Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Diagenesis of continental tight sandstone and its control on reservoir

quality: A case study of the Quan 3 member of the cretaceous Quantou
Formation, Fuxin uplift, Songliao Basin
Qin Zhang a, b, **, Xin-Song Wu a, b, Ahmed E. Radwan c, *, Bo-Han Wang d, Kai Wang a,
Han-Yun Tian a, Shuai Yin e
a
College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing, 102249, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing, 102249, China
c
Faculty of Geography and Geology, Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 3a, 30-387, Krakow, Poland
d
Sinopec Chongqing Fuling Shale Gas Exploration and Development Co.,Ltd., Chongqing, 408105, China
e
Xi’an Shiyou University, School of Earth Science and Engineering, Xi’an, 710065, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Research on the diagenesis of continental sandstone reservoirs can provide scientific guidance for the prediction
Songliao Basin of reservoir sweet spots. The low permeable-interbedded thin and thick sandstone reservoirs of the Cretaceous
Fuxin Uplift Quantou Formation’s Quan 3 Member in the Fuxin Uplift, Songliao Basin, were used as an example in this work
Cretaceous
to investigate the diagenesis of continental tight sandstone and its influence on reservoir quality. A large number
Continental tight sandstone reservoirs
Diagenesis
of thin section, scanning electron microscopy, granularity, X-ray diffraction, and petrophysical property mea­
Petrophysical properties surements were used to study the petrological characteristics and diagenesis. The reservoir space evolution mode
Pore evolution of continental sandstones in this area was constructed by combining diagenesis sequences and the evolution of
Reservoir quality petrophysical properties of the Quan 3 Member. The results show that the compositional maturity of the
sandstone reservoirs of the Quan 3 Member is relatively low and their lithologies are mainly lithic feldspar
sandstone and feldspar lithic sandstone, followed by lithic arkose sandstone, feldspathic litharenite and a small
amount of lithic sandstone. The average particle size of the target sandstones is 0.11 mm, and the fine sandstone
to coarse siltstone are favorable reservoirs. The studied sandstone reservoirs have undergone intense diagenetic
transformations, including compaction (pressure solution), cementation, dissolution, and metasomatism.
Moreover, the complex diagenetic environment changes in the Quan 3 Member include early alkaline-acid­
ic→mid-alkaline→late acidic. The shallow sandstones are in the meso-diagenetic A1 stage; when the burial depth
exceeds 800 m, they enter the meso-diagenetic A2 stage; and when the burial depth exceeds 1600 m, they enter
the meso-diagenetic B stage. It was found that diagenesis has significant control over the quality of continental
sandstone reservoirs. Compaction is the primary factor controlling the quality of the target reservoir. It controls
the differences in the petrophysical properties of the reservoirs in the eastern and western regions; that is, the
physical properties of the Quan 3 Member in the east are higher than those in the west. Cementation and
dissolution are secondary controlling factors of reservoir quality that control the differences in reservoir pet­
rophysical properties in the northern and southern regions; that is, the physical properties of the Quan 3 Member
in the north are better than those in the south. The most favorable reservoirs of the Quan 3 Member are
developed in the Fuyu Oilfield, which is distributed in the southeast region and develops fine sandstones of
branch channels and meandering river point sand bars of delta plains that suffer the least compaction and the
strongest dissolution. This study may provide crucial clues for predicting the sweet spot reservoirs of the Quan 3
Member in the study area. Furthermore, the study provides a reference for the different diagenesis controls on
the pore space evolution of continental tight sandstone reservoirs.

