Zalmai Yawar c, Luis Agüero d
a
Geology Department, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Av. Alem 1253, Cuerpo B´ - 2do Piso, B8000ICN Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
b
GCS Argentina, Molina Campos 150, B8002CYD Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
c
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
d
Instituto Geológico del Sur (INGEOSUR), Universidad Nacional del Sur - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Av. Alem 1253, cuerpo B´-1° Piso,
B8000ICN Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fine-grained sedimentary rocks generally undergo severe mechanical compaction during burial, which compli-
Received 6 August 2022 cates the recognition of primary mudstone fabrics and associated sedimentary features. Early diagenetic concre-
Received in revised form 3 September 2022 tions, however, provide a rare glimpse of primary fabrics because cement filling the pore space prevents the
Accepted 5 September 2022
collapse of original grain arrangements. Hand specimens of concretions collected from the basal condensed sec-
Available online 9 September 2022
tion of the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Vaca Muerta Formation (Neuquén Basin, Argentina), allow for analysis
Editor: Dr. Brian Jones of sedimentary processes responsible for the dispersal, accumulation and burial of organic carbon-rich sediment
in an epicontinental sea. Representative samples from central basin depositional localities were examined by op-
tical, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Petrographic observations were
Keywords: complemented with palynological and organic geochemical analyses. Close examination of uncompacted fabrics
Condensed sections reveals a significantly more complex and dynamic depositional scenario than previously assumed (suspension
Carbonate concretions settling). Although many of the component grains in the studied samples were originally delivered to the
Bottom currents sediment–water interface by suspension settling processes (i.e., marine snow, hypopycnal plumes, pumice
Composite particles
rafts), there is substantial evidence of episodic sedimentation controlled by punctuated events of seafloor distur-
Organic matter preservation
bance and erosion. The common presence of muddy intraclasts indicate that the seafloor was frequently
reworked by bottom currents that caused the widespread distribution of organic carbon-rich sediment across
distal basin depositional environments. Bottom current circulation supplied oxygen to the sediment–water inter-
face and created suitable conditions for benthic life, contravening the assumption of bottom water anoxia as a
prerequisite for organic carbon preservation. The excellent preservation state of freshwater algae (Pediastrum
complex) suggests that organic matter contained inside mud composite particles can travel long distances before
being deposited in distal depositional settings. Encapsulation protects organic components from mechanical/bio-
genic degradation and provides an anoxic microenvironment for preventing the oxidation of the organic matter
contained inside of mud composite grains. The study shows that organic carbon encapsulation may be an impor-
tant mechanism for organic carbon preservation in relatively energetic and non-anoxic settings, calling for a crit-
ical reappraisal of the processes responsible for the sequestration of organic carbon from the biosphere and its
long-term storage in organic-rich mudstone successions.
© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: german.otharan@uns.edu.ar (G. Otharán),
czavala@gcsargentina.com (C. Zavala), jschiebe@indiana.edu (J. Schieber),
daniela.olivera@uns.edu.ar (D. Olivera), marcelo.martinez@uns.edu.ar (M. Martínez),
pabesdiaz@ingeosur-conicet.gob.ar (P. Díaz), zyawar@indiana.edu (Z. Yawar),
luisaguero@ingeosur-conicet.gob.ar (L. Agüero).
Fine-grained sedimentary rocks (grain size <62.5 μm), including
mudstone and shale, constitute at least two thirds of the sedimentary
rock record (e.g., Schieber, 1998a; Potter et al., 2005). However, when
compared to sandstone and carbonate deposits, they remain a poorly
understood group of sedimentary rocks (e.g., Schieber and Zimmerle,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2022.106254
0037-0738/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al.
1998; Macquaker and Gawthorpe, 1993; Aplin and Macquaker, 2011). In
hand specimen, mudstone appears to be featureless and homogeneous
relative to other rock types and, except for the presence of laminae, it
rarely exhibits readily visible grain size variations or textural attributes.
Studies based on the hand-specimen appearance of mudstone, com-
bined with geochemical proxies (e.g., Dean et al., 1986; Schlanger et al.,
1987; Dean and Arthur, 1989; Sageman et al., 2003; Algeo and Maynard,
2004; Dean, 2007; Wilson and Schieber, 2017a), have long nurtured the
belief that organic‑carbon-rich rocks were typically deposited in
low energy environments that were characterized by long term (105–
106 years) persistence of anoxic bottom waters and sediment delivery
to the seafloor via continuous settling of discrete particles from
suspension. This long held paradigm was challenged by studies of mod-
ern shelf and coastal marine environments that documented mud
deposition in the presence of wave and tidal activity (e.g., Nittrouer
and Sternberg, 1981; Rine and Ginsburg, 1985). Also, petrographic
studies (O'Brien and Slatt, 1990; Bennett et al., 1991; Macquaker and
Gawthorpe, 1993; Macquaker, 1994; Macquaker and Taylor, 1996;
Schieber, 1994, 1998b, 1999; Wilson and Schieber, 2016; Wilson et al.,
2020) show mudstone to be much more heterogeneous and feature-
rich than previously assumed. Stacked successions of very thin
(<10 μm) beds (sensu Campbell, 1967) are common and point to
successions of discrete depositional events, rather than to a continu-
ous rain of dispersed particles. Textural analyses (Macquaker and
Gawthorpe, 1993; Macquaker, 1994; Wetzel and Uchman, 1998;
Lobza and Schieber, 1999; Schieber, 2003; Wilson et al., 2021) as
well as recent laboratory experiments (Schieber and Wilson, 2021)
and observations of the benthic boundary layer in modern settings
(Dashtgard et al., 2015) also show that primary depositional fabrics
in mudstone are commonly degraded by bioturbation, indicating
that the impact of bottom water anoxia has been overestimated,
and that organic carbon-rich mudstone can accumulate under mod-
erately oxygenated conditions that support benthic life. In addition,
direct insights from experiments in laboratory flumes (Schieber
et al., 2007; Schieber and Southard, 2009; Schieber, 2011) and recent
oceanographic observations (Macquaker et al., 2010a; Denommee
et al., 2016) point to the critical role of advective sediment transport
processes in mud dispersal and accumulation (Schieber, 2016a;
Wilson and Schieber, 2014, 2017b; Lazar et al., 2015a; Smith et al.,
2019).
Collectively, these observations show that depositional environ-
ments of mud can be substantially more energetic and dynamic than
previously presumed, and suggest that a reappraisal of depositional
models is in order for a good interpretation of many organic carbon-
rich mudstone deposits. Nonetheless, parsing mudstone depositional
processes is challenging because mudstone: (1) is typically dark-
colored and fine-grained; (2) can appear homogeneous and feature-
less at initial inspection (e.g., Schieber, 2003); (3) is severely affected
by weathering, which severely degrades most textural attributes
(Macquaker et al., 2010b); and (4) is severely affected by mechanical
compaction that generates planar fabrics and obscure the recogni-
tion of primary sedimentary structures (Schieber et al., 2010; Plint
et al., 2012; Schieber and Bennett, 2013). Compaction also affects
primary grain arrangements, especially in mudstone enriched in
water-rich aggregates (e.g., floccules, intraclasts, fecal pellets) that
are generally flattened and deformed as burial proceeds (Schieber
et al., 2010; Schieber, 2016b; Li and Schieber, 2018).
1.1. Carbonate concretions
In the early stages of mud deposition, and prior to any significant
compaction, a series of rapid, biologically driven, diagenetic reactions
can result in highly cemented intervals that form either continuous
beds or discontinuous, localized concretionary horizons (Raiswell,
1971; Curtis, 1987; Macquaker, 1994; Selles-Martinez, 1996; Curtis
et al., 2000; Westphal et al., 2000). Early cements are generally
2
Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254
dependent on specific microbial-mediated redox reactions that supply
the mineralizing solutes for precipitation (Irwin et al., 1977; Hudson,
1978; Scotchman, 1989, 1991; Macquaker and Gawthorpe, 1993). In ad-
dition, the precipitation of early diagenetic cements requires diffusive
transport of oxidants and labile organic matter to the reaction sites,
and enough time so that a sufficient volume of cements can accumulate
on pore spaces (Raiswell, 1988; Aplin and Macquaker, 1993, 2011;
Raiswell and Fisher, 2000; Macquaker et al., 2014). Because of this,
organic carbon-rich mud deposited during periods of very low net sed-
iment accumulation rates is particularly prone to enrichment in early
diagenetic cements (Raiswell, 1971; Schlanger and Douglas, 1974;
Dix and Mullins, 1988; Raiswell, 1988; Macquaker and Gawthorpe,
1993; Aplin and Macquaker, 2011; Lazar et al., 2015a). This is particu-
larly the case for condensed sections that mark periods of maximum
relative sea-level rise and maximum transgression (Macquaker, 1994;
Macquaker and Gawthorpe, 1993; Macquaker and Taylor, 1996).
Early diagenetic carbonate concretions, formed close to the
sediment–water interface, can provide a glimpse of primary, or at
least less distorted, depositional fabrics (Curtis et al., 2000; Lash and
Blood, 2004). The cement passively infills the pore space (Lippmann,
1955; Raiswell, 1971), preventing the destruction of original grain ar-
rangements as burial proceeds (Weeks, 1953; Clifton, 1957; Westphal
et al., 2000). Investigation of these uncompacted fabrics within concre-
tions allows the evaluation of the mechanisms responsible for mud
