Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/margo

Anatomy of a gas-bearing submarine channel-lobe system on a

topographically complex slope (offshore Nile Delta, Egypt)
Pan Li a, *, Ben Kneller b, Larissa Hansen c
a
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina, Beijing 100083, China
b
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, UK
c
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor name: Michele Rebesco The characterization and predictability of submarine channel-lobe systems on topographically complex slopes
have proven challenging, due to the complex responses of such systems to interacting flows and seafloor
Keywords: topography, in terms of their temporal evolution and spatial changes in morphology and architecture. Detailed
Slope channels subsurface studies can reveal important depositional and morphological elements in such settings and help
Depositional lobes
develop predictive models for hydrocarbon exploration. Here, we document a gas-bearing submarine channel-
Turbidites
lobe system on a topographically complex slope, from the Pliocene succession offshore the west Nile Delta
Deep water
Seafloor topography where the Giza gas field has been discovered. Based on an integrated analysis of 3D seismic reflection and
borehole data, several distinct deep-water depositional elements, including amalgamated channel-fills, aggra­
dational channel-fills, mud-prone channel-fills, lobes, levees and mass-transport deposits are recognized. They
are developed on a tectonically influenced continental slope, forming a channel-lobe system that features four
main evolutionary phases over a period of ca. 0.26 Myr: 1) Channel belt incision, 2) infill of channel belt by
laterally amalgamated channel deposits, 3) development of leveed aggradational channels, with lobes developed
within and outside the channel belt, 4) channel avulsion leading to the abandonment of the channel belt,
resulting in the formation of a new ponded lobe adjacent to the original channel belt.
Spatially, the channel-lobe system shows marked changes in architecture and planform morphology in the
areas affected by folds and faults. As the channels cut across a faulted anticlinal structure, they show straight­
ening with some degree of diversion on the upstream limb, while on the downstream limb, channels exhibit
increased lateral migration and sinuosity, widespread high-amplitude reflections (interpreted as sand-rich
channel-fills), and channel to lobe transitions. In contrast, the last-stage avulsion channel appears to divert
along several normal faults at a high angle to the regional slope, and forms a ponded lobe external to the main
channel belt. This study shows how the channels and lobes throughout these evolutionary stages respond
differently to the presence of folds and faults. It provides a unique analog for submarine channel-lobe systems
developed during a third-order sea-level lowstand to transgressive phase with the influence of structurally
induced topography and mass transport. The results of this study provide insights into the spatio-temporal
development of various types of slope channels and lobes, and may greatly enhance the prediction of associ­
ated reservoirs in deep-water systems in tectonically active areas.

1. Introduction
Submarine channels are significant pathways for sediment, organic
carbon and pollutants transport into the deep sea by sediment gravity
flows (Mutti and Normark, 1987; Meiburg and Kneller, 2010; Hubbard
et al., 2014; Pohl et al., 2020). Their sedimentary successions form
critical archives of environmental changes or other perturbations to
Earth systems (e.g., Sømme et al., 2009; Covault et al., 2010; Hodgson
et al., 2018), and may hold large volumes of hydrocarbon resources
(Pettingill and Weimer, 2002; Weimer and Slatt, 2007; Prather, 2020).
The development and evolution of submarine channels can be strongly
influenced by the topography encountered by sediment gravity flows
(Kneller and McCaffrey, 1995; Prather et al., 1998; Pirmez et al., 2000;
Ferry et al., 2005; Mayall et al., 2010; Clark and Cartwright, 2011). On