* Corresponding author. Faculty of Geography and Geology, Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 3a, 30-387, Krakow, Poland.
** Corresponding author. College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing, 102249, China.
E-mail addresses: zhangqin@cup.edu.cn (Q. Zhang), radwanae@yahoo.com, ahmed.radwan@uj.edu.pl (A.E. Radwan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2022.105883
Received 6 July 2022; Received in revised form 11 August 2022; Accepted 18 August 2022
Available online 24 August 2022
0264-8172/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Zhang et al.
1. Introduction
Reservoir geology hotspot research areas include reservoir hetero­
geneity, reservoir densification mechanism, genesis of secondary pores,
quantitative evaluation of diagenesis intensity, and classification of
reservoir sweet spots (Haile et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2020a; Lv and Li,
2021; Ma et al., 2019; Qiao et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2013; Cui and
Radwan, 2022; Zhang et al., 2022). With the continuous development of
new research and testing methods in reservoir geology, it has become
possible to quantitatively characterize the diagenetic evolution paths of
reservoirs from various perspectives (Gao, 2021; Hong et al., 2020; Jabir
et al., 2021; Li et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2020). In recent years, great
progress has been made in the field of reservoir diagenesis (Lai et al.,
2018b; Radwan, 2022). Field practices in different oilfields and the
introduction of some new concepts (such as tectonic diagenesis, diage­
netic facies etc) have greatly promoted the development of sedimentary
diagenesis (Santosh and Feng, 2020; Wang et al., 2019; Yin and Wu.,
2020; Zhao et al., 2021). In addition, the combined application of
experimental techniques, such as cathodoluminescence, trace element
testing, X-ray diffraction, and isotopic analysis, provides new data
support for the fine and quantitative characterization of reservoir
diagenesis (Dong et al., 2020; Mirzaei-Paiaman and Ghanbarian, 2021;
Wei et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021).
Internal structures and mineral distribution characteristics of sedi­
ments tend to change under the action of temperature, pressure, and
water-rock fluids to reach an equilibrium state (Mahmud et al., 2020).
This regular evolution sequence is called the “diagenesis hierarchy”
Fig. 1. Location and stratigraphic synthesis histogram of the study area. Notes: (a) The study area is located in the Fuxin Uplift in the southern Songliao Basin, China;
(b) Stratigraphic units and sedimentary cycles of the Cretaceous in the study area (After Mei et al., 2020, modified).
2
Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
(Bello et al., 2021; Li et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019).
The diagenetic stages of reservoirs are usually divided into three stages:
early diagenesis, meso-diagenesis, and late diagenesis (Santosh and
Feng., 2020; Xi et al., 2019). Diagenesis is closely related to the diage­
netic environment, fluids, facies, and sequence stratigraphy (Hijaz et al.,
2020; Khan et al., 2020; Mahmi et al., 2018; Su et al., 2022; Xi et al.,
2019; Xiao et al., 2019). With the development of reservoir geology
theory, diagenesis is not only limited to petrology and mineralogy, but
has developed into multiple disciplines such as sedimentology, petro­
leum geology, petrophysics, and mineral deposit sciences (Liu et al.,
2020c; Radwan, 2021a; Radwan et al., 2021a,b; Nabawy et al., 2022;
Boutaleb et al., 2022; Kassem et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2019; Zhang
et al., 2020; Abdel-Fattah et al., 2022).
The study area is located in the Fuxin Uplift Belt in the south part of
the Songliao Basin (Fig. 1a). The Cretaceous Quantou Formation in this
area had developed interbedded thin and thick sandstone reservoirs
with low permeability. At present, there are few studies on the diagen­
esis of continental sandstone reservoirs in the Quan 3 Member in this
area, which restricts the efficient prediction of reservoir sweet spots
(Mei et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2009; W. Wang et al., 2016; Zang et al.,
2020; Zhao, 2015; Zhu et al., 2020). In this paper, taking the Quan 3
Member of the Cretaceous Quantou Formation in the Fuxin Uplift as an
example, the petrological characteristics, diagenesis and their influence
on the quality of the reservoir have been systematically studied based on
a large number of thin sections, scanning electron microscopy, granu­
larity, X-ray diffraction and petrophysical property tests. The study also
highlights the relationship between the diagenetic sequences and the
Q. Zhang et al.
porosity evolution of sandstone reservoirs in different diagenesis stages
of the Quan 3 Member. Moreover, the relationship between petrophys­
ical properties and burial depth was investigated. Finally, the favorable
reservoirs are predicted, which will provide the scientific basis for the
further exploration deployment in the study area and other oil fields
with similar reservoirs.
2. Geological background
The Fuxin Uplift Belt is a secondary structural unit located in the
southern Songliao Basin (Fig. 1a) (Mei et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2009;
Zhao, 2015). The study area is located in the northern part of the Fuxin
Uplift Belt, which covers the Xinbei, Xinmiao, Xinmin, Xinli, Mutou, and
Fuyu Oil Fields (Li et al., 2013; Sun et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2014), with
an area of about 1900 km2 (Fig. 1a). The terrain in this area is relatively
flat, and the altitude of the surface is between 135 m and 150 m.
The Fuxin Uplift Belt is a long-term paleo-uplift developed on the
basement. From bottom to top, the strata in the Fuxin Uplift Zone
include the Denglouku, Quantou, Qingshankou, Yaojia, and Nenjiang
formations (Mei et al., 2020). Hydrocarbons are mainly located in the
Quan 4 and Quan 3 members of the Cretaceous Quentou Formation
(Fig. 1b).
In 1959, the Jilin Oilfield produced industrial oil and gas flows in the
Quan 4 Member of the Fuxin Uplift. Then, the Fuyu, Xinbei, Mutou, and
Xinli Oil Fields were discovered successively. In 1960, oil testing was
conducted in the Quan 3 Member for the first time, and good quantities
of oil and gas were produced, showing a huge oil and gas potential.
These hydrocarbons are mainly sourced from the mature lacustrine
shales in the Qing 1 Member.
Previous researchers have carried out systematic research on
sequence stratigraphy and sedimentary facies of the Cretaceous in the
Songliao Basin. High-resolution sequence stratigraphic studies showed
that the Quan 3 Member developed as an ascending and descending base
level semi-cycles (Fig. 1b) (Mei et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2014). The top
boundary of the Quan 3 Member is a set of variegated mudstone with a
thickness of 10 m–20 m; while the thick sandstone at the bottom of the
Quan 3 Member is superimposed on the mudstone of the Quan 2
Member. The stratigraphic comparisons showed that the basement
subsided stably during the depositional period of the Quan 3 Member.
The thickness of the Quan 3 Member of the Fuyu Oilfield ranges from
285 to 340 m.
Based on the analysis of sedimentary structures, cores, logging re­
sponses, and fossils, combined with previous research results (Liu et al.,
2021b; Mei et al., 2019, 2020; Sun et al., 2014; Tang et al., 2009), the
Quan 3 Member of the Fuxin Uplift was dominated by meandering river
facies in the early stage; while in the later stage, meandering river delta
facies were developed in the central and northern parts. Point sand bars
of meandering rivers and branch channel sand bodies of delta plains are
the main reservoirs (Fig. 1b). However, the delta facies is mainly
developed in the Quan 4 Member, and the branch channels of the delta
plain are the main reservoirs (Fig. 1b). The mud content of the Quan 3
Member is higher than that of the Quan 4 Member, but its oil content is
much lower than that of the Quan 4 Member. For a long time, the pre­
vious studies on the Quan 3 Member were relatively low, and there were
few studies on reservoir characteristics, diagenesis, and pore evolution.
It restricts the oil and gas exploration process of the Quan 3 Member in
this area.
3. Materials and methods
In this study, a total of 520 m of cores from 35 wells in the Quan 3
Member of the Fuxin Uplift were examined. Experimental tests include
ordinary thin section (total 61), cast thin section (total 59), granularity
(total 559), scanning electron microscopy (total 10), petrophysical
properties (total 52 in this test and about 3000 from previous tests), X-
ray diffraction (total 20) and pore water chemical composition tests
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
(total 399 groups). Ordinary and cast thin sections were completed with
a Nikon Eclipse LV100N POL polarizing microscope. Scanning electron
microscopy was performed with an FEI Quanta 200F field emission
environmental scanning electron microscope. The equipment is equip­
ped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) with an accelerating
voltage of 20 kV, a working distance of 15 mm, a probe current of 200
nA, and a beam spot diameter of 1 μm.
The laser particle size analyzer Mastersize 3000 was selected for
particle size testing. The light source of the laser diffraction technique
was a helium-neon laser. A laser beam was irradiated onto a sample of
dispersed particles, and a detector measured the scattered light intensity
of the particles at a rate of 10,000 standard scans per second. The
Mastersize3000 software was used to calculate the particle size distri­
bution, which was measured in the range of 0.01 μm–35,000 μm.
The petrophysical parameter tests were completed with a PoroPDP-
200 Overburden Porosity Permeability Tester. Among them, the pres­
sure pulse decay method (unsteady-state method) was used to measure
the permeability of the samples. The porosity was measured by the he­
lium expansion principle and calculated using Boyle’s law. The working
medium of the petrophysical property tests was nitrogen and helium.
The pressure sensor accuracy is 0.1%, and the power supply is 220 V/50
Hz.
The experimental instrument for X-ray diffraction was a D2 Phaser
diffractometer. For the whole rock analysis tests, fresh samples were
crushed to 300 mesh. The whole rock slices were placed in a D2 Phaser
diffractometer; the incident slit was 0.6 mm, the detector was 8 mm, the
step size was 0.02◦ , and the time for each step was 0.5 s. For clay mineral
testing, fresh samples were pulverized to 200 mesh, and clay-oriented
sheets were placed in a desiccator saturated with ethylene glycol. The
dryer was heated to 50 ◦ C with an oven for 7–9 h, and then the clay
oriented sheet was placed in a diffractometer for measurement (scan­
ning angle 2θ (3.5◦ ~30◦ )). After that, the clay oriented sheet was heated
in a muffle furnace at 450–500 ◦ C for 2.5 h, and then placed in a
diffractometer for measurement (scanning angle 2θ (3.5◦ –15◦ ).
When discussing the relationship between diagenetic sequence,
diagenetic environment, dissolution and secondary pore development
zones, it is necessary to analyze the salinity of the original pore water
and the change law of its main ion types and mass concentrations. The
pore water data collected in this study was obtained through testing
with ion chromatography detection technology. During the drilling
process, when the original pore water enters the drilling fluids, it will
cause changes in the type and mass concentration of inorganic ions.
Therefore, the ion chromatography detection technology can quickly
and accurately detect the changes of ions in pore water. Moreover, the
type of pore water can be judged according to the mass concentration
changes of anions and cations in the formation, combined with the
causal coefficient formula of the Surin classification method (Mei et al.,
2020).
4. Results
4.1. Petrological characteristics
The development of high-quality reservoirs is limited by sedimen­
tation and diagenesis, while the evaluation criteria of reservoirs are
controlled by petrophysical parameters (Chen et al., 2021; Haile et al.,
2018; Jafari et al., 2020; Radwan, 2022). According to the observations
of cores, ordinary and cast thin sections, the compositional maturity of
the reservoirs in the Quan 3 Member of the study area is relatively low.
Its lithologies are mainly lithic feldspar sandstone and feldspar lithic
sandstone, followed by lithic arkose sandstone, feldspathic litharenite
and a small amount of lithic sandstone (Fig. 2).
The main components of the sandstones in the Quan 3 Member are
quartz, feldspar, and debris. The particle components of sandstone are
mostly debris (33%–45% in absolute content, 34.73% in average), fol­
lowed by quartz (29%–41% in absolute content, 33.23% in average) and
Q. Zhang et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883