transport and deposition in otherwise highly compacted successions
where the primary fabrics may be much more cryptic. Concretions
also provide a window into the early modification of the organic matter
in hydrocarbon source rocks (Curtis et al., 2000).
In Argentina, the excellent outcrops of the Upper Jurassic – Lower
Cretaceous Vaca Muerta Formation along the Neuquén Basin thrust-
and fold belt are a natural laboratory to study the sedimentological pro-
cesses that control organic carbon accumulation and preservation in
mudstone-dominated successions. At central basin depositional locali-
ties, the basal interval of the Vaca Muerta Formation is composed of
organic carbon-rich mudstone and commonly exhibits multiple hori-
zons with large carbonate concretions. Given the shift in depositional
paradigms that emphasize deposition of organic-rich mud under ener-
getic conditions in environments that support benthic life, it is now nec-
essary to re-evaluate the processes responsible for the preservation of
large volumes of organic carbon in distal depositional environments.
Such setting are characterized by sedimentation rates that are com-
monly so low as to cause oxidation of the organic components that
lead to concretionary cements.
1.2. Purpose of study
One aim of this paper is to advance the understanding of primary
fabrics preserved inside early diagenetic carbonate concretions. The
concretions: (1) provide important information about the mechanisms
responsible for the delivery, dispersal, accumulation and preservation
of organic carbon-rich mud in basinal settings; (2) account for the
difference in provenance between sediment deposited at central
basin depositional areas; (3) facilitate the recognition of different
types of originally water-rich aggregate grains; and (4) give insights
about the early diagenetic processes that occur in originally organic
carbon-rich mud prior to compaction. An understanding of the sedi-
mentary processes that control organic matter distribution, accumu-
lation, and diagenesis in the interior of epicontinental basins allows
for prediction of the areal extent and stratigraphic distribution of or-
ganic carbon-rich mudstone that has favorable petrophysical prop-
erties for development of unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs.
2. Geologic setting
The Neuquén Basin is an important oil-bearing basin located in the
Andean foothills in west-central Argentina (32°–40° S). It is a back-arc
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al.
basin that developed during the Mesozoic on the western margin
of Gondwana (Mosquera et al., 2011). The basin has a northwest–
southeast elongated shape, covers >160,000 km2 (Vergani et al.,
1995), and has a sedimentary infill of at least 7000 m of siliciclastic,
carbonate, and evaporite deposits that accumulated in a wide range of
continental and marine depositional environments (Fig. 1). Although
it has been studied in depth due to its importance as an oil-bearing
basin, previous studies have historically focused on conventional clastic
reservoirs (Schiuma et al., 2002). Growing hydrocarbon production
from unconventional reservoirs, however, has inspired recent studies
of the sedimentary details of finer grained intervals (e.g., González
et al., 2018).
2.1. Depositional framework of the Vaca Muerta Formation
The Vaca Muerta Formation (Weaver, 1931) constitutes a thick (up to
1400 m; Otharán et al., 2020) and widely distributed (>120,000 km2;
Leanza et al., 1977) stratigraphic unit that accumulated during the
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in the Neuquén Basin (Groeber,
1946; Leanza, 1973). This unit is mainly composed of organic
carbon-rich mudstone (avg. 3.2 wt% TOC, max. ~15 % TOC; Brisson
et al., 2020) alternating with thin volcaniclastic layers (Minisini
et al., 2020), limestone (Kietzmann et al., 2014, 2016) and minor
Fig. 1. Geologic map and generalized stratigraphic column of the Neuquén Basin (modified after Zavala et al., 2006).
3
Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254
sandstone deposits (Leanza et al., 2003; Otharán et al., 2020; Naipauer
et al., 2020).
The Vaca Muerta Formation is part of a shallowing-upward marine
sedimentary succession known as the Vaca Muerta–Quintuco system
(Veiga and Spalletti, 2007; see also Kietzmann et al., 2014, 2016).
The Vaca Muerta–Quintuco (VM-Q) system is a mixed carbonate–
siliciclastic depositional system that consists of multiple prograding
subaqueous clinoforms that accumulated between the early Tithonian
and the early Valanginian (González et al., 2018). The lowermost inter-
val of the VM-Q system is a transgressive deposit with a basal con-
densed section that accumulated during a period of high productivity
of organic carbon and a high sea-level that led to reduced siliciclastic
input (U1, Early–Middle Tithonian). These deposits accumulated as
the bottomsets of gentle-dipping clinoforms in a low gradient (0.2°–
0.3°; Minisini et al., 2020; Reijenstein et al., 2020) mixed ramp system
(Fig. 2), and represent the main source-rock interval of the Vaca Muerta
Formation (6–8 wt% TOC, max. 15 wt% TOC; González et al., 2018).
Historically, organic carbon-rich mudstone have been interpreted as
strata deposited below storm wave base in a low-energy basin to
outer ramp environment with bottom water that was prone to persis-
tent anoxia during prolonged periods of time (Mitchum and Uliana,
1985; Legarreta and Uliana, 1991; Spalletti et al., 1999, 2000, 2014;
Zeller et al., 2015). In this model, sediment is initially delivered to the
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al.
Fig. 2. Vaca Muerta-Quintuco depositional system (early Tithonian-early Valanginian). Paleogeographic maps based on Legarreta and Uliana (1991); shelf-breaks following Dominguez
and Catuneanu (2017); seismic cross-section from González et al. (2018). The location of the studied localities is also indicated (1. Mulichinco creek; 2. Neuquén river).
sediment–water interface by continuous rain of discrete particles from
an overlying water column with elevated primary production of organic
matter (Kietzmann et al., 2014, 2016). In this case, local rates of sedi-
ment accumulation and the balance of inputs to the inner basin are
such that the materials derived from primary production are neither
diluted significantly by other components nor oxidized before being
buried, promoting an optimal preservation of the organic matter
(Veiga and Orchuela, 1989).
During the late Tithonian–early Valanginian (U2-U6), a gradual in-
crease in the supply of siliciclastic and carbonate sediment from the
southern and eastern margin (Mitchum and Uliana, 1985; Legarreta
and Uliana, 1991) resulted in the NW progradation of increasingly
steeper clinoforms (Fig. 2). Consequently, the VM-Q system gradually
evolved into a distally steepened mixed ramp, characterized by a well-
defined shelf break that divided the inner ramp (topset) from outer
ramp and distal basin environments (bottomset) (Mitchum and
Uliana, 1985; González et al., 2018). During this stage, the progressive
reduction in accommodation space in shallow-marine environments
favored the basinward shift of the marginal calcareous mud belt via
muddy underflows, and resulted in clinoform growth and progradation
(Fig. 2). Some of the potential processes for cross-shelf transport of
sediment in the VM-Q system include storm-driven underflows
(Kietzmann et al., 2014, 2016), wave–current enhanced sediment-
gravity flows (Otharán, 2020; Minisini et al., 2020), bottom currents
(Otharán, 2020; Minisini et al., 2020; Paz et al., 2022), as well as turbid-
ity currents and muddy hyperpycnal flows (Paz et al., 2019; Otharán
et al., 2020; Capelli et al., 2021).
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Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254
3. Materials and methods
Concretions were collected from outcrops of the Vaca Muerta
Formation in Neuquén province, west-central Argentina (Fig. 2). Hand
specimens of concretions were selected on the basis of macroscopic
primary sedimentary features on weathered surfaces (Fig. 3). More
than 50 samples were taken back to the laboratory, slabbed perpendic-
ular to bedding with a rock saw (Sorrento CLI 350), and polished with
grinding wheels of successively finer grit sizes. High-resolution images
of the polished slabs were acquired using a Samsung SCX-4729FW flat-
bed scanner and contrast was enhanced with Adobe Photoshop CC for
examination of small-scale (cm- to mm-scale) sedimentary and
biogenic features. The most representative samples were selected for
further petrographic, palynological, and organic geochemistry studies.
3.1. Studied interval
The studied carbonate (CaCO3) concretions are stratigraphically
confined to laterally persistent horizons located within the lowermost
~100 m of the Vaca Muerta Formation. Samples were collected from
the organic-rich condensed section located at the base of this unit in
central basin depositional localities. Concretionary horizons show a
vertical stratigraphic recurrence varying from <1.5 m to ~4 m. They al-
ternate with strongly compacted organic carbon-rich (avg. 4 wt% TOC)
(Otharán et al., 2020) calcareous mudstone with bedding-parallel fi-
brous veins (<1–5 cm) (see also Ravier et al., 2020) and thin interbeds
(<1–7 cm) of volcaniclastic layers (Fig. 3A). Concretions are generally
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 3. Early diagenetic carbonate (CaCO3) concretions. A) Overview of large, bedding-parallel oblate concretions located at the lowermost interval of the Vaca Muerta Formation (see also
Fig. 1). Concretions are enclosed by a succession of differentially compacted, thin-bedded organic-rich mudstones, bedding parallel fibrous calcite veins and ash beds. B) Laminated
mudstone fabrics; a 14 cm-length pen for scale. Note the presence of sharp and irregular, erosional surfaces (e). C) Irregular erosional surface. D) Scours and sharp boundaries related
to erosional surfaces. E) Internal lamina truncations and subtle erosional surfaces; a 20 mm-diameter coin for scale. F) Low-angle, current-ripple cross-lamination developed on top of
an erosional surface.