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lipanccc@126.com (P. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2021.106496
Received 6 April 2020; Received in revised form 20 April 2021; Accepted 22 April 2021
Available online 27 April 2021
0025-3227/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P. Li et al.
continental slopes, submarine channels have been shown to interact
with seafloor topography in varying styles, which can be split into two
broad end-member types. In some cases, flows passing through subma­
rine channels appear to be “overshadowed” by topography and may
respond by large-scale channel diversion, deflection, blocking/ponding
or channel abandoning after a short period of activity (e.g., Cronin,
1995; Kneller and McCaffrey, 1995; Prather et al., 1998; Mayall and
Stewart, 2000; Pirmez et al., 2000; Hodgson and Haughton, 2004; Gee
and Gawthorpe, 2006; Lamb et al., 2006; Clark and Cartwright, 2009;
Jolly et al., 2017; Zucker et al., 2017; Howlett et al., 2020; Maselli et al.,
2020). In other cases, when flows are sufficiently large or powerful
compared to the relief of pre-existing structures or the growth rate of
syn-depositional structures, submarine channels may incise across these
topographic features and continue on their course without significant
changes (e.g., Saller et al., 2004; Ferry et al., 2005; Heiniö and Davies,
2007; Jackson et al., 2008; Mayall et al., 2010; Tripsanas et al., 2012;
Jolly et al., 2016). In both end-member scenarios, submarine channels
may also develop lobes in front or in overbank areas, forming a slope
channel-lobe system on the continental slope.
Slope channel-lobe systems have been widely reported from modern
and ancient continental margins around the world. Published examples
include studies from the West African margin (Pirmez et al., 2000;
Fonnesu, 2003; Adeogba et al., 2005; Ferry et al., 2005; Barton, 2012;
Deptuck et al., 2012; Hay, 2012; Prather et al., 2012a; Oluboyo et al.,
2014; Doughty-Jones et al., 2017; Jobe et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2019a;
Howlett et al., 2020), the Karoo basin, South Africa (Figueiredo et al.,
2010; Morris et al., 2014; Van der Merwe et al., 2014; Spychala et al.,
2015; Brooks et al., 2018), the Tyrrhenian Sea, offshore Sicily (Gamberi
and Rovere, 2011; Gamberi et al., 2014), the Gulf of Mexico (Winker,
1996; Prather et al., 1998, 2012b; Badalini et al., 2000; Beaubouef and
Friedmann, 2000; Booth et al., 2000, 2003; Steffens et al., 2003; Weimer
et al., 2017), the South China Sea (Li et al., 2012; Hsiung et al., 2014,
2018; Lin et al., 2018), and other areas (e.g., Demyttenaere et al., 2000;
Marchès et al., 2010; Rodriguez et al., 2020). These well-documented
examples have improved our understanding of the distribution of
facies, architecture and evolution of slope channel-lobe systems in
various topographic settings (e.g., ponded mini-basins, tortuous corri­
dors and simple stepped slopes; Smith, 2004; Brooks et al., 2018), where
topography was created by faulting or folding (e.g., Adeogba et al.,
2005; Clark and Cartwright, 2009; Jolly et al., 2016), salt/shale dia­
pirism (e.g., Booth et al., 2003; Mayall et al., 2010; Oluboyo et al.,
2014), mass-transport deposits (e.g., Olafiranye et al., 2013; Ortiz-Karpf
et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2019b), or the presence of contourite deposits
(e.g., Maselli et al., 2019).
Despite the widely reported examples of slope channel-lobe systems,
our understanding of those showing both of the aforementioned end-
member interactions with different types of slope topography is still
limited. Particularly, how to link channel responses of such systems
throughout their evolution to a complex topographic template, where
both abrupt changes in gradient and bathymetric obstacles are present,
is still poorly understood. Additionally, compared to terminal fan lobes
on the basin floor (e.g., Bouma et al., 1985; Flood et al., 1991; Pirmez
et al., 1997; Jegou et al., 2008; Saller et al., 2008; Mulder and Etienne,
2010; Prélat et al., 2010; Deptuck and Sylvester, 2018), lobes on the
continental slope can take many forms and remain obscure in terms of
timing and formative processes. For instance, lobes may form as a pre­
cursor external to a slope channel belt, either by flows emerging from its
channel mouth (e.g., “frontal lobes” of Morris et al., 2014 and Hodgson
et al., 2016), or by avulsing flows from another nearby channel (e.g.,
“crevasse/avulsion splays” of Armitage et al., 2012 and Lowe et al.,
2019). Alternatively, lobes might develop external to and during the
evolution of a slope channel belt, through flow stripping or overspilling
(e.g., late-stage “crevasse splays” or “spillover lobe” of Eschard et al.,
2013; Cronin et al., 2007, 2013; and Wynn et al., 2007). Futhermore,
lobes may also develop within a slope channel belt as the entire system
backsteps (e.g., “frontal channelized splay” of Lowe et al., 2019). Due to
2
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
these uncertainties and limitations, the characterization, interpretation
and prediction of submarine channel-lobe systems and associated res­