Fig. 2. Triangular diagram of rock composition of the Quan 3 Member in the Fuxin Uplift.

feldspar (26%~31% in absolute content, 29.04% in average). In general,

the contents of the above three components are not much different
(Fig. 3a). Magmatic rock debris is the main component of debris. It in­
cludes medium-acid extrusive rock debris and a small amount of basalt,
schist, and phyllite debris. Feldspar is dominated by plagioclase and a
small amount of orthoclase. The matrix content of sandstones in the
Quan 3 Member is mainly concentrated at 5%–15%. Matrix components
include hetero-bases and cements (Khan et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2014).
Among the cement components, carbonate content is the highest, about
44.83%, followed by siliceous cement, about 17.78%, and the content of
other cements such as feldspar, kaolinite, and illite is less (Fig. 3b).
According to the statistics of 559 grain size data of the target layer,
the average grain size of the sandstones in the Quan 3 Member is 0.11
mm. Fine sandstone to coarse siltstone are favorable reservoirs, while
fine siltstone and medium sandstone have less effective reservoir pro­
portions. The average grain size of the Quan 3 Member sandstones in
Xinli, Xinmu, Xinmiao, Fuyu, Xinmin, and Xinbei oilfields is 0.109 mm,
0.110 mm, 0.115 mm, 0.128 mm, 0.120 mm and 0.102 mm, respectively Fig. 4. Distribution of median particle size of sandstones in Quan 3 Member of
different oilfields.
(Fig. 4). The provenance of the Xinli, Xinmu, and Xinbei areas was
located in the southwest area, and water flowed from Xinli and Xinmu
areas to the Xinbei area, so the grain size of sandstones along this path water flowed from the Fuyu area to the Xinmin area, so the grain size of
gradually decreased. However, based on heavy mineral analysis and the sandstones is gradually decreased along this path. The Xinmiao area
previous studies (Mei et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2014), the provenance of is in a mixed source area, so its sandstone grain size is at a medium level.
the Fuyu and Xinmin areas was located in the southeastern area, and the The roundness of the sandstone reservoirs in the target layer is
dominated by the subangular type, which accounts for 92.64%, followed

Fig. 3. Distribution of main minerals and matrix components of sandstones in the Quan 3 Member in the Fuxin Uplift Belt. Notes: (a) Main rock mineral composition;
(b) Matrix composition.