oblate ellipsoids up to 2 m in diameter and 0.7 m thick that are oriented
parallel to bedding. The horizontal distance between adjacent concre-
tions fluctuates from 20 cm to >1 m. Locally, individual concretions
merge laterally into sheet-like (stratiform) carbonate bodies.
3.2. Petrographic analysis
A total of 18 thin sections (2.5 × 4 cm, 25–30 μm thick) and 20 argon
ion-milled samples (up to 12 mm in diameter) were prepared, all cut
perpendicular to bedding. The petrographic examination focused on
the analysis of the overall composition and distinctive characteristics
of the microfacies preserved in early diagenetic concretionary horizons,
and on the identification of various composite particles. The term
“composite particle” is hereafter used to refer to aggregate grains
composed of a mixture of multiple clay- to silt-sized mineral grains
(sensu Li and Schieber, 2018). Detailed petrographic examination of
thin sections in both plane-polarized light and cross-polarized light
was conducted using a Zeiss Photo 2 petrographic light microscope.
Ion-milled samples were studied using a FEI Quanta 400 scanning
electron microscope (SEM) in both backscatter electron and

5
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

secondary electron modes. The SEM was operated at 15 kV, at a
working distance of ~10 mm. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
(EDS) was used to determine the mineral components of individual
grains. Because no coating was applied to samples, the SEM was op-
erated in low vacuum mode with water vapor as a quench gas. This
mode of operation has the added benefit of differential charge
buildup on the specimen surface, which enables charge contrast imag-
ing (CCI; Griffin, 2000) and allows for the imaging of very subtle but im-
portant compositional differences between particles and cements. High
magnification (<5 μm) CCI in secondary electron mode under the SEM
was critical for the identification of composite particles as discrete enti-
ties that were not (or barely) captured in backscattered electron images
because there is little compositional contrast between such particles
(they consist mostly of calcite) and the carbonate (calcite) cement
that surrounds them (cf. Li and Schieber, 2018; Schieber et al., 2019;
Li et al., 2021). Mudstone lithofacies were described using the nomen-
clature scheme broadly proposed by Macquaker and Adams (2003)
and Lazar et al. (2015b).
The palynological slides are stored at the repository of the Instituto
Geológico del Sur-Universidad Nacional del Sur, Bahía Blanca,
Argentina. They are labeled by catalog numbers preceded by the abbre-
viations UNSP (Universidad Nacional del Sur, Palynology) and VM (Vaca
Muerta Formation). Specimen locations are referenced with England
Finder coordinates.
3.4. Organic geochemistry
Twenty-two samples were powdered with an agate mortar and
pestle, and approximately 60 mg of sediment was weighed and
subsequently pyrolyzed with a Rock-Eval VI apparatus following the
procedure of Behar et al. (2001). The measurements were carried out
at Y-TEC Laboratories (La Plata, Argentina), and the performance of
the instrument was checked every ten samples and validated with
standard values of IFP 160 000 (S/N1 5-081840).
4. Results

3.3. Palynofacies analysis
Fifteen palynological samples were prepared and examined in detail.
The physical and chemical extraction of the palynological matter
(PM) was performed following standard non-oxidative techniques
(Volkheimer and Melendi, 1976; Tyson, 1995). Detailed palynological
examinations were conducted using a transmitted light microscope
(Olympus BX40). Additionally, the preservation state of the PM was
analyzed with a reflected fluorescence light microscope (RFL; Olympus
BH2). The description of the organic particles was carried out
following the terminology proposed by Batten (1983, 1996), Tyson
(1995), and Oboh-Ikuenobe and de Villiers (2003). For the evaluation
of the total PM, at least 500 particles per sample were counted using a
×40 lens. The counts were performed considering two major categories
(Table 1): (1) structured organic matter (i.e., palynomorphs, translu-
cent, and opaque phytoclasts); and (2) structureless organic matter
(i.e., amorphous organic matter: AOM). The palynofacies (i.e., the differ-
ent assemblage types of PM) were defined according to those counts.
Concretions show sharp, irregular micro-erosional surfaces (Fig. 3B,
C), micro-scours (Fig. 3D) and convolute laminae (Fig. 3A, E) at bedding
bounding surfaces, as well as subtle lamina truncations (Fig. 3E)
and gently-dipping cross lamination (Fig. 3F). Textural analyses of
polished slabs and thin sections show that samples are organized into
stacked successions of very thin beds (ranging in thickness from <1 to
30 mm). These mudstone deposits show four main lithofacies types
(Fig. 4): (1) carbonate-rich fine sandstone (CfS); (2) carbonate- and
silt-bearing sandy mudstone (CSsM); (3) silt-dominated coarse mud-
stone (ScM); and (4) carbonate-rich medium mudstone (CmM).
The intergranular space between primary components is filled with
cloudy, finely crystalline carbonate cement. Under secondary electron
mode in the SEM, a bright, homogeneous microspar cement composed
of a dense mosaic of anhedral crystals (<20 μm) is recognized. The
EDS energy spectra suggests that the microspar cement is mainly com-
posed of non-ferroan calcite. The studied samples are characterized by a
low organic carbon content (0.10–1.37 wt% TOC), with an average value
of 0.44 wt% TOC (Table 2). Most of the samples display <0.50 wt% TOC,

Table 1
Classification of the palynological organic matter recognized in the samples analyzed in this study.

Major Categories Source

categories

Structured Palynomorphs Sporomorphs Spores Reproductive structures Pteridophyte and Briophyte

Pollen grains Gymnosperms
Organic-walled microplankton Fresh-water algae Cholorophyte algae
Acritarchs Organic-walled marine microplankton
Prasinophytes
Dinocysts
Zoomorphs Palynoforaminifera Benthic foraminifera
Bacterial remains Filaments, sheaths and coccoids Cyanobacteria
Phytoclasts Translucent Tracheids with pits Higher plant debris
Tracheids without pits
Other woody remains
Membranes
Cuticles
Tissues
Brown-black fragments
Yellow-brown fragments
Degraded fragments
Opaque Blade-shape
Equidimensional
Charcoal
Structureless Amorphous organic matter (AOM) Fibrous Mainly derived from degradation of macrophyte tissues
Granular Phytoplankton or bacterially derived (“AOM” sensu
Tyson, 1995)
Spongy Mainly derived from degradation of continental algae
Membraneous (Batten, 1983)
Gelified Microbial reworking of terrestrial fragments (sensu
Pacton et al., 2011)
Resins Natural products of higher plants