ervoirs on topographically complex slopes can still be challenging.
In this paper, we report a Pliocene gas-bearing submarine channel-
lobe system from the Giza field, on a structurally influenced slope
offshore west Nile Delta, which was identified and mapped with high-
resolution 3D seismic reflection data, well logs and cores. Both key
topographic features and spatio-temporal variations of depositional el­
ements can be well constrained and understood, providing a rare op­
portunity to investigate a slope channel-lobe system’ architecture,
evolution and responses to interaction of evolving flows with faulting-
induced gradient changes and fold obstacles. This study extends the
original work of Butterworth and Verhaeghe (2012) and Morris et al.
(2014) on the main channel belt of the channel-lobe system to a more
systematic analysis of the whole system, and provides new insights into
its development. The objectives of this paper are three-fold: (1) to pre­
sent a model for development of a submarine channel-lobe system on a
topographically complex slope, with implications for understanding
various types of lobes on the continental slope; (2) to investigate how
slope channels respond to extra- and intra-basinal controls during
channel-belt evolution, from initiation to final abandonment; (3) to
provide insights for hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation in such
settings.
2. Terminology
Submarine channel is a negative seafloor relief that serves as a long-
lived conduit for downslope sediment transport (Mutti and Normark,
1987). Flows passing through submarine channels can deposit sediments
within and outside the conduits, forming channel-fills and overbank
deposits, respectively. Submarine channels can migrate laterally and/or
vertically within a larger region bounded by a composite incision surface
and/or overbank deposits (outer confinement of McHargue et al., 2011).
We refer to the large region as a channel belt (cf. Janocko et al., 2013;
Kneller et al., 2020), the incisional bounding surface as basal erosion
surface, and the wedge-shaped overbank deposits within and outside the
channel belt as internal levee and external levee, respectively (sensu Kane
and Hodgson, 2011). The term lobe is used to indicate a lobate deposi­
tional body resulting from flow expansion and deceleration, synony­
mous with splay or lobate sheet used by other workers (cf. Posamentier and
Kolla, 2003; Morris et al., 2014; Lowe et al., 2019). Similarly to internal
and external levees, lobes within and outside of a channel belt are termed
internal and external lobes, respectively, considering their spatial relation
to the channel belt. From the perspective of formative processes, we also
make a distinction between frontal lobes, which are deposited in front of
a feeder channel that may be lengthening and cutting through its own
deposits, and lobes that derive from an adjacent feeder channel through
overbank processes (Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Morris et al., 2014).
The latter can be subdivided into overbank lobes (little or no levee
breaching), crevasse lobes (significant levee breaching), and avulsion
lobes (significant levee breaching and channel avulsion) (following Lowe
et al., 2019). When considering the effect of topography on lobe depo­
sition and distribution, the term ponded lobe is used to denote lobes fully
contained within a confined intra-slope mini-basin (Van Andel and
Komar, 1969; Nelson et al., 1985; Smith, 2004). When it comes to
topography, the phrase topographically complex slope is used to describe
slopes that show local topographic depressions and highs induced by
tectonic (e.g., faulting, folding, salt tectonics or mud diapirism) or
depositional mechanisms (e.g., MTDs and contourites) (cf. Smith, 2004).
We use a general term channel-lobe system to describe all of the geneti­
cally related lobe and channelized stratigraphy in a single area regard­
less of hierarchy.
3. Geological setting
The offshore west Nile Delta is a prolific gas province in the
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Mediterranean Basin (Samuel et al., 2003; Cross et al., 2009; Taylor
et al., 2009). It comprises numerous deep-water turbidite systems in the
Tertiary stratigraphy, which were constructed primarily by influxes of
terrigenous sediments transported by the Nile River since at least the
Oligocene (cf. Ross and Uchupi, 1977; Abdel Aal et al., 2000; Samuel
et al., 2003; Loncke et al., 2006; Fielding et al., 2018; Kellner et al.,
2018). Regional seismic profiles indicate that the offshore west Nile
Delta was formed largely by a northward prograding passive margin
during Pliocene-Pleistocene times (Samuel et al., 2003) (Fig. 1). During
the Pliocene, many deep-water channels and lobes were developed on
the prograding slope, forming submarine channel-lobe systems. This
study focus on one of these (informally named the Giza P80 system)
from the Giza gas field, an upper slope area that is estimated to be
around 40 km away from the contemporary shelf break (Butterworth
and Verhaeghe, 2012) (Fig. 1).
The study area lies 50 to 65 km offshore Egypt near the Rosetta