4
Q. Zhang et al.
by the subangular-subcircular type (Fig. 5). Among them, the Xinli,
Xinmu, Xinmiao, and Xinmin areas are dominated by subangular type,
while the Fuyu area is dominated by subangular-subcircular type.
4.2. Reservoir properties
According to the statistics of about 3000 groups of reservoir property
data of the Quan3 and Quan4 members (Fig. 6), the reservoir properties
of the Fuyu Oilfield are the best, followed by the Xinli and Xinmin
Oilfields, and the reservoir properties of the Xinbei, Xinmu, and Xinmiao
Oilfields are relatively poor. Fuyu Oilfield has developed medium-
porosity and medium-permeability reservoirs, and the porosities are
distributed between 3.0% and 34.9%. The Xinmin and Xinli Oilfields
mainly develop tight reservoirs with low-porosity and ultra-low
permeability properties, and the porosities are distributed between
3.0% and 26.6%. However, the reservoir of the Quan 3 Member in
Xinmin Oilfield has weak heterogeneity, and the porosities are distrib­
uted between 7.3% and 15.2%.
From the perspective of the whole area, whether it is Quan 3 Member
or Quan 4 Member, the reservoirs properties tend to decrease gradually
with depth (Fig. 7). The reservoir properties of the shallow reservoir
above 1000 m are relatively good (porosity 20%~30%, permeability
1–1000 mD). However, the reservoir properties below 1000 m are
relatively poor (porosity 10%~20%, permeability 0.1–100 mD). The
permeability has an obvious increase in the interval from 1100 m to
1400 m, the permeability has an obvious increase. Overall, there are
three abnormally increased porosity and permeability belts, which
correspond to three secondary pore development belts.
The variation law of reservoir properties with depth in different
oilfields is different. Among them, the reservoir of the Quan 3 Member in
the Fuyu Oilfield is shallower than 1000 m and it has the best petro­
physical properties. As the depth increases, the porosity changes little
and the permeability increases gradually (Mei et al., 2020; Zhang et al.,
2021). However, the porosity and permeability of the reservoirs in Xinli,
Xinmin, Xinmiao, and Xinmu oilfields gradually decrease with the in­
crease of depth.
4.3. Pore types of reservoir
The main pore types in the Quan 3 Member reservoir in the Fuxin
Uplift Zone are mainly secondary dissolution pores, followed by a small
number of primary pores and micro-fractures (Fig. 8). Secondary
dissolution pores include intergranular and intragranular dissolution
pores (including mold pores). The primary pores are mainly intercrys­
talline micropores of clay minerals, followed by a small amount of re­
sidual clastic intergranular pores (residual primary intergranular pores).
Fig. 5. Distribution of particle roundness in the sandstones of the Quan 3
Member in the study area.
5
Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
(1) Intergranular dissolved pores
Intergranular pores are formed by dissolution of primary intergran­
ular pores and residual primary intergranular pores between feldspar,
calcite, debris, and other particles (Fig. 8a). The pore size and distri­
bution of intergranular dissolved pores are uneven, and the pore shape is
irregular. The percentage content is about 80%.
(2) Intragranular dissolved pores
Intragranular dissolved pores are often developed along the cleavage
or crack of feldspar (Fig. 8a–d) and intermediate or acid extrusive rock
debris (Fig. 8a) in the study area, and they are often developed in
combination with intergranular dissolved pores to form ultra-large pores
(Fig. 8a). Mold pores are formed when the particles are completely
dissolved (Fig. 8a). The percentage content of intragranular dissolved
pores is about 15% (Fig. 9g).
(3) Primary intergranular pores
Primary intergranular pores are mainly developed in illite (Fig. 8e),
chlorite and kaolinite in the study area. The size of such pores is often
related to the size of crystals and the compactness of their accumulation.
In addition, a small amount of residual detrital intergranular pores can
be seen under thin-section and SEM (Fig. 8f and g). They are charac­
terized by regular shapes and straight edges. The percentage content of
primary intergranular pores is about 5%.
(4) Micro-fractures
Micro-fractures are mainly small structural fractures formed by
compaction and various tectonic stresses (Fig. 8h). The fractures are
relatively clean and often run through matrixes and plastic debris, which
significantly improves the permeability of the Quan 3 Member reservoir.
Occasionally, calcite, siliceous and other minerals are filled in the micro-
fractures.
4.4. Diagenesis and diagenetic sequences of reservoir
4.4.1. Diagenesis types
The sandstone reservoirs in the Quan 3 Member in the Fuxin Uplift
had undergone intense diagenetic transformations, which included
strong compaction (pressure solution), cementation, dissolution, and
metasomatism.
4.4.1.1. Compaction. Through thin section observations, some plastic
particles were significantly deformed by compaction, and some rigid
particles were even broken (Fig. 9a). Pressure dissolution or suture lines
were visible in the sandstone grains (Fig. 9b). These features indicated
that the Quan 3 Member reservoir in the Fuxin Uplift had suffered from
strong compaction.
4.4.1.2. Cementation. The sandstones of the Quan 3 Member in the
Fuxin Uplift Belt also experienced significant cementation, including
carbonate, siliceous, and clay mineral cementations. In areas with
equally strong compactions, the content of cement controls the devel­
opment of pores, which in turn affects the petrophysical properties of the
reservoir (Hong et al., 2020; Jabir et al., 2021; Yin and Ding., 2019).
Carbonate, secondary growth of quartz, and clay minerals are the main
cements in the target layer. The sandstones of the Quan 3 Member were
most significantly transformed by carbonate cements (Fig. 9c). The
content of carbonate cement was the highest, with an average value of
5.33%. Calcite is the main component in carbonate cement. As diagen­
esis continued, some dolomite replaced calcite. In the late diagenetic
stage, some ferrocalcite and ankerite were produced. Among them,
Q. Zhang et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883

Fig. 6. Distribution of reservoir properties of sandstones in the Quan 3 Member of different areas.

Fig. 7. Relationship between reservoir properties and burial depth of Quan 3 and Quan 4 Members in the study area. Notes: The porosity and permeability are
experimental results.

dolomite often coexisted with calcite and mostly filled the pores. Fer­
rocalcite and ankerite also filled the primary and secondary pores, and
metasomatized the grains and early carbonate cements. The siliceous
cementation in the target layer is mainly manifested as quartz over­
growth (Fig. 9d). Grade II quartz overgrowth (edges) can be seen in most
samples, and even grade III quartz overgrowth can be observed in some
samples.
When flint and volcanic debris particles are dissolved by alkaline
fluids, large amounts of Si4+ will be produced (Guo et al., 2021; Jabir
et al., 2021; Lai et al., 2018a, 2018b; Liu et al., 2021). Moreover, when
the diagenetic environment converted to an acidic environment, Si4+
began to precipitate and aggregate into enlarged edges of authigenic
quartz (Kashif et al., 2019; Khan et al., 2020). The enlarged edges of
authigenic quartz can be grown to near grain size (Fig. 9d). Scanning
electron microscope observations showed that a large number of
autogenous enlarged quartz are hexagonal columnar crystals growing
between the grains, and they are aggregated into a cluster-like structure.
The clay mineral components that appear in the form of cements in