6
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 4. Overview of the main mudstone lithofacies recognized in polished samples of concretions. A) Carbonate-rich fine sandstones (CfS facies) sharply overlain by cross-laminated car-
bonate- and silt-bearing sandy mudstones (CSsM facies). The CSsM facies is downlapping onto a scoured surface (e) and is sharply overlain by structureless, carbonate-rich medium mud-
stones (CmM facies). Note the similarity between CmM and CfS (carbonate-rich fine sandstones) facies at macroscopic scale. Soft-sediment deformation structures are evident subjacent to
the erosional surface (white triangles). B) Examples of the CSsM facies showing continuous, planar parallel lamination truncated by a scoured surface followed by gentle-dipping cross-
laminated mudstones. Towards the top of the image, the CSsM facies is overlain by silt-dominated coarse mudstones (ScM facies). C) Stacked succession of thin-bedded mudstones. In-
dividual beds exhibit sharp erosional bases and burrow mottled tops (white arrows). The ScM facies is enriched in pyrite (Py) and commonly exhibit soft-sediment deformation structures
(white triangles). D) Stacked succession of thin bedded mudstones comprising a range of mudstone lithofacies. Note the presence of very thin (< 0.1 mm), discontinuous, non-parallel silt
laminae within the CfS facies (yellow triangles). E) Lamina truncations within the CSsM facies. Soft-sediment deformation structures are evident underneath the erosional surface (white
triangles). F) ScM facies overlain by CfS facies. Note the presence of composite grains (cg) and internal lamina truncations (yellow triangles). The primary lamination of the CfS facies is
partially overprinted by diminutive burrow mottles (white arrows). G) Subtle lamina truncations (yellow triangles) and erosional features (e) within the CfS facies. H) Plane polarized light
image illustrating in detail the erosional boundary shown in C (between the ScM and the CmM facies). Note the presence of some borrow mottles within the ScM facies (white arrows).
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

five samples exhibit TOC values ranging between 0.50 and 1.00 wt%, and 4.1. Carbonate-rich fine sandstone (CfS)
only two samples exceed 1.00 wt% TOC (Fig. 5). Palynological evidence
shows that amorphous organic matter (AOM) represents >52 % of the This facies consists of superimposed calcareous mud laminae
total organic content (Fig. 6). that are largely composed of dark-colored, sand-sized (100–350 μm)

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G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Table 2 within the CfS facies, and subordinate numbers of silt-sized feldspar
Organic geochemistry statistics from Rock Eval 6 Pyrolisis Analysis. clasts typically appear as dispersed, isolated grains (Fig. 7B).
Facies TOC S2 Tmax HI OI

(wt%) (mg HC/g rock) (°C) (mg HC/g TOC) (mg CO2/g TOC) 4.1.2. Palynofacies analysis
CSsM Avg 0.50 0.24 379 47 54 The palynofacies of the CfS facies shows high frequencies of AOM,
Max 0.70 0.61 415 110 103 varying from 80.4 up to 95.6 %. Some samples exhibit a predomi-
Min 0.29 0.04 339 14 27 nance of granular type AOM, although others present high values of
CfS Avg 0.69 0.11 377 20 30
granular to spongy types (Fig. 6). The second most important group
Max 1.37 0.16 412 41 42
Min 0.29 0.07 342 9 10 of palynomorphs is the opaque phytoclasts, mainly the blade-shape
ScM Avg 0.18 0.12 434 76 93 forms (2–11.6 %). Palynomorphs, mostly of continental origin, are
Max 0.25 0.16 608 120 140 present in all samples but in low concentrations, reaching up to 3 %
Min 0.10 0.07 364 29 43
of the total organic content. They are principally represented
CmM Avg 0.29 0.09 404 34 39
Max 0.34 0.10 407 43 48
by cheirolepidiacean (Fig. 10A, B) and bisaccate pollen grains and
Min 0.21 0.09 399 26 34 continental algae (Botryoccocus spp.). Marine components (i.e.,
tasmanacean algae, Fig. 10G, H) are present only in the UNSPVM5252
sample, along with filaments of cyanobacteria. In general, the sam-
ples are non-fluorescent under RFL, except for isolated jellified
composite particles (Fig. 7), including two different types: (1) muddy
AOM masses and filamentous forms. Framboidal and/or euhedral py-
intraclasts (Fig. 8) and (2) fecal pellets (Fig. 9). Composite particles
rite is common in all samples.
have point contacts and exhibit a similar packing to the microfabrics
recently described in the Cretaceous Carlile Formation (Laycock et al.,
2017), as well as those recognized in modern deposits from the South- 4.1.3. Organic geochemistry
west Louisiana subaqueous delta (Denommee et al., 2016). Out of a total of seven analyzed samples, four samples exhibit TOC
CfS beds typically exhibit sharp, irregular, scoured bases and con- values >0.50 wt%, but only two exceed 1.00 wt% TOC (Fig. 5A), which
formable tops, and range in thickness from <5 mm up to ~30 mm. are the highest TOC values registered in this study (1.02 and 1.37 wt%
Due to its overall calcitic composition, the recognition of primary lami- COT). In addition, the CfS samples show the lowest HI and OI, varying
nation within the CfS facies can be challenging (Fig. 4D). In places, from 9 to 41 mg HC/g TOC and from 10 to 42 mg CO2/g TOC, respectively
however, the CfS facies shows intercalated non-parallel, very thin (Table 2). All the samples show S2 peaks <0.20 mg HC/g rock
(<0.1 mm) laminae of volcaniclastic silt. Such thin silt layers are very (0.07–0.16 mg HC/g rock), and thus Tmax values (342–412 °C) were
helpful in recognizing subtle lamina truncations within the CfS facies not considered.
(Fig. 4F, G). Locally, they are partially disrupted by cryptic bioturbation
and diminutive horizontal burrows related to the burrowing activity
of benthic meiofauna (Fig. 4F).
4.2. Carbonate- and silt-bearing sandy mudstone (CSsM)
4.1.1. Types of grains and cements
The mudstone consist of very thin beds (<10 to ~30 mm) with
Composite particles are the main constituents of the CfS facies
sharp, scoured bases overlain by finely laminated sandy to coarse mud-
(Fig. 7). Muddy intraclasts are subangular to subrounded dark brown-
stone (Fig. 4A, B). Mudstone beds show continuous, planar- to curved,
ish, clay-rich aggregates with a grain size ranging between 200 and
nonparallel lamination with gently dipping cross-lamination (Fig. 4A,
350 μm (Fig. 8A, B). The interior of mud intraclasts is filled with detrital
B), as well as continuous- to discontinuous-planar, parallel lamination
clay (Fig. 8C, D) and fine-silt-sized feldspar and minor quartz grains.
(Fig. 4C, D). Cross-laminated fabrics commonly downlap onto sharp,
Small amounts of coccolith debris has been also identified in the in-
scoured bedding surfaces. Also, soft-sediment deformation structures
terior of muddy intraclasts. Intragranular cements filling the original
are relatively common at bed boundaries (Fig. 4A, E).
pore space of muddy intraclasts include small, micritic calcite crys-
Petrographic examination of the CSsM facies shows thin, sharp-
tals (<3 μm, Fig. 8C), authigenic clay, and subordinate microquartz
based lamina-sets that consist of intercalated silt-rich laminae and
(<2 μm, Fig. 8C, D). In EDS, Ca is the highest peak (calcite cement).
calcareous (micritic) muddy laminae (Fig. 11A, B). Micro-scale load
Subordinate peaks are Si, Al, K and Na, which are associated with de-
structures are common at the boundary between muddy laminae
trital clay and silt-sized grains.
and overlying silt layers (Fig. 11).
Fecal pellets are subrounded to rounded, pale brown, carbonate-rich
aggregates (Fig. 9A). Such particles exhibit an elliptical to elongate
shape, and generally are smaller than clay-rich muddy intraclasts 4.2.1. Types of grains and cements
(70–230 μm; Fig. 9B). Under high magnification in the SEM, fecal pellets Silt-rich laminae are 0.1 to 1.2 mm thick and pinch-out laterally
are predominantly composed of phytoplankton debris, more specifi- over a distance of a few centimeters (Fig. 11C). They are mainly com-
cally coccoliths (Fig. 9C, D). Coccolith remains are easily missed because posed of fine silt to very fine sand-sized, volcanic-sourced idiomor-
they are of the same composition as the surrounding cement, but in sec- phic microlites (<100 μm, following Murphy et al., 2000) and
ondary SEM mode they are readily visible (Fig. 9C, D) because of charge microphenocrysts (100–300 μm) of plagioclase, K-feldspar, and
contrast effects (CCI). In cases, the interiors of fecal pellets were affected quartz grains (Fig. 11D, E). They also include a minor amount of vol-
by an intense diagenetic overprint (recrystallization of carbonate re- canic rock fragments. Silt-rich laminae are typically more cemented
mains of coccolithophores), making the differentiation of fecal pellets by calcite than calcareous muddy laminae (Fig. 11D).
from other composite particles challenging. In comparison with clay- Calcareous mud laminae are dark-colored and 0.2 to 2 mm thick.
rich, muddy intraclasts, fecal pellets show a higher peak of Ca in the Mud laminae typically show a microfabric supported by sand-sized
EDS, possibly because of their higher primary carbonate content. (70–250 μm) composite particles that in cases are hard to differentiate
There are minor peaks of Si and Al, which could be in response to diage- from the enclosing calcareous mud matrix (Fig. 11C, D). Composite par-
netic quartz and admixed clay. Carbonate remains of coccolithophores ticles include muddy intraclasts and fecal pellets with similar petro-
in the interior of fecal pellets are generally strongly recrystallized. In ad- graphic attributes as those ones described in the CfS facies. Calcareous
dition, biogenic grains, including calcified radiolarians (both nasselaria muddy laminae also contain 50 to ~200 μm diameter biogenic particles
and spumellaria) and benthic foraminifera are relatively common (i.e., calcified radiolarians, forams, ostracods).