Fig. 1. (a) Regional map showing the location of the study area and a schematic cross section. Map based upon GEBCO global bathymetry and Blue Marble satellite
image (https://www.emodnet-bathymetry.eu/). (b) Schematic regional cross section showing the general geological setting of the study area. NDOA refers to “Nile
Delta Offshore Anticline”, a regional anticline that includes the Giza anticline (Fig. 2a) in the study area (modified from Abdel Aal et al., 2000; Cross et al., 2009).

3
P. Li et al.
Canyon at water depths of 300 to 900 m, covering approximately 200
km2 of the offshore west Nile Delta (Figs. 1a and 2a). The present-day
structures in this area include a series of ENE-WSW, WNW-ESE and
nearly N-S oriented normal faults, the Giza anticline to the north and
part of the Fayoum anticline to the south (Fig. 2a). The ENE-WSW-
trending Giza anticline forms part of the regional Nile Delta Offshore
Anticline (NDOA) that was locally a topographic high since the Pliocene
(cf. Cross et al., 2009; Catterall et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2010) (Fig. 1). In
addition, at least eleven of the normal faults (referred to as F0–F10) were
found to be present during this period in this study. These structures
were interpreted to form complex topography that shaped the devel­
opment of the Giza P80 system and will be discussed in detail later. The
system comprises a SE-NW oriented 2.5–3.5 km wide main channel belt
with multiple lobate branches in the study area (Fig. 2b).
4. Data and methodology
4.1. Seismic and borehole data
The 3D seismic reflection data used here covers an area of approxi­
mately 200 km2. It is a full-offset multi-azimuth stack volume with a bin
size of 12.5 m by 12.5 m and a sampling rate of 2 ms. In the interval of
interest, the seismic volume has a 5 to 90 Hz bandwidth, with peak
frequency at 45 Hz yielding a vertical resolution of approximately 9–13
m (λ/4), considering an averaged interval velocity of 1600–2350 m/s
derived from check-shot data. The seismic volume has been processed to
zero phase and converted from time to depth domain by BP Egypt using
a proprietary regional seismic velocity model that includes six wells
(with one well (GN-1) from the study area). Seismic profiles are dis­
played in depth and in SEG normal polarity, such that a trough (black
reflection) corresponds to a downward decrease in acoustic impedance,
and a peak (red reflection) corresponds to a downward increase in
acoustic impedance.
In the study area, there are three wells (GS-1, NAB-1 and GN-1)
penetrating the Giza P80 deep-water channel-lobe system (Fig. 2). All
of them have detailed check-shot surveys and biostratigraphic data
(calcareous nannofossils), which allow the time-depth calibration be­
tween the seismic data and wells, and the development of a chro­
nostratigraphic framework (Fig. 3). However, only wells GS-1 and GN-1
have extensive cores (ca. 230 m and 150 m, respectively) and a standard
suite of well logs, including Gamma Ray (GR), sonic, neutron, density
and resistivity logs at the interval of interest. These two wells are thus
tied to seismic data by comparing synthetic seismograms generated from
well-log data with real seismic reflection profiles (Fig. 4), and are used in
the analysis of sedimentary facies and internal architecture of the
system.
4.2. Methodology
Five regionally continuous horizons (H0-H4 in Figs. 2c and 3) were
mapped and used to divide the stratigraphy into seismic intervals (SU-1,
SU-2(a, b, c) and SU-3 in Fig. 2c), in order to better understand the
general stratigraphic and structural characteristics of the study area.
Gamma-ray logs and high-resolution calcareous nannofossil data from
the three exploration wells were used to characterize the lithology and
chronology of the intervals, based on seismic-to-well ties from syn­
thethic seismograms and check-shot surverys (Figs. 3 and 4). Isochore
maps were then generated for seismic intervals to reveal the large-scale
topographic highs and lows (Figs. 2b, 6c). A seismic reconnaissance
approach including interval amplitude extraction and volume (opacity)
rendering was applied to visualize the gross plan-view character of the
deep-water system (Fig. 6c). Volume rendering is an effective visuali­
zation technique whereby the seismic reflectivity volume is rendered
transparent except for specific amplitude range associated with
geological features of interest (e.g., submarine channel-fills and lobes in
this study) (Dorn et al., 1995; Bond, 2001; James et al., 2004;
4
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
Posamentier et al., 2007). The isochore maps, coupled with the overall
distribution characteristics of the deep-water system, allowed us to
identify the prominent palaeotopographic features prior to and during
the development of the system.
To document the internal architecture of the studied deep-water
system, seismic facies analysis was undertaken based on seismic
reflection character and geometry, with consideration of their spatial
relationships and component lithofacies calibrated by borehole data (e.
g., Mitchum Jr and Vail, 1977; Mitchum Jr et al., 1977; Mitchum Jr,
1985; Normark et al., 1993; Prather et al., 1998; Deptuck et al., 2003;
Mayall et al., 2006; Oluboyo et al., 2014) (Fig. 11). In addition, seismic
geomorphological analysis was conducted to examine the morphology
and evolution of the deep-water system. This approach uses map-view
analytical techniques to study morphological changes of depositional
elements and systems over geological time (e.g., Posamentier and Kolla,
2003; Deptuck et al., 2007; Gee et al., 2007; Posamentier et al., 2007;
Back et al., 2011; Armitage et al., 2012; Niyazi et al., 2018). In this
study, the 3D seismic reflection volume was first flattened on a region­
ally continuous marker (Horizon H1) to remove tectonic deformation
(Fig. 5). A series of flattened depth slices parallel to this reference ho­
rizon and locally mapped horizon slices through the deep-water system
were subsequently created from the flattened seismic volume. These
slices were then used to generate seismic attribute maps to reveal the
morphological characteristics (e.g., channel sinuosity) and evolution of
the system (Fig. 5).
Seismic attributes used in this study include various amplitude-based
attributes (Root-Mean Square (RMS) amplitude, maximum amplitude
and maximum magnitude) and edge-detection attribute (variance)
(Brown, 2011; Chopra and Marfurt, 2007; Hart, 2011). RMS amplitude
is the square root of the average of the squares of amplitudes in a
specified window; maximum amplitude computes the maximum posi­
tive amplitudes in a defined window, while maximum magnitude gives
the maximum absolute value of amplitudes in a specified window. The
set of amplitude attributes measures seismic reflectivity and is helpful
for revealing amplitude-related geological features (e.g., sandy deep-
water sediments within a muddy interval). In contrast, the variance
attribute measures the similarity between adjacent seismic traces within
a specified window and thus can image geological features that cause
lateral discontinuity, such as faults and geobody boundaries like channel
walls. In order to enhance visualization and attribute interpretation,
amplitude attribute maps are co-rendered with variance attribute maps
or seismic reflection profiles in some cases (e.g., Figs. 7 and 16a-d).
5. Results
In this section, we first summarize the general stratigraphic and
structural characteristics of the study area, to establish the stratigraphic
framework and reveal the palaeotopography that existed during the
development of the Giza P80 system. We then present the results on
sedimentary facies, seismic facies (depositional elements), architecture
and depositional evolution of the system.
5.1. Stratigraphic and structural characteristics
5.1.1. Seismic stratigraphy
Three seismic units (SU-1, SU-2 and SU-3) are defined based on their
seismic reflection character (Fig. 2c). Unit SU-1 is capped by a promi­
nent high-amplitude peak reflection (H0) that coincides with a marked
increase in seismic velocity (Fig. 3). This surface serves as the lowermost
boundary of the examined overburden strata (SU-2 and SU-3). Unit SU-2
can be divided into three sub-units (from base to top: SU-2a, SU-2b and
SU-2c) by the four mapped horizons (H0− H3) (Figs. 2 and 3). Among
them, sub-unit SU-2b, which is defined by the regionally traceable,
moderate- to high-amplitude draping reflections H1 and H2, contains
the Giza P80 system (between “basal erosion surface” and “top surface”,
Figs. 2 and 3). The system stands out from the encasing strata due to its
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 2. General stratigraphic and structural characteristics of the study area. (a) Depth-structure map of Horizon H1 (the blue pick in c), showing the general
structural characteristics of the study area. (b) Volume (opacity) rendering of the stratigraphy between horizons H1 and H2, in which the low amplitudes are set as
transparent. Note the channelized and lobate high-amplitude anomalies of the Giza P80 system, and the inferred controlling faults (F0–F10). (c) Longitudinal seismic
profile down the axis of the main channel belt of the Giza P80 system. Note the overall amplitude contrast of the system between the sections across Fault F5, and the
thinning of stratigraphy between horizons H0 (Top Messinian) and H1 over the Giza anticline. SU-1, SU-2 (2a, 2b, 2c), SU-3 represent seismic intervals defined in this
study (see text for details). Seismic profiles shown in Figs. 2c and 6d are indicated by the black and white dashed lines in (a) and (b), respectively. (For interpretation
of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