6
Q. Zhang et al.
the target layer mainly include chlorite, illite, imon mixed layer, and
kaolinite. Among them, chlorite is the most common, which is often
developed around the grains in the form of lining cementation (Fig. 9e).
The imon mixed layers represent a transitional form from montmoril­
lonite to illite and retain the honeycomb morphology of montmorillonite
(Hijaz et al., 2020; Hong et al., 2020; Li et al., 2005). Illite appeared as
an irregular wafer-like structure (Fig. 8f). Kaolinite was developed in the
shallow sandstones of Fuyu Oilfield, which reflected an acidic
environment.
4.4.1.3. Dissolution. The dissolution forms of the target layer were
mainly manifested in the dissolution of feldspar minerals, rock debris,
and carbonate cements (Fig. 9g). The dissolved feldspar is mainly albite,
while the dissolved debris is mainly volcanic debris. In addition, dis­
solved carbonate cements include early-formed calcite and a small
amount of dolomite and quartz.
The causes of dissolution include the leaching of atmospheric
7
Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
Fig. 8. Development types of reservoir pores of the
Quan 3 Member in the Fuxin Uplift Belt. Notes: (a)
Intergranular and intragranular dissolved pores, J24
well, 495.4m; (b) Feldspar dissolved pores, J31 well,
493.1m; (c) Feldspar dissolved pores, clay mineral
intercrystalline pores, J41 well, 1369.76m; (d) Mold
pores, J+28-015.1 well, 1364.75m; (e) Clay mineral
intercrystalline pores, quartz overgrowth, X269 well,
1258.80m; (f) Residual primary intergranular pores
and dissolved intergranular pores, J30 well, 458.1m;
(g) Original intergranular pores between grains, Xin
211 well, 1901.52m; (h) Micro-fractures, Well
M+126-024, 961.72m.
precipitation and the dissolution of organic acids (Mahmi et al., 2018;
Zhang et al., 2021). The leaching occurred primarily in the Fuyu Oil­
field’s high-structure and shallow-buried areas. It can be seen from
Fig. 10 that the kaolinite content in the clay minerals of the target layer
in the Fuyu Oilfield decreased with the increase of depth, which indi­
cated that the shallow sandstone reservoirs had suffered severe leaching.
In addition, secondary pores originating from the strong dissolution of
organic acids generated after the hydrocarbon generation stage were
developed as well (Chen et al., 2021; Radwan et al., 2021c; Yin et al.,
2020a; 2020b).
4.4.1.4. Metasomatism. Metasomatism is also very common in the
target layer of the study area. It is often manifested that unstable min­
erals such as feldspar and debris in acidic media are replaced by car­
bonate rocks and clay minerals (chlorite, kaolinite, etc.). In addition, the
mutual metasomatism between cement components can also be
observed, such as dolomite for calcite, iron dolomite for dolomite, etc.
Q. Zhang et al.
(Fig. 9h).
4.4.2. Diagenetic sequences of reservoir
The present burial depth of the reservoir in the Quan 3 Member of
the Fuxin Uplift Belt is between 500 m and 2000 m. The target layer
suffered strong compaction, and the proportion of residual intergranular
pores in the reservoir was low. In addition, general and strong secondary
growth of quartz occurred in the reservoir, and the intergranular pores
were generally filled with various authigenic minerals. Under the mi­
croscope, it was found that iron-bearing carbonate minerals were com­
mon in the target layer. The types of clay minerals in the target layer are
mainly illite, imon mixed layers, and kaolinite, and the content of
smectite in the imon mixed layer minerals is distributed between 15%
and 25%. Moreover, the large amounts of acidic water discharged from
8
Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
Fig. 9. Microscopic structural characteristics of
different minerals in the target sandstones in the
study area. Notes: (a) Deformed mica, J+2–014 well,
1327.5 m; (b) Suture contact between particles,
J+28-015.1 well, 1326.2 m; (c) Carbonate cement,
J24 well, 431.15 m; (d) Quartz overgrowth, J+28-
015.1 well, 1310.4 m; (e) Chlorite-coated lining
cement, J+2–014 well, 1293.2 m; (f) Symbiotic illite,
chlorite and secondary quartz, X207 well, 1180.0 m;
(g) Feldspar and detrital dissolution pores, J+28-
015.1 well, 1310.31 m; (h) Dolomite metasomatic
calcite, J31 well, 493.15 m.
the maturation of organisms and the chemical reactions of clay minerals
promoted the development of secondary pores in the sandstones.
According to the research results, the diagenesis stages of the Quan 3
Member sandstone reservoir were divided as shown in Fig. 10. The
shallow sandstones are in the meso-diagenetic A1 stage; when the burial
depth exceeds 800 m, they enter the meso-diagenetic A2 stage; when the
burial depth exceeds 1600 m, they enter the meso-diagenetic B stage
(Fig. 11).
According to the observation results under the microscope, the iron-
bearing carbonate cements were formed after the enlarged edge of
quartz, but the siliceous cements were not obvious in the sandstones
with developed secondary pores (Fig. 12).
Based on this, it can be determined that the formation time of early
calcite cements was earlier than that of siliceous cements, while the
Q. Zhang et al.
Fig. 10. Relationship between kaolinite content and depth in shallow sand­
stones in Fuyu Oilfield.
Fig. 11. Relationship between I/S and depth in the sandstones of the Quan 3
Member in the Fuxin Uplift Belt.
formation of iron-bearing calcite and dolomite cements was later than
that of quartz secondary enlarged cements. The compaction continued
during the deposition process, and the compaction became stronger as
the burial depth increased. Early quartz overgrowth had occurred before
intense compactions, while chlorite films had occurred after siliceous
cementations. After the feldspar was dissolved and the secondary
enlarged edge of quartz was developed in the late stage, the dissolved
pores or cast-film pores developed along the joints in the feldspar can
provide an effective space for oil and gas accumulation. It reflected the
transition of the diagenetic environment from weak alkaline to weak
acid in the latter period (Fig. 12).
Changes in pore water properties affect the types and diagenetic
sequences of different types of diagenesis. According to the laboratory
data of pore water (Table 1) and according to the Surin Classification
9
Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
(1946) (Mei et al., 2020), the pore water of the Quan 3 Member in the
study area is mainly NaHCO3 type water. The various cations in the
samples satisfy: ρ(Na++K+)>ρ(Ca2+) >ρ(Mg2+), and the main anions
satisfy: ρ(Cl− )>ρ(HCO−3 )>ρ(SO2−4 ). According to the distribution of
HCO−3 concentration with depth, the distribution of formation water was
divided into five zones (Table 1). In turn, it leads to the reservoirs of the
Quan 3 Member having experienced these 5 diagenetic environmental
zones, namely early weak acidic→early weak alkaline→metaphase
acidic→metaphase alkaline→late weak acidic. Accordingly, the diage­
netic evolution sequence of the target layer is as follows: early light
compaction and atmospheric water dissolution of feldspar and
debris→early calcite cementation→intense compaction and early quartz
overgrowth and chlorite lining cementation→large scale dissolution of
feldspar and calcite, late quartz overgrowth→ cementation of
iron-bearing calcite and dolomite → late clay mineral transformation
and carbonate dissolution (Fig. 12).
5. Discussion
5.1. Evolution of pore space
After complicated diagenetic transformation, the secondary pores
were developed in the Quan 3 Member in the study area. The evolution
process of the reservoir space of the Quan 3 Member is shown in Fig. 13:.
(1) In the early diagenetic stage, with the increase in depth, the
compaction from overlying loads was continuously enhanced,
and the primary intergranular pores were continuously reduced.
Calcite cements were generated in the early alkaline water. Af­
terwards, intense compaction led to the formation of micro­
fractures in the feldspar component. Local atmospheric
precipitation leaching allowed some acidic pore fluids to enter
and dissolve feldspar and a small amount of debris, which
resulted in the formation of the first secondary pore development
belt. In addition, a large number of siliceous cements began to
develop, and the intergranular pores were reduced.
(2) In the meso-diagenesis A1 stage, organic matter began to mature
and a large amount of organic acid was discharged; debris and
feldspar were dissolved to form intragranular dissolved pores and
part of feldspar was completely dissolved to form mold pores. In
addition, some intergranular dissolution pores were formed in
the dissolution of calcite cements. A large number of secondary
pores were developed at this stage, which corresponds to the
second secondary pore development belt.
(3) In the meso-diagenesis A2 stage, dissolution still led to the for­
mation of a small number of secondary dissolution pores.
Meanwhile, the intergranular pores were filled with various
precipitated authigenic minerals. At this stage, some secondary
pores will be destroyed. However, the latter transformation of
clay minerals will also produce some acidic water, which will
cause the dissolution of some late carbonate cements, and then a
small number of secondary pores will be formed.
5.2. Diagenesis control on continental sandstone reservoir quality
Diagenesis has significant control over the quality of continental
sandstone reservoirs (Baiyegunhi et al., 2020; Lai et al., 2018c; Wang
et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021, 2021). The current
study found that compaction is the primary factor controlling the quality
of the target reservoir. It controls the differences in the quality of the
reservoirs in the eastern and western regions of the studied area (Figs. 6,
Figure 9, Fig. 17). Cementation and dissolution are secondary control­
ling factors of reservoir petrophysical properties, which control the
difference in reservoir petrophysical properties in the north and south
regions (Figs. 6, Figure 9, Fig. 17). Different diagenesis influence and
restrict each other (Zhang et al., 2014, 2021; Radwan et al., 2021c; Wei
Q. Zhang et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883