8
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al.
Fig. 5. Programmed pyrolysis data discriminated by lithofacies types. A) Kerogen quality diagram (S2 versus total organic carbon). B) Pseudo–van Krevelen diagram (Hydrogen Index
versus Oxygen Index). C) Kerogen type and maturity diagram (HI versus Tmax).
4.2.2. Palynofacies analysis
The CSsM's palynofacies is characterized by the highest values of
AOM, which ranges from 76 % up to 97 %. Granular AOM is dominant
(Fig. 6). The second most abundant type is the phytoclasts, especially
the opaque blade-shaped forms (0.7–13.7 %). Palynomorphs are the
least abundant in all studied samples (up to 1.3 %), and are mainly rep-
resented by continental freshwater- to brackish-algae (Botryoccocus
spp., Fig. 10E, F). Sheaths of cyanobacteria are present in UNSPVM5251,
and marine palynomorphs are present sample UNSPVM5253 (i.e.,
dinocysts and palynoforaminifera, Fig. 10I, J). In general, the samples
are non-fluorescent under RFL, except for isolated particles. Only two
samples show moderate fluorescence of the AOM to the greenish yellow
9
Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254
colour (i.e., UNSPVM5256/57). Pyrite is a common component of all
palynological samples from the CSsM facies, and is very abundant in
the UNSPVM5254/56/57 samples.
4.2.3. Organic geochemistry
The samples belonging to the CSsM facies (n = 6) have an organic
carbon content between 0.29 and 0.70 wt% TOC, where half of the
samples exceed the average value of 0.50 wt%. The HI ranges from 14
to 110 mg HC/g TOC (HI avg. = 47 mg HC/g TOC). The OI fluctuates
between 27 and 103 mg CO2/g TOC (OI avg. = 54 mg CO2/g TOC).
The S2 peaks vary between 0.04 and 0.61 mg HC/g rock (S2 avg. =
0.24 mg HC/g rock). Tmax values are relatively low (339–415 °C). It is
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 6. Composite chart showing the frequency distribution of the different categories of PM recognized in the studied palynological samples of the Vaca Muerta Formation (based on
counts of at least 500 particles per sample). The colour bars refer to the four main lithofacies types recognized in this study: CSsM facies (light brown), CfS facies (dark brown), ScM facies
(light violet) and CmM facies (dark grey); black-filled circles indicate the presence of PM. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)

worth mentioning that in samples with S2 peaks of <0.20 mg, HC/g rock
Tmax values were not calculated, since they are often inaccurate
(Peters, 1986). Only two samples among the CSsM facies present reli-
able Tmax values (341 °C and 339 °C).
4.3. Silt-dominated coarse mudstone (ScM)
This facies is mainly composed of coarse silt- to fine sand-sized par-
ticles organized into sharp- to erosive-based, diffusely laminated beds
ranging from ~1 to 25 mm in thickness (Fig. 4C, F, H). Soft-sediment de-
formation structures are relatively common and impart a discontinuous,
parallel wavy lamination style (Fig. 4C, D). The primary fabric of the ScM
facies is commonly disrupted by horizontal burrows related to the activ-
ity of deposit-feeding organisms (Fig. 12A).
4.3.1. Types of grains and cements
Silt and sand grains are mostly quartz and feldspar from a volcanic
source (Fig. 12B), and additional grains include volcanic rock fragments
(Fig. 12C) and occasionally abundant, cuspate- and platy-shaped
devitrified (argillized) shards (Fig. 12D). Two different types of volcanic
rock fragments (VRF, sensu Li and Schieber, 2018) were identified, in-
cluding: (1) altered (argillized, smectite-dominated) volcanic ash

Fig. 7. Secondary electron images of the CfS facies. A) Overview of the overall fabric of the CfS facies, mainly composed of sand-sized composite grains. B) Sand-sized aggregate grains,
bioclastic particles (e.g., calcitized radiolaria, foraminifera) and dispersed silt-sized feldspar clasts (F). C, D) Different types of composite grains within the CfS facies, including fecal pellets
(P) and muddy intraclasts (ic). The intergranular porosity between mud aggregate grains is infilled with finely crystalline calcite cement (ca).

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G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 8. Plane polarized light and secondary electron images showing petrographic characteristics of muddy intraclasts. A) Cross-polarized light image illustrating medium-sand-sized
(300 × 150 μm), subrounded muddy intraclast (ic). Note the high contrast of this muddy intraclast regarding to the surrounding microspar carbonate matrix. B) Secondary electron image
showing a clay-rich muddy intraclast (ic) surrounded by microcrystalline calcite cement (ca). Silt-sized feldspar grains (F) are also recognized. C) Secondary light image illustrating the
interior of the muddy intraclast show in B. This composite particle is mainly composed of detrital clays. The intersticial space between clays is filled with euhedral, micron-sized calcite
crystals (ca). Diagenetic quartz is also present (Q). Note the disruption caused by the precipitation of calcite crystals in the interstitial space, producing an important displacement of the
original arrangements between clay minerals as they grow. D) Secondary light image showing detrital clays (cl), calcite cement (ca) and diagenetic quartz (Q).

fragments (similar to type 1 VRF of Li and Schieber, 2018); and
(2) lathwork lithic fragments (Fig. 12C), commonly showing an inter-
growth and pseudomorphic volcanic texture, mainly composed of ad-
mixtures of plagioclase, K-feldspar and some quartz microlites
surrounded by altered volcanic glass (type 2 VRF, Li and Schieber,
2018). The ScM facies contains subordinate amounts of bioclastic grains,
such as tests of calcified radiolarians, benthic and planktonic foraminif-
era, as well as small, hollow, commonly micritic-walled calcispheres.
This facies typically has abundant pyrite content, manifested as large,
euhedral pyrite crystals concentrated along bedding and lamina sur-
faces (Fig. 4C, F).
4.3.2. Palynofacies analysis
The palynofacies type of the ScM facies is characterized by
the highest percentages of both phytoclasts and palynomorphs in all
studied samples. The phytoclasts are mainly opaque particles (13.5–
31.2 %), and blade-shaped forms are predominant (Fig. 10). In the
UNSPVM5260 and UNSPVM5266 samples, the bacterial and algal
palynomorphs (sheaths, filaments and coccoids of cyanobacteria and
Botryoccocus colonies, respectively) are dominant. The UNSPVM5261
sample shows the highest palynomorph diversity within all studied
samples. This palynofacies includes cheirolepidiacean and bisaccate
pollen grains, prasinophyte algae, dinocysts (cf. Aptea notialis), and
palynoforaminifera. The AOM is manly represented by granular and
granular- to spongy-types. In general, the organic matter is non-
fluorescent except for isolated particles. Pyrite is common in all sam-
ples, and some have very high concentrations (i.e., UNSPVM5258/66).
4.3.3. Organic geochemistry
The samples belonging to the ScM facies (n = 6) record the lowest
TOC values (0.10–0.25 wt%; avg. = 0.18 wt%). These samples display
the highest HI (29–120 mg HC/g TOC) and OI (43–140 mg CO2/g TOC,
Fig. 5B), whereas S2 peaks vary from 0.07 to 0.16 mg HC/g rock, fairly
below the cut-off value for evaluating the Tmax, which are relatively
low (364–413 °C), except for one sample presenting a Tmax value of
608 °C (Fig. 5C).
4.4. Carbonate-rich medium mudstone (CmM)
This facies consists of 20 to 30 mm thick beds with conformable
bases and tops. The mudstone has a structureless, homogenized
(cryptobioturbated) fabric (Fig. 4A, C, E) enriched in biogenic grains
(Figs. 4H, 8A, B), including planktonic and benthic microfossils, as well
as remains of thin-shelled bivalves and disarticulated valves of ostracods.
In thin sections, diminutive horizontal burrows are clearly visible.
Such burrows are circular-to oval shaped, and typically filled with
clay, minor amounts of dispersed fine silt debris, and small tests of ben-
thic foraminifera and calcified radiolaria. The bioturbation intensity is
generally higher close to the upper boundary of CmM layers. Here,
there are small burrows (Fig. 4C) and biodeformational structures
(Fig. 4A, E) related to the burrowing activity of benthic organisms capa-
ble of “swimming” through soupy muddy substrates (mantle and swirl
sensu Lobza and Schieber, 1999; see also Schieber, 2003).
4.4.1. Types of grains and cements
The planktonic fauna is comprised of abundant calcified radiolarians
(Fig. 13A) and some globigerinid foraminifers, whereas benthic organ-
isms include small (<0.6 mm sensu Flügel, 2010), single-chambered fo-
raminiferal tests as well as larger, agglutinated orbitolinid foraminifers
(Fig. 13B); minor ostracods have been also recognized. Clay floccules
are also relatively common and consist of 30 to 50 μm diameter,
subrounded to rounded, clay-rich, black aggregates (Fig. 14A). They