5
P. Li et al.
Fig. 3. Well-to-seismic tie and log correlation of wells GS-1, NAB-1 and GN-1, with Gamma-ray (GR) logs, interval velocity from check-shots, seismic amplitude at
the well locations, two-way travel time (TWT), subsea true vertical depth (ssTVD), and calcareous nannofossils. The Giza P80 system is highlighted in yellow. Note
the thinning of defined seismic intervals over the Giza anticline. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
discontinuous and high-amplitude reflections (Fig. 2), pointing to the
sand-prone nature as indicated by its low GR values in wells GN-1 and
GS-1 (Fig. 3). Unit SU-3 is defined at the base by a high-amplitude
trough reflection (H3) that shows a discordant erosional relationship
with sub-unit SU-2c, and is marked at the top by a prominent high-
amplitude peak reflection (H4) that corresponds to the modern sea­
floor. This unit is characterized by continuous high-amplitude re­
flections punctuated by multiple erosional surfaces or slide scars.
The chronology of horizons H0-H3 has been constrained through the
nannofossil biostratigraphy of the three wells in the area and compari­
son with other studies with age controls. The marked increase in seismic
reflectivity and velocity across horizon H0 with distinct topography
suggest that this surface corresponds to the top of the Messinian evap­
orites (5.33 Ma), based on comparison with regional seismic in­
terpretations (Abdel Aal et al., 2000; Lofi et al., 2011; Roveri et al.,
2014). Well-to-seismic tie shows that horizons H1 and H2 are respec­
tively near the base (2.8 Ma) and at the top (2.54 Ma) of nannofossil
zone MNN16b (P78 MFS and P80 MFS of Butterworth and Verhaeghe,
2012; Figs. 3 and 4). This suggests a late Piacenzian (latest Pliocene) age
and an estimated time span of 0.26 Myr for the Giza P80 system con­
tained therein. Horizon H3 correlates with the top of nannofossil zone
MNN18 (1.95 Ma) identified in wells GS-1 and NAB-1, suggestive of a
Gelasian (early Pleistocene) age for sub-unit SU-2c below and a Pleis­
tocene to Holocene age for Unit SU-3 above.
6
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
5.1.2. Thickness trends and fault characteristics
The isochore maps of both sub-units SU-2a and SU-2b show thinning
over the crest of the Giza anticline (Fig. 6a, b). It is noticeable that
channel-shaped amplitude anomalies within SU-2b appear to divert
around the up-stream limb of the Giza anticline and then pass through a
constriction point in this anticline (Fig. 6b, c). The isochore maps for
sub-units SU-2a and SU-2b also show thickening between and parallel to
the faults F0 and F3, where elongate to tongue-shaped high amplitudes
of the Giza P80 system occur (Fig. 6a, b, c). The relationship of ampli­
tude anomalies to fault location and/or orientation are also clear for
some other faults such as F0, F1, F8, F9, F10, although without seis­
mically resolvable stratigraphic growth across these faults during SU-2a
or SU-2b. In contrast, faults F3–F6 are characterized by a few to tens of
meters difference in the thickness of sub-unit SU-2b between the
hanging wall and footwall (Figs. 7 and 8), indicating growth of the faults
during deposition of this interval.
In summary, the isochore maps suggest the presence of an ENE-WSW
oriented anticline (coincident with the Giza anticline), when this Plio­
cene Giza P80 system was active. Coincidence of faults with amplitude
anomalies of this system implies that these faults (F0–F2, F7–F10) were
probably present (with throw below seismic resolution (<9 m)) during
the development of the system, in addition to the four syn-depositional
faults (F3–F6) with seismically resolvable growth strata. Based on these
observations, a topographic template that consists of a ENE-WSW ori­
ented anticline (Giza anticline) and at least eleven syn-depositional
faults is envisaged for the study area, when the Giza P80 system was
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 4. Synthetic seismogram for well GN-1, with the three seismic sub-units (SU-2a, SU-2b and SU-2c), mapped horizons H1 (a strong black trough reflection) and
H2 (a strong red peak reflection), the top (top surface) and base (basal erosion surface) of the Giza P80 system (highlighted in yellow), two inferred maximum
flooding surfaces (MFS), fining-upward (blue arrows) and coarsening-upward (red arrows) trends marked. Note that horizons H1 and H2 are near and at the NN16b
base (2.8 Ma) and NN16b top (2.54 Ma), respectively. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

7
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 5. (a) Original (unflattened) and (b) flattened seismic profile displaying the methodology for seismic geomorphological analysis of the Giza P80 system in this
study. The original volume was first flattened on a reference horizon (a flooding surface) to remove tectonic deformation. A series of flattened depth slices and slices
of mapped horizons (horizon slices) were then created from the flattened seismic volume and used to generate amplitude and variance attribute maps for
geomorphological analysis of the system (Figs. 14 and 16).