Fig. 12. Diagenetic evolution sequence of continental sandstone reservoirs in the Quan 3 Member in the study area.

Table 1
Distribution intervals of various ion concentrations in the target layer at different depths in the study area.
Ion concentration band Depth (m) Cation concentration range (mg/L) Anion concentration range (mg/L)
2+ 2+
Na +K
+ +
Ca Mg HCO3- Cl− SO2-
4

Shallow high concentration zone <550 733–4538 9.6–78.0 1.0–19.5 21–3033 808–3758 0–209
Shallow low concentration zone 550–800 1511–2191 80.0–137.0 9.2–13.0 67–333 2383–2659 24–389
Central high concentration zone 800–1500 982–11,087 2.8–390.8 0.6–48.4 120–20,571 1294–6399 2–2275
deep desalinating zone 1500–1900 1178–5500 5.0–258.5 1.2–65.4 61–6483 1260–3722 0–421
Deep concentration zone >1900 1532–2659 7.8–328.3 3.2–39.5 308–805 1873–4120 81–1511

et al., 2021; Yin et al., 2020a).
5.2.1. Effect of compaction on reservoir quality
Generally, the main factor affecting the intensity of compaction is the
burial depth. As the burial depth increases, the compaction becomes
stronger and the petrophysical properties of the reservoir will become
poor (Lv and Li, 2021; Radwan, 2021a; Yu et al., 2019; Yin et al.,
2020b). Compaction has a negative effect on the petrophysical proper­
ties of the reservoir. In particular, compaction has a significant effect on
sandstones with poor sorting and low cement content (Christopher et al.,
2017; Wang and Yang, 2017; Yang and Chen, 2001; Zhang et al., 2021).
The greater the burial depth, the stronger the compaction, and the
higher the degree of porosity reduction (Fig. 7). The burial depth of the
Quan 3 Member in the eastern Fuyu Oilfield is relatively shallow, and
the sandstone experienced weak compaction. This is the fundamental
reason for the overall best reservoir properties in this area (Fig. 17).
However, the Quan 3 Member in the western region is buried relatively
deep, so the compaction is strong, resulting in poor porosity and
permeability. Therefore, compaction is the main reason for the differ­
ence in reservoir physical properties between the eastern and western
regions. As shown in Fig. 14, even for the same sedimentary facies, such
as point sand bars, branch river channels, with the increase of burial
depth, both the porosity and permeability decreased obviously. This
feature reflects that compaction has a significant impact on the quality
of the target continental sandstone reservoirs.
Compaction is also affected by lithology and cementation (Haile
et al., 2018; Yang and Chen, 2001; Yin et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2014,
2020). Lithological characteristics are closely related to sedimentary
facies. In this area, meandering river and delta deposits are mainly
developed (Mei et al., 2020) (Fig. 1b), and the physical properties of
different microfacies reservoirs at the same burial depth are different
(Fig. 14). Among them, fine sandstones with good sorting are developed
in branch channels and meandering river point bars of the delta plains.
The grains are mainly in point contact, the primary pores are developed,
and the plastic matrix is less, so the later compaction is weak. In this
way, the primary pores are preserved, which facilitates the flow of pore

10
Q. Zhang et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883

Fig. 13. Pore space evolution of sandstones in the Quan 3 Member in the Fuxin Uplift Zone.

Fig. 14. Effects of compaction on the degree of pore development in the Quan 3 Member of the study area.

11
Q. Zhang et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883

Fig. 15. Effects of lithology and cementation on compaction of the target layer. Notes: (a) Delta plain branch channel facies, oil-bearing fine sandstone, well-
connected pores, Well J25, 389.72m; (b) Delta front underwater branch channel facies, siltstone, moderately developed pores with high content of miscellaneous
matrix, Well J30, 405.5 m; (c) Meandering river beach facies, fine calcareous sandstone, strong cementation, underdeveloped pores, Well J24, 495.45m.

Fig. 16. Relationship between carbonate content and petrophysical properties of sandstones in the Quan 3 Member in the study area.