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G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 9. Cross polarized light and secondary electron images illustrating fecal pellets. A) Cross-polarized light image showing carbonate-rich fecal pellets (P). B) Secondary light image of a
rounded fecal pellet. The fecal pellet is surrounded by a fine-grained matrix cemented by microcrystalline calcite cement (ca). Minor fine-silt-sized feldspar (F) grains are recognized
within the matrix. C) Secondary light image showing the interior of a carbonate-rich fecal pellet mainly composed of phytoplankton-derived material, most commonly coccolithophore
remains (co). D) Secondary light image showing the interior of a strongly carbonate-cemented fecal pellet. Note the blurry aspect of coccolith debris (co) caused by the recrystallization of
primary components and pervasive microcrystalline calcite (ca) cementation during diagenesis. Other diagenetic products are quartz (Q) and clays (cl).

are typically are disseminated within the CmM facies along with
fecal pellets and other biogenic particles (Fig. 14B). Under high mag-
nification in the SEM, the interiors of presumed clay floccules typi-
cally show detrital clay arranged in an open mesh-like fabric with
intervening calcite cement (Fig. 14C, D). Detrital mica also is locally
a common constituent of clay floccules. The original pore space be-
tween clay flakes is predominantly filled with microcrystalline cal-
cite cement (Fig. 14D), and in places with subordinated amounts of
diagenetic quartz.
Lesser amounts of dispersed, fine-silt-sized grains (mostly quartz
and K-feldspar), detrital mica (Fig. 13D), amorphous organic matter
(Fig. 13C) and plant debris (phytoclasts) are in cases common in the
CmM facies.
4.4.2. Palynofacies analysis
The palynofacies type of the CmM facies (UNSPVM5255 sample) re-
cords ~76 %, mainly granular, AOM. The phytoclasts group roughly con-
stitutes 20 % of the total organic spectrum, largely represented by
opaque blade-shaped particles. The palynomorph group makes up
4.60 %. Freshwater algae (Pediastrum complex) and palynoforaminifera
are also present. In general, the PM is non-fluorescent, except for the
algal content.
5. Discussion
In distal marine settings, condensed sections composed of organic
carbon-rich mudstone would traditionally be assumed to represent
long, more or less uninterrupted, periods of quiescence and sediment
starvation dominated by background sedimentation in stagnant bottom
waters. However, close examination of uncompacted fabrics preserved
inside early diagenetic concretions from the Vaca Muerta Formation re-
veals a significantly more complex and dynamic depositional scenario.
Importantly, concretions provide a record of the primary fabric and
constituent particles of some of the fine-grained facies that build up
condensed sections. Component grains in these concretion-hosted
mudstone deposits show that sediment was delivered to the basin
from multiple sources, including detrital and volcaniclastic inputs, in ad-
dition to sediment produced within the basin (see also Milliken et al.,
2019). The details of the lithofacies described here demonstrates that,
even at distal depositional settings, episodes of seafloor disturbance
and erosion are very common in epicontinental basins, at least during
periods of sediment starvation characterized by a dramatic decrease in
sediment flux to the basin. Also, the presence of diminutive trace fossils
indicates that these environments are probably stressed and oxygen-
deficient, perhaps dysoxic or even suboxic, but not completely anoxic.
5.1. Primary delivery of organic carbon-rich sediment to the seafloor

4.4.3. Organic geochemistry
The samples from the CmM facies (n = 3) have an average TOC
value of 0.29 wt%, and a range between 0.21 and 0.34 wt% (Fig. 5A).
The HI fluctuates from 26 to 43 mg HC/g TOC, whereas the OI ranges
from 34 to 48 mg CO2/g TOC. The S2 values vary by ~0.09 mgHC/g
rock, so Tmax values are not fairly consistent (399–407 °C).
The detailed facies analysis of concretion samples from the Vaca
Muerta Formation suggest that primary delivery of fine-grained sedi-
ment to the seafloor occurred mainly by: (i) hemipelagic rain of mate-
rial with a biological origin (marine snow); (ii) episodic input of
extrabasinal components by wind-borne pumice rafts and dilute
buoyant plumes; and (iii) gravity and storm-driven underflows.

12
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 10. Selected palynomorphs and palynofacies types from the studied concretionary samples of the Vaca Muerta Formation. A) Classopollis spp. within the CfS facies. Euhedral pyrite
crystals are recognized in the interior of this pollen grain (red arrows) (UNSPVM5265: D37/4). B) Classopollis torosus (Reissinger) Balme within the ScM facies; spongy AOM is also present
(red arrow) (UNSPVM5261: M29/4). C) Pediastrum sp. recognized in the CmM facies (UNSPVM5255: B30/1). D, E) Botryococcus sp. cf. B. braunii within the CSsM facies; the red arrow in-
dicates a cup with “growth rings” in a simple unbranched compound colony; the black arrow points out to the cup's cavity that once held the autospores remains (UNSPVM5251: C24/1).
E) RFL photomicrograph. F, G) Tasmanites spp. in the CfS facies (UNSPVM5252: S20/0). G) RFL photomicrograph. H) cf. Aptea notialis Quattrocchio and Sarjeant within the ScM facies; ven-
tral view, lacking the operculum (UNSPVM5261: H23/2). I) Palynoforaminifera identified in the CSsM facies (UNSPVM5253: B34/0). J) Cyanobacteria remains in the ScM facies, including
coccoid cells (red arrows) and filaments (black arrow) (UNSPVM5260: B35/3). K, L) Filament of cyanobacteria in the CfS facies (UNSPVM5252: X14/4). L) RFL photomicrograph. M,
N) Sheath of cyanobacteria recognized in the CSsM facies (UNSPVM5251: P26/1). N) RFL photomicrograph. O) Blade-shaped opaque phytoclasts (red arrows) and pyrite framboids
(black arrows) in the CfS facies (UNSPVM5252: T8/1). P) Spongy AOM within the CfS facies (UNSPVM5262: O1/2). Q) Charcoal (red arrow) within the CfS facies (UNSPVM5262: O22/
0). R) Granular AOM mass (red arrow) within the CSsM facies (UNSPVM5251: U52/2). S) Gelified AOM (red arrow) and granular AOM (black arrow) within the CSsM facies
(UNSPVM5256: O29/0). T) Pyrite framboids (red arrow) and dark granular AOM mass (red arrow) within the CSsM facies (UNSPVM5254: L28/3). Scale bars width represent 10 μm. E
and J photomicrographs were taken with differential interference contrast (DIC) illumination. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)

13
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 11. CSsM facies. The CSsM facies consist of thin laminasets composed of an alternation between silt-rich laminae and calcareous muddy laminae enriched in composite grains.
A) Continuous, planar-to curved, nonparallel lamination defining gentle-dipping cross-lamination. Muddy laminae are mainly composed of sand-sized composite grains and minor
bioclastic particles, such as calcitized radiolaria (ra) and forams (fo). B) Continuous, planar parallel-lamination defined by the alternation between silt-rich and muddy laminae. Note
the variation in thickness of individual silt and muddy layers among this laminaset. C) Gentle-dipping cross-lamination defined by the alternation of non-parallel, silt-rich lenticular lam-
inae and muddy laminae. Note the lateral pinch-out of the central silt-rich lamina. D) secondary electron image and E) backscattered electron image illustrating a silt-rich layer (S) within
calcareous muddy laminae (M) enriched in sand-sized composite grains. Aggregate grains are evident in secondary electron images, but they are undistinguishable in backscattered mode.
Silt-rich layers are mainly composed of idiomorphic, volcanic-sourced feldspar and quartz grains and are better cemented by calcite than the enclosing clay-rich laminae. Note the presence
of small-scale load structures related to the density contrast induced by silt-rich laminae over the subjacent muddy laminae (white arrows in D).