Fig. 6. (a) Isochore map between horizons H0 and H1 (sub-unit SU-2a). (b) Isochore map between horizons H1 and H2 (sub-unit SU-2b), with superimposed outlines
of high-amplitude anomalies of the Giza P80 system. (c) Maximum amplitude map between H1 and H2, showing the overall distribution of the Giza P80 system, with
the inferred major controlling faults (F0–F10) marked. (d) Seismic profile across the system’s main channel belt and one of its lobate branchs. Seismic profile location
is shown in (c) and in Fig. 2a, b.

8
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 7. Perspective view of co-rendered seismic profiles and horizon (H1), with the traced horizons and inferred controlling faults marked. Faults that show clear
growth strata between horizons H1 and H2 (sub-unit SU-2b) are marked with solid red line, while those that exhibit no seismically resolvable growth strata are
marked with dashed red line. Note that RMS amplitude extraction of sub-unit SU-2b is draped onto Horizon H1, with the main channel belt of the Giza P80 system
highlighted. Seismic profile locations are marked in the inset map at the lower left corner. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

active. This topography is largely reflected by the isochore map of
Fig. 6b, with the Giza anticline and Faults F4–F10 oriented roughly
parallel to the NE-SW-trending regional slope and orthogonal to the
main channel belt of the system, whereas Faults F0-F3 are at a high angle
to the regional slope strike and largely parallel to the western branch of
the system (Fig. 6c).
5.2. Sedimentary facies of the Giza P80 system
The Giza P80 system comprises a heterogeneous succession of
mudstone, interbedded mudstone and sandstone, and sandstone or
conglomerate in the penetrating wells GS-1 and GN-1. These deposits
can be characterized by six representative lithofacies that indicate a
deep marine setting with various deep-water processes (Table 1 and
Fig. 9).
The first type is claystone and siltstone (Lf1), which is typically un­
graded and structureless, with or without deep-water traces fossils
(Fig. 9A, B), suggesting fallout from hemipelagic suspensions. Lf1
commonly overlies silt-rich thin-bedded deposits (Lf2) and is charac­
terized by normal grading, lamination and common bioturbation with
locally developed postdepositional features (Fig. 9C, D). This facies is
attributed to low-density turbidity currents (cf. Bouma, 1962). Lf3
(sand-rich thin-bedded deposits) is similar to Lf2 in terms of sedimentary
structures, bioturbation and its heterolithic nature (Fig. 9E), except that
it has a higher sand percentage (40%–80%) and coarser grain size (up to
coarse-grained sand) than Lf2. This lithofacies is interpreted to result
from low- to high-density turbidity currents. Lf4 represents one of the
most sand-rich facies (sand percentage commonly >80%), which is
composed mainly of fine- to medium-grained sandstones, massive or
laminated with rare bioturbation but common rip-up mud clasts and
dewatering structures (Fig. 9F, G). Rapid deposition from high-density
turbidity currents or debris flows contribute to the formation of this
facies (cf., Bouma, 1962; Lowe, 1982; Mutti, 1992; Kneller and Branney,
1995; Shanmugam, 1996; Talling et al., 2012). Lf5 consists predomi­
nantly of medium- to coarse-grained sandstones and conglomerates,
representing the coarsest sandy facies in the system. This facies is typi­
cally structureless and ungraded or shows coarse-tail grading (Fig. 9H),
with bedding contacts often amalgamated. These characteristics suggest
that Lf5 is deposited by erosive/bypassing high-density turbidity cur­
rents (Mutti and Normark, 1987; Lowe, 1982; Stevenson et al., 2015) or
sandy debris flows (Shanmugam, 1996). Lf6 is composed of deposits that
are disorganized, massive with extraformational clasts randomly
distributed in a muddy matrix (Fig. 9I), or that show deformed or
overturned laminations/beddings (Fig. 9J). This facies is commonly
attributed to mass-transport processes, including muddy debris flows
(Lf6-a) and slide/slump (Lf6-b) (e.g., Samuel et al., 2003).
In summary, a total of six lithofacies are recognized from the cores
penetrating the Giza P80 system, suggestive of a range of deep-water
gravity-driven processes, including turbidity currents, debris flows and
sliding/slumping, as well as hemipelagic suspensions that are