12
Q. Zhang et al.
Fig. 17. Variation of carbonate content and porosity with depth of the Quan 3 member in the study area.
water and further causes the development of secondary dissolution in
the later stage. For example, in Well J30 (368.1m), the delta plain
branch channel fine sandstone has very developed pores (Fig. 15a).
However, the finer the rock particle size, the poorer the sorting, the
higher the content of matrix, and the less primary pores are developed.
The plastic characteristics of the matrix make the rock subjected to
obvious compaction during the burial process, which further de­
teriorates the porosity and permeability. For example, in Well J24
(405.5m), siltstone-fine sandstone is developed in the underwater
branch channel of the delta front, and the pores in the sandbodies are
extremely undeveloped (Fig. 15b).
In addition, early cementation can effectively resist compaction. For
example, early calcareous cements were observed in the sandstones in
the 495.4 m interval of Well J24 (Fig. 15c). The particles were in the
form of floating-point contacts under pore-substrate cementation. The
strong early cementation greatly limits the compaction between
particles.
5.2.2. Effect of cementation on reservoir quality
The sandstone reservoirs of the Quan 3 Member contain a lot of
carbonate cements. These cements severely reduce the porosity of the
reservoir and the connectivity between pores (Enayati-Bidgoli and
Saemi, 2019; Zhang et al., 2014, 2021). From Fig. 16, it can be observed
that with the increase of cement content, the reservoir petrophysical
properties will become poor.
The carbonate cement content of the Quan 3 Member in different
areas of the study area changes significantly with the increase in depth.
It is negatively correlated with the pore development belt (Fig. 17). For
example, the content of cement in the Quan 3 Member of Fuyu Oilfield is
relatively low (below 8%), while its porosity and permeability are the
highest. The porosity and permeability are up to 34.9% and 3167.15 mD
respectively. Near the burial depth of 1200 m, the carbonate content
increases significantly (Fig. 17). This is because the upper part of the
Quan 3 Member is covered with the huge thick mudstones of the Qing 1
Member. Meanwhile, thick mudstone interlayers also exist between the
sandstones. Under the strong compaction of the mudstones in the Qing 1
Member, the carbonate-containing fluid stored in the pores of the
mudstones will migrate into the adjacent sandstones. Furthermore, the
water-rock reactions promoted the formation of carbonate cements.
According to the diagenetic mode proposed in this study, there is a
13
Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
carbonate cement development belt near 1200 m. The areas with higher
cement content are located in the Xinli Oilfield in the southwest part. At
the same burial depth, the compaction effect is not much different, but
the petrophysical properties of Xinbei and Xinli oilfields are quite
different. Therefore, the content of cement is the main reason for the
differences in reservoir properties between the southern and northern
regions.
In this study, the content of carbonate cement occurring in a single
thick sand body was also analyzed, and it was found that it developed
“calcareous tops” and “calcareous bottoms” (Fig. 18).
Calcareous tops and bottoms usually occur in sandstones sandwiched
between two sets of thick mudstones (Zhang et al., 2014). It is related to
the drainage of the mudstones adjacent to the top and bottom of the
sandstones. The formation water discharged from mudstones contained
a large amount of carbonate ions, which precipitated with calcium ions
in adjacent sandstones to form calcareous tops and bottoms, while the
middle parts of sandstones were less affected. It can be seen from Fig. 18
that the porosity and permeability of the calcareous top and bottom
parts are relatively low; while the middle parts of the sandstones are
relatively less cemented, and the porosity and permeability are rela­
tively high. According to the statistical results, the thicknesses of the
calcareous top and bottom are between 0.2 m and 1.5 m and 0.6 m–1.2
m, respectively. When the thickness of the sandstone is less than 2.7 m, it
is difficult to form an effective reservoir.
5.2.3. Effect of dissolution on reservoir quality
Dissolution has a great influence on the development degree of
secondary pores (Su et al., 2022; Radwan, 2022; Wang et al., 2019;
Zhang et al., 2017). The stronger the dissolution, the better the petro­
physical properties of the reservoir (Hong et al., 2020; Jabir et al., 2021;
Lai et al., 2018a; Yang et al., 2013; Radwan, 2022). Secondary pores are
an important pore type in the Quan 3 Member in the Fuxin Uplift Belt
(Fig. 8). It can be seen from Fig. 7 that there are three secondary pore
development belts in the Quan 3 and 4 Members. The three secondary
pore development belts are located in the intervals of 200 m–500 m,
1100 m–1500 m and 1600 m–1800 m, respectively. The material basis
for dissolution is the presence of soluble substances in rocks (Y.Z. Wang
et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021). A large amount of
feldspars, volcanic rock debris and early calcite cements have developed
in the sandstones of the Quan 3 Member (Fig. 2). Therefore, the easily
Q. Zhang et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883

Fig. 18. Relationship between cement content and petrophysical parameters in a single sedimentary cycle sand body in the Quan 3 Member (Well X 264).

soluble components such as feldspars, debris, and early calcite cements
in the rock were dissolved (Figs. 8 and 12) due to the leaching of at­
mospheric fresh water and the effect of organic acids produced by the
thermal evolution of the upper Qing 1 Member mudstones. In turn, these
factors act together on deep reservoirs and promote the formation of
secondary pore development belts.
The strength of dissolution is related to the concentration of various
ions in pore water, especially the concentration of HCO−3 (Jabir et al.,
2021; Mei et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2019, 2020). The vertical distribu­
tion of HCO−3 ion concentration in the pore water of the Quantou For­
mation in the northern part of the Fuxin Uplift is shown in Table 1 and
Fig. 19. Three high-concentration belts, namely the shallow
high-concentration belt, the central high-concentration belt, and the
deep desalinating belt, appear, which are consistent with the interval of
the three secondary pore development belts.
The shallow high HCO−3 ion concentration belt is buried less than
500 m, which is a typical atmospheric freshwater leaching belt. The
dilution of atmospheric fresh water and the dissolution of CO2 in water
caused the pore water to show weak acidity, which in turn led to the
dissolution of feldspar and debris in the target sandstones. Then the first
secondary pore development belt was formed (Fig. 19).
The high HCO−3 ion concentration band in the middle part is between

Fig. 19. Distribution of HCO−3 concentration and porosity at different depths in the target layer of the study area. The three high HCO−3 ion concentration intervals
correspond to the three secondary pore development intervals.