The high proportions of material originated in surface waters rec-
ognized in the CmM facies (e.g., coccolith-rich fecal pellets, tests of
radiolarians and foraminifers) can be presumed to have traveled to
the seabed as a hemipelagic rain of organic detritus (marine snow)
from the overlying water column (e.g., Alldredge and Cohen, 1987;
Alldredge and Silver, 1988; Macquaker et al., 2010b). Subordinate
amounts of silt-sized particles, detrital mica, plant debris, and fresh-
water algae might have arrived at these distal depositional sites by
hypopycnal plumes. Clay-rich floccules could have been supplied
by dilute buoyant river plumes that sporadically reached distal, basinal
environments. Clay flocculation would have enhanced the gravitational
settling of detrital mud through the water column to the seafloor (Lamb
et al., 2020). Additionally, the local presence of bioclastic remains of
thin-shelled bivalves and disarticulated valves of ostracods within the
CmM facies suggests that some material was probably sourced from
shallow-water environments during strong storm events, and then
accumulated by suspension settling (e.g., Kietzmann et al., 2011,
2016; Minisini et al., 2020). The homogenized fabric of the CmM facies
suggests that shortly after deposition this facies was disrupted by
the burrowing activity of benthic meiofauna (e.g., agglutinated forami-
nifera), contravening the assumption of stagnant and anoxic bottom
waters.
The ScM facies is here linked to two different depositional processes.
(1) Wind-borne volcanic ash was directly sourced from the Andean oro-
genic belt during pulses of intense volcanic activity. It was originally de-
posited by suspension settling from floating pumice rafts, and then
subject to reworking by bottom currents. (2) Volcanic particles derived
from the erosion of ash-fall deposits exposed in the volcanic highlands
located in western margin of the basin, carried by rivers to the ocean.
The relatively high proportion of blade-shaped opaque particles sug-
gests that volcanic highlands were vegetated and supplied plant debris
to the basin, likely transported by density-driven underflows for long

14
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 12. ScM facies. A) Plane polarized light image illustrating the ScM facies, characterized by a homogenized fabric with abundant pyrite content. Note the presence of clay-filled burrows
(white-dashed). B) Backscattered image showing sand-sized volcanic-sourced feldspar grains and euhedral pyrite crystal masses. Some feldspars are partially replaced by authigenic clays.
C) Backscattered image of a lathwork volcanic-rock fragment (VRF) showing an intergrowth texture dominated by plagioclase microlites and interstitial glass. It is worth noting the pres-
ence of small (<5 μm) pyrite framboids in the upper left of the photomicrograph. Also, micron-sized crystals of pyrite are evident inside the VRF. D) Secondary electron image of altered
(devitrified) volcanic shards mainly composed of authigenic clays.

distances until they reached distal depositional settings (cf. Lamb et al.,
2008; Rutman et al., 2021).
5.2. Winnowing, erosion and redistribution of organic-rich mud
The CSsM and CfS facies typically show microfabrics suggesting
that depositional processes were dominated by bottom-traction trans-
port, possibly associated with muddy underflows. The microfabric of
these facies strongly suggests that current-generated ripple trains
migrated as discrete entities over the seabed (Fig. 15), supporting the
narrative of non-stagnant bottom waters. More specifically, petro-
graphic evidence points to sedimentation under generally and episodic
erosive scouring and reworking by bottom currents. The presence of
cyanobacterial remains within the CSsM facies indicates that bottom
currents were strong enough to rework and erode firm substrates colo-
nized by microbial mats in shallow-water environments, and then
transport fragments to basinal settings prior to burial. The recognition
of freshwater algae (i.e., Botryococcus) within the CSsM facies reinforces
the idea of seafloor erosion and organic carbon transport from continen-
tal and/or shallow-water environments towards distal depositional set-
tings. Furthermore, the mud intraclasts in the CSsM and CfS facies are
here interpreted as the recycled products of recently deposited beds,
likely originated through the erosion of surficial, water-saturated
mud by bottom currents (Schieber et al., 2010). Shallow-buried
mud was sufficiently cohesive to resist disaggregation during erosion
and subsequent bedload transport, abrasion and collisions (e.g.,
Schieber et al., 2010; Plint, 2014; Li and Schieber, 2018; Li et al., 2021).
High magnification CCI in secondary electron mode under the SEM
revealed that in addition to mud intraclasts, aggregate-rich laminae
also contain fecal pellets produced by planktonic feeders (e.g., copepods)
that selectively fed on coccolithophores in the photic zone (Hattin, 1975;
Honjo, 1980; Honjo et al., 1984; Harris, 1994), and excreted coccolith
debris in pellets that settled to the sediment–water interface (Cuomo
and Bartholomew, 1991). After being deposited by suspension settling,
fecal pellets and planktonic fauna sourced from the photic zone
(e.g., radiolaria, globose forams, ostracods) were intermittently
winnowed by bottom currents, transported in bedload with muddy
intraclasts and other biogenic constituents sourced from the benthos
(e.g., benthic forams), and finally deposited as laminated mudstone
deposits (see also Birgenheier et al., 2017; Li and Schieber, 2018;
Schieber et al., 2019).
5.3. Early diagenesis and burial
Concretions contain important information about early diagenetic
reactions and mineralization that occurs close to the sediment–water
interface in distal marine settings, and thus they are very important
for understanding the processes that promote natural carbon sequestra-
tion from the biosphere to the lithosphere.
The primary fabrics and the abundance of intergranular carbonate ce-
ments establish that the growth of the concretions studied here occurred
in high porosity mud prior to compaction, during periods of very low net
sediment accumulation rates (e.g., Raiswell, 1988). Cementation oc-
curred prior to significant burial, because otherwise mud intraclasts
would have been flattened, producing a lenticular shale fabric (Schieber
et al., 2010). It is assumed here that shortly after deposition the pores
of mud intraclasts were filled with calcite cement as concretion nucle-
ation was initiated. Because these cements were early, i.e., before com-
paction, they occupied most of the primary pore space of the muddy
sediment (e.g., Lippmann, 1955; Raiswell, 1971), with minimal displace-
ment of the original grain arrangements. The common presence of non-
ferroan calcite cement and pyrite suggests that cement precipitation

15
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 13. CmM facies. A) Plane polarized light image illustrating a sharp contact separating the CmM facies from the subjacent CSsM facies. The CmM facies show a homogenized fabric
enriched in dark-colored silt-sized composite particles and bioclastic grains, including calcified radiolarians and small remains of thin-shelled bivalves. In addition, fine-silt-sized quartz
grains are recognized. B) Cross polarized light image showing an agglutinated benthic foraminifer (fo), abundant calcified radiolarians (ra) and minor fecal pellets (P). C) Plane polarized
light image illustrating calcified radiolarian (ra) and dark-colored aggregates within an overall structureless clay-rich matrix with dispersed silt-sized quartz grains (Q). D) Backscattered
electron image of the CmM facies showing calcified radiolarians (white dashed), silt-sized quartz grains (Q) and detrital mica (m). Note the presence of small (<5 μm) disseminated pyrite
crystals and framboids.