9
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 8. Seismic profile showing some of the inferred controlling faults in the study area. Faults that show clear growth strata between horizons H1 and H2 (study
interval) are marked with solid red line, while those that exhibit no seismically resolvable growth strata are marked with dashed red line. Seismic profile location is
shown in the inset map. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

responsible for the final fill of the system (Table 1). These lithofacies are
organized into a large-scale overall fining-upward succession that
comprise multiple fining-upward intervals or lithofacies associations
(Figure 10). They are related to the building blocks - depositional ele­
ments of the system, as discussed below.
5.3. Seismic facies and depositional elements of the Giza P80 system
The depositional elements of turbidite systems in the subsurface can
be defined by their seismic facies (e.g., Mitchum Jr et al., 1977; Mutti
and Normark, 1991; Normark et al., 1993; Prather et al., 1998; Mayall
and Stewart, 2000; Deptuck et al., 2003; Posamentier and Kolla, 2003;
Gee et al., 2007; Cross et al., 2009; Gong et al., 2011; Janocko et al.,
2013; Oluboyo et al., 2014; Howlett et al., 2020). In this study, the
following six seismic facies are recognized, based on seismic reflection
characteristics in cross section and plan view, as well as borehole cali­
brations (Fig. 11):
5.3.1. Mass-transport deposits (MTDs; SF1)
In cross section, this seismic facies is characterized by low- to
moderate-amplitude, discontinuous and chaotic reflections (Fig. 11). It
typically has a speckled appearance on seismic attribute maps and en­
cases the studied system in three dimensions, covering an area of 10s of
km2. It also comprises part of the studied deep-water system itself,
where two well penetrations (GS-1 and GN-1) indicate that it is made of
disturbed or deformed muddy deposits (I and J in Figs. 9 and 10). These
characteristics suggest that this facies represents mass-transport deposits
(MTDs) (Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Moscardelli et al., 2006; Mayall
et al., 2006; Weimer and Slatt, 2007; Ortiz-Karpf et al., 2015; Wu et al.,
2020; Howlett et al., 2020).
5.3.2. Amalgamated channel-fills (SF2)
This seismic facies consists of moderate- to high-amplitude re­
flections, sub-arcuate or sheet-like in cross section. These seismic re­
flections are typically contained within the lower part of the main
channel belt (Fig. 11). In plan view, they are expressed as cross-cutting
sinuous threads. Core data show that this facies is composed of deep-
water massive or structured sandstones and thin-bedded heterolithics
with some disorganized or deformed muddy deposits (G, H, I and J in
Figs. 9 and 10). These characteristics suggest that this facies records both
coarse-grained fills of laterally migrating channels and fine-grained
mass-transport deposits. Considering that they cannot be readily

10
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

distinguished on seismic data, they are combined into one seismic

facies here, termed amalgamated channel-fills. (cf. “D-C HARs” of

High-density turbidity currents or

High-density turbidity currents or

Deptuck et al., 2003; “nonaggradational channels” of Samuel et al.,

Low-density turbidity currents

Low- to high-density turbidity

Muddy debris flows (Lf6-a),

2003 and “laterally amalgamated channels” of Cross et al., 2009).

slumping or sliding (Lf6-b)

Hemipelagic suspension
Sedimentary process

5.3.3. Aggradational channel-fills (SF3)

This seismic facies is commonly characterized by moderate- to
high-amplitude channel-form reflections with u- or v-shaped geome­

debris flows
debris flow
tries (10–30 m deep, 200–400 m wide) in cross section (Fig. 11). These
currents
reflections typically stack up within a narrow region, which is flanked
by wedge-shaped reflections (SF5, discussed below) at the middle to
Common (Chondrites and

Common (Chondrites and

upper part of the main channel belt, resembling aggrading ribbons of

Common (Chondrites

high-amplitude reflections (HARs) described from modern submarine

fans (e.g., Kastens and Shor, 1985; Kenyon et al., 1995; Pirmez and
and Planolites)

Flood, 1995). In plan view, it is expressed as a sinuous thread without

Bioturbation

Planolites)

Planolites)

significant lateral shifting in contrast to those amalgamated channel-

fills (SF2). This facies is interpreted to reflect vertically stacked, ag­
None

None
Rare

gradational channel-fills (cf. Stacked channel-form HARs of Deptuck

et al., 2003; aggradational (sinuous) channels of Peakall et al. (2000),
Structureless or with laminated tops,

Structureless, poorly to moderately

Parallel- or ripple- laminated, local

Parallel- or ripple- laminated, local

Samuel et al. (2003) and Cross et al. (2009)). Core data indicate that
Deformed laminations, or massive
sorted with common rip-up clasts
sand injection and microfaulting

sand injection and microfaulting

this facies is composed of deep-water fine- to medium-grained sand­

Lithofacies and interpreted processes of the Giza P80 system based on core data from wells GS-1 and GN-1 (see Fig. 9 for representative core photos).

muddy units with randomly

stones and sand-rich thin-bedded deposits (E and F in Figs. 9 and 10).

common rip-up mud clasts,
Typically structureless

dewatering structures

5.3.4. Mud-prone channel-fills (SF4)

Physical structures

distributed clasts

This seismic facies consists of low-amplitude, parallel reflections

with a U- or v-shaped external geometry (10–30 m deep, 200–400 m
wide) in cross section (Fig. 11). Similarly to SF3, this seismic facies is
commonly flanked by wedge-shaped reflections (SF5), showing a
limited lateral extent in cross-sectional view, and is expressed as a
single, straight or sinuous thread in plan view. In contrast to SF3,
0.3–1 m thick, commonly

Variable, up to 5 m thick
commonly <10 cm thick
1 cm to >4 m packages

however, it tends to be isolated, of low amplitude and occur both

within and outside (as an avulsion channel of) the channel belt. This
facies is comparable to “mud-filled bypass channels” of Sikkema and
10–20 cm thick

0.2–1 m thick
Bed thickness

amalgamated

Wojcik, (2000) and Wynn et al. (2007), or “last-stage channel-fills” of

Janocko et al. (2013). This facies is interpreted as mud-prone channel-
fills that may record earlier channel bypassing (of coarse-grained
sediments) and later abandonment (deposition of fine-grained
Normally graded or

Normally graded or

sediments).
Normally graded;

Normally graded,

5.3.5. Levees (SF5)

ungraded,
Ungraded

Ungraded
ungraded

This seismic facies is comprised of low- to high-amplitude,

Grading

convergent reflections that show a broadly wedge-shaped or “gull-

wing” geometry in cross section (Fig. 11). As discussed previously, it
often flanks channel facies SF3 and SF4. Core data indicate that this
Silt to medium-grained sand,
sand makes up 20% to 40%

sand makes up 40% to 80%

Silt to coarse-grained sand,

Silt to coarse-grained sand,

facies is made up of varying proportions of thin-bedded siltstones and

pebbles, with sand>80%
Medium-grained sand to

Silt or fine-grained sand

fine- to medium-grained sandstones of deep-water origin (B, C, D in

Dominant grain size

Figs. 9 and 10). This facies is widely recognized elsewhere and inter­
with sand >80%

preted to represent levees formed of fine-grained sediments from the

Clay and silt

overbanking of turbidity currents (e.g., Piper and Normark, 1983;

Mutti and Normark, 1987; Hay, 1987; McHargue, 1991; Posamentier
and Kolla, 2003; Deptuck et al., 2003, 2007; Janocko et al., 2013).
Following Kane and Hodgson (2011), we make a distinction between
levees within and outside a channel belt, referring to them as internal
levees and external levees respectively, as explained in the terminology
Coarse-grained sandstones/ conglomerates

section. Internal levees are well developed across the study area,
whereas external levees occur only locally (at the Giza anticline).
Fine- to medium-grained sandstones

Disorganized or deformed deposits

Sand-rich thin-bedded deposits
Silt-rich thin-bedded deposits

5.3.6. Lobes (SF6)

This seismic facies is typically characterized by moderate- to high-
Claystone and siltstone

amplitude, continuous reflections that show a sheet-like to mounded

cross-sectional geometry and a lobate shape in map view (Fig. 11). In
some cases, however, it shows a wedge-shaped cross-sectional geom­
etry similar to that of levees, as observed in other studies (e.g., Morris
Lithofacies

et al., 2014 and references therein). In these scenarios, its differentia­

Table 1

tion from levees lies in its plan-form lobate geometry and spatial re­
Lf1

Lf2

Lf3

Lf4

Lf5

Lf6

lations to other depositional elements (e.g., channel facies). This facies

11
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 9. Representative core photos of the six types of lithofacies described in Table 1. (A) Claystone and siltstone (Lf1) with Chondrites trace fossil marked. (B) as (A)
but lacking bioturbations or structures. (C) Silt-rich thin-bedded deposits (Lf2) with laminations. (D) as (C) with microfaults and sand injections. (E) Sand-rich thin-
bedded deposits (Lf3). (F) Fine- to medium-grained sandstones (Lf4) with dewatering structures. (G) as (F) but with randomly distributed clasts. (H) Coarse-grained
sandstones and conglomerates (Lf5). (I) Disorganized deposits (Lf6-a). (J) Deformed deposits (Lf6-b). See Fig. 10 for core locations and corresponding log responses.

is interpreted to represent lobes deposited from rapid flow expansion
and deceleration (Normark et al., 1997; Posamentier et al., 2000; Pos­
amentier and Kolla, 2003; Morris et al., 2014). No lithology calibrations
are available for the lobes in the study area. Their relatively continuous
and high-amplitude reflections, however, suggest overall sand-prone
deposits (Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Morris et al., 2014; Howlett
et al., 2020).
5.4. Architecture of the Giza P80 system
The Giza P80 channel-lobe system can be divided into four main
segments (S1–S4) considering its relation to the interpreted topographic
features (Fig. 12a, see also Fig. 13 of Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012).
Segment 1 (S1) occupies the most upstream area updip of the Giza
anticline, whereas segments 2 and 3 (S2 and S3) are located respectively
on the upstream and downstream limbs of the anticline where faults
F4–F10 are present. In contrast, segment 4 occupies the area where
faults F0–F4 and a branching lobate body of high amplitudes occur
(Fig. 12a). The internal architecture of the channel-lobe system is
compared and contrasted below in seismic reflection profiles from these
four segments, with calibrations from borehole data and horizon attri­
bute maps.
In segment 1 (updip of the Giza anticline), the channel-lobe system is
characterized by a channel belt bounded by a U- or V-shaped prominent

12
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 10. Wireline logs (gamma ray (GR), neutron, density and resistivity) for wells GS-1 and GN-1 with the GR log colour-coded by facies (based on core data and
well logs) through the Giza P