14
Q. Zhang et al.
800 m and 1500 m, where HCO−3 ion increased sharply and reached a
maximum value (Fig. 19). It corresponds to the secondary pore devel­
opment belt. According to previous studies (Sun et al., 2013; Zhong
et al., 2009), the shales of the Qingshankou Formation in the upper part
of the Quantou Formation is the main source of hydrocarbons in the
Quan 3 and Quan 4 members. In addition, according to the diagenetic
stage division in this study (Fig. 11), the Qing 1 Member entered the
mature-high maturity stage at 1500 m–1750 m; at a depth of 800
m–1500 m, the Qing 1 Member source rock was generally in the
immature to low-mature transformation stage. A large amount of
organic acids and phenols were discharged from the source rock prior to
the peak of hydrocarbon generation, and the soluble components in the
target sandstones, such as feldspar, feldspar-bearing volcanic debris, and
early calcite cement, were massively dissolved. Thus, a second second­
ary pore development belt was formed. Therefore, the increase in the
concentration of HCO−3 ions caused by organic acids is an important
factor for the formation of secondary pore belts in the Quan 3 Member.
Different ion concentrations can cause changes in pH, which is the
essential cause of dissolution (Ma et al., 2019; Mei et al., 2020; Zhang
et al., 2014). By comparing the distribution of porosity, permeability,
and pH value of formation water below 1100 m (Fig. 20), it can be found
that a secondary pore development belt is developed in the Quan 3
Member between 1300 m and 1500 m (Fig. 20a~b), and the pH value of
the formation water in this formation interval is around 6–7 (Fig. 20c).
However, with the further increase of burial depth, the pH value of the
formation water gradually increased; that is, it gradually became alka­
line. Therefore, with increased compaction, the petrophysical properties
of the sandstones that have not been transformed by dissolution will
become poor. In contrast, the dissolution of organic acids is also an
important factor controlling reservoir quality.
In the buried depth range of 1500 m–1900 m, the concentration of
HCO−3 decreased. But it is still higher than the atmospheric freshwater
leaching belt. The concentration of Cl− also decreased significantly,
indicating that the formation water in this belt was obviously desali­
nated. The Cl− in formation water is thought to be very stable and does
not precipitate due to water-rock interactions (Wei et al., 2021; Yu et al.,
2019; Zhang et al., 2014). The decrease of Cl− is mainly related to the
dilution effect caused by the massive dehydration of clay minerals. Since
the organic matter in the deep formation is in the over-mature stage,
there are still some organic acids that can enter the sandstones.
Fig. 20. Distribution of reservoir petrophysical parameters and pH value of the Quan 3 Member at different depths. Notes: (a) Porosity of reservoirs buried below
1100 m; (b) Permeability of reservoirs buried below 1100m; (c) Relationship between pH of formation water and depth below 1100 m.
15
Marine and Petroleum Geology 145 (2022) 105883
Therefore, the H+ released by the dehydration of organic acids and clay
minerals together caused the formation of the third secondary pore
development belt. Eventually, a deep ion concentration desalination
band formed.
5.3. Prediction of favorable reservoirs
Based on the analysis of reservoir physical properties, sedimentary
facies, diagenetic stages and diagenesis in the Quan 3 Member, the
distribution of favorable reservoirs is predicted. The comprehensive
analysis indicates that the branch channel and meandering river point
bar fine sandstone of the delta plain in the Quan 3 Member are the best
reservoir types (Figs. 14 and 15). However, due to the different
diagenesis experienced in different regions, there are obvious differ­
ences in reservoir quality. The high-quality reservoirs are mainly located
in the Fuyu Oilfield in the southeastern region (Figs. 6, Figure 14,
Figure 17, Figure 19). The shallowly buried Quan 3 Member suffered
less compaction and preserved some primary pores (Fig. 8). Later, due to
the uplift of the crust, the reservoir suffered from leaching and disso­
lution, and a certain amount of secondary pores developed (Fig. 8). In
this way, the development of mixed pores improves the quality of the
reservoir. In the Xinmin Oilfield in the northeastern region, the sand
bodies are shallow in burial and suffer less compaction and weaker
cementation, so reservoirs with better physical properties are devel­
oped. In addition, in the northern part of Xinli Oilfield and the northern
area of Xinmiao Oilfield, the sand bodies encountered strong dissolution
of organic acid in the later stage, which further effectively improved the
physical properties of the reservoir, so better types of reservoirs were
also developed. However, the shoal sand bodies developed in the Xinli
Oilfield have a larger burial depth, and their diagenetic stage is mostly in
the middle diagenetic A2 stage, which is strongly compacted. At the
same time, the fecalcite formed in the later stage represents strong
cementation (almost no dissolution), so the reservoir physical properties
are the worst.
6. Conclusions
(1) In this paper, taking the Quan 3 Member of the Cretaceous
Quantou Formation in the Fuxin Uplift as an example, the
petrological characteristics, diagenesis, and their influence on the
Q. Zhang et al.
quality of the reservoir have been systematically studied. The
compositional maturity of the sandstone reservoirs in the Quan 3
Member is relatively low. According to the petrographic analysis,
the sandstones of the Quan 3 Member are mainly lithic feldspar
sandstone and feldspar lithic sandstone.
(2) The average particle size of the target sandstone is 0.11 mm, and
the fine sandstone to coarse siltstone are favorable reservoirs. The
sandstone reservoirs in the Quan 3 Member have undergone
intense diagenetic transformations, including compaction (pres­
sure solution), cementation, dissolution, and metasomatism.
(3) The Quan 3 Member underwent a complicated diagenetic evo­
lution of early alkaline→acidic→mid-alkaline→late acidic
changes. The shallow sandstones are in the meso-diagenetic A1
stage; when the burial depth exceeds 800 m, they enter the meso-
diagenetic A2 stage; when the burial depth exceeds 1600 m, they
enter the meso-diagenetic B stage. Combined with the diagenesis
and petrophysical property evolution of the Quan 3 Member, the
reservoir space evolution mode of continental sandstones in this
area was constructed.
(4) The study found that the main factors controlling the petro­
physical properties of the target reservoir are compaction,
cementation, dissolution, and various diagenesis influences and
restrictions on each other. Compaction is the primary factor
controlling the quality of the target reservoirs. It controls the
differences in the petrophysical properties of the reservoirs in the
eastern and western regions. Cementation and dissolution are
secondary controlling factors of reservoir petrophysical proper­
ties, which control the difference in reservoir petrophysical
properties in the northern and southern regions. The strength of
dissolution is related to the concentration of various ions in pore
water, especially the concentration of HCO−3 . The branch channel
and meandering river point bar fine sandstone of the Quan 3
Member of the delta plain are the best reservoir types. The
favorable reservoirs are mainly located in the Fuyu Oilfield in the
southeastern region.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This manuscript was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 41872134 and No. 41302081) and Jilin
Oilfield Branch Company Ltd., PetroChina (Grant No. HX20180033). Dr.
Ahmed E. Radwan is thankful for the support provided by the Priority
Research Area Anthropocene under the program “Excellence Ini­
tiative—Research University” at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków
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