was linked to microbial degradation processes of organic matter that oc-
curred close to the sediment–water interface (Curtis, 1987; Ritger et al.,
1987; Paull et al., 1992; Canfield, 1994; Von Rad et al., 1996). Diagenetic
pyrite formed due to bacterial sulfate reduction in carbonaceous sedi-
ment beneath a dysoxic or even oxygenated water column (Goldhaber
et al., 1977), an interpretation consistent with the prevalence of large
euhedral grains (Wilkin et al., 1996), a lack of framboidal pyrite (Blood
et al., 2019), and the common presence of diminutive burrow mottles
and disrupted fabrics. The activity of microbial communities near the
sediment–water interface probably resulted in the breakdown of labile
organic components (Liu et al., 2021), reducing TOC, S2 peaks, and HI
values during the early stages of diagenesis. Sulfate-reducing bacte-
ria selectively destroyed a more hydrogen-rich component of the
primary organic matter mixture (Littke, 1993), leaving residual
organic compounds mainly represented by indigestible, refractory
organic matter (type III-IV, Fig. 5). Collectively, our data suggest
that concretions plausibly formed within or just above the sulfate
reduction zone (Irwin et al., 1977) (Fig. 15), where oxygen replen-
ishment by diffusion processes becomes increasingly more difficult,
resulting in oxygen-depleted interstitial waters (Potter et al., 2005;
Milliken and Day-Stirrat, 2013).
5.4. Condensation, enhanced productivity and organic carbon preservation
The sedimentary rock record shows that organic carbon enrichment
in distal marine environments is typically enhanced during periods of
very low net sediment accumulation rates (<100 cm/kyr) that contrib-
ute to organic matter concentration in condensed intervals (e.g.,
Sageman et al., 2003). Also, organic‑carbon-rich intervals are typically
associated with periods of high nutrient influx that promote the prolif-
eration of primary producers and enhance primary productivity of
organic matter in surface waters. The enrichment in TOC content regis-
tered in the basal condensed section of the Vaca Muerta Formation (up
to 15 % TOC, Brisson et al., 2020) may have resulted from (i) an increase
in primary productivity related to episodes of high volcanic activity that
supplied large amounts of volcanic ash enriched in nutrients (e.g., N,
P, K, Si, Fe) to surface waters (Yang et al., 2021), and/or (ii) enhanced
fertilization and phytoplankton blooms associated with upwelling of
nutrient-rich deep-water masses (e.g., Smith and Bustin, 1998).
Condensation and enhanced primary productivity are not sufficient
to explain the origin of organic-rich condensed sections. Preservation
is also a key factor for the development of organic carbon-rich mud-
stone (Bohacs et al., 2005). After primary deposition, active degradation
by aerobic and anaerobic processes acting nearby the sediment-water
interface results in <1 % of the photosynthesized organic matter
retained and buried in sediment (Middelburg and Meysman, 2007).
Organic carbon remineralization is attenuated in environments charac-
terized by anoxic/euxinic bottom water conditions, although many an-
cient organic carbon-rich mudstone successions shows that organic
carbon accumulation and preservation does not necessarily require
the presence of stagnant bottom waters and sustained anoxic/euxinic
conditions (Schieber, 2003; Macquaker et al., 2010b; Ghadeer and
Macquaker, 2012). The processes responsible for the preservation of
significant amounts of organic carbon in condensed sections developed
under suboxic/dysoxic depositional settings are not yet comprehen-
sively understood (Hartnett et al., 1998; Moodley et al., 2005; Könitzer
et al., 2014).
Although microbial degradation processes destroyed most of the or-
ganic matter that supplied the mineralizing solutes for carbonate precip-
itation and concretion growth, the palynological samples studied here
surprisingly exhibit important clues for understanding the mechanisms
that promote organic carbon preservation in condensed intervals. Out

16
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al.
Fig. 14. Plane polarized light and secondary electron micrographs illustrating clay floccules. A) Plane polarized light image of clay-rich floccules (Fl), calcified radiolarians (R), silt-sized
quartz grains (Q) and plant debris (Ph) within the CmM facies. B) Secondary light image showing fecal pellets (P) and clay floccules (Fl) within the CmM facies. C) Secondary light
image showing detrital clays (cl) adhered one another in the interior of a clay-rich floccule. D) Secondary light image showing the interior of a round-shaped, clay-rich floccule highly
cemented with microcrystalline calcite.
of the total palynological matter, granular AOM is the most important or-
ganic matter type. Granular AOM sensu Pacton et al. (2011) is a microbial
product characterized by a heterogeneous fluorescence, i.e., material with
strong fluorescence (bacterial bodies) surrounded by weaker fluorescent
extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), and it is commonly associated
with bacterial filaments. EPS is generated by microbes and eukaryotic
phytoplankton as (1) secretions of biofilms that secure attachment and
enhance their local environment, and/or (2) metabolic-excess waste
products (Decho and Gutierrez, 2017). Importantly, EPS can encapsulate
organic and inorganic materials in small aggregates of particulate organic
matter forming marine snow, establishing localized anoxic conditions,
even in the presence of an oxygenated water column (Decho and
Gutierrez, 2017; Martínez et al., 2018a, 2018b). This process is associated
with an oxygen gradient that leads to an increase of anoxia towards the
interior of the aggregates (Alldredge and Cohen, 1987; Alldredge and
Silver, 1988; Ploug et al., 1997; Ploug, 2008; Decho and Gutierrez, 2017).
The great abundance of mud composite particles within the
facies described here strongly support the idea that organic carbon en-
capsulation could be an important mechanism for organic carbon pres-
ervation in relatively energetic and non-anoxic distal depositional
environments (Macquaker et al., 2010b). Besides creating an anoxic
microenvironment that prevents the oxidation of the organic matter
contained inside of the aggregates (e.g., Ghadeer and Macquaker,
2012), encapsulation also protects organic components from (1) degra-
dation and abrasion during transport, and (2) feeding microorganisms
(see also Yu et al., 2009). The excellent preservation state of freshwater
algae (Pediastrum complex) suggests that organic matter contained
inside mud composite particles can travel long distances before
being deposited in distal depositional settings. After settling to the
sediment–water interface, these particles can be also subject to
reworking and bottom-traction transport by bottom currents re-
sponsible for organic carbon redistribution in basinal settings.
17
Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254
6. Conclusion
This study demonstrates that early diagenetic carbonate concretions
can provide important clues for understanding the depositional setting
and early diagenetic history of organic‑carbon-rich mudstone that make
up condensed sections. The close examination of uncompacted fabrics
preserved inside early diagenetic concretions from the Vaca Muerta
Formation reveals a significantly more complex and dynamic deposi-
tional scenario than previously assumed (suspension settling para-
digm). Although component grains in the studied dataset include
abundant material originally delivered to the sediment–water interface
by suspension settling processes (i.e., marine snow, hypopycnal plumes,
pumice rafts), there is substantial evidence of episodic sedimentation
controlled by episodic events of seafloor disturbance and erosion.
The architecture of the lithofacies described here demonstrates
that, even at basinal settings, the seafloor was frequently disturbed
by bottom current activity. Bottom currents were strong enough to
sweep the seabed and intermittently erode it, resulting in the
recycling of hemipelagic mud in the form of muddy intraclasts that
were transported in bedload together with biogenic components
and volcanic-sourced particles derived from the reworking of
volcaniclastic deposits. As a result of bottom-traction transport, rip-
ple trains migrated over the seabed and were deposited along with
suspended sediment. The winnowing of the seafloor by swift bottom
currents is an important mechanism for the widespread distribution
of organic carbon-rich sediment from the periphery to the interior of
epicontinental basins, especially during periods of low net sediment
accumulation rates and condensation of organic carbon on the sea-
floor under minimal input of detrital clay and silt.
Although microbial degradation processes destroyed most of the
organic content record, the concretions studied here represent a
unique dataset for understanding the mechanisms that promote
G. Otharán, C. Zavala, J. Schieber et al. Sedimentary Geology 440 (2022) 106254

Fig. 15. Diagram illustrating the processes that control the delivery, dispersal, accumulation and diagenesis of organic carbon-rich sediment in the interior of epicontinental basins during
periods of sediment starvation. During such periods of very low net sediment accumulation rates, a condensed flux of biogenic material to the seafloor under minimal input of detrital clay
and silt lead to a significant delivery of organic carbon to the seafloor, however, only a small fraction of the OM is preserved due to intensive remineralization by microbial-mediated re-
actions that increase the alkalinity of the environment and supply the mineralizing solutes for early cementation and concretion nucleation at shallow burial depths.

organic carbon preservation in condensed intervals. The microfabrics in- Acknowledgements

dicate that bottom water layers were not persistently anoxic, and in fact
bottom current circulation supplied oxygen to the sediment–water inter-
face and created suitable conditions for benthic life, contravening the as-
sumption of bottom water anoxia as a prerequisite for organic carbon
preservation in condensed sections. The excellent preservation state of
freshwater algae (Pediastrum complex) strongly suggest that encapsula-
tion could be an important mechanism for organic carbon preservation
in relatively energetic and non-anoxic distal depositional environments.
Besides creating an anoxic microenvironment that prevents the oxidation
of the organic matter contained inside of the aggregates, encapsulation
also protected organic components from feeding microorganisms and
degradation and abrasion during transport.
The dataset presented in this study provides evidence that organic
matter contained inside mud composite particles is capable of traveling
for long distances before being accumulated and buried in distal deposi-
tional settings, calling for a critical reappraisal of the processes that con-
trol organic carbon preservation in epicontinental seas.
The authors deeply acknowledge the National Scientific and
Technical Research Council (CONICET), the Geology Department of
Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), the Indiana University Department
of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences and Y-TEC S.A. for supporting field
activities, sample preparation and analyses. The authors are especially
grateful to Dr. J.H.S. Macquaker, Dr. L.P. Birgenheier and Dr. P. Pedersen
for their valuable comments and suggestions on a previous version of
this manuscript. Special thanks to Dr. B. Jones, Dr. R.D. Wilson and Dr.
P.M. Myrow for their professionalism and commitment to improve the
quality of this manuscript. The authors also want to express thanks to
F. Brea and C. Selva for performing the organic geochemical analyses.
M. Arcuri , M. Di Meglio , A. Zorzano , A. Torresi and M. Fantín contrib-
uted with interesting discussions about the mechanisms responsible
for the delivery, accumulation and preservation of organic-rich mud in
epicontinental basins.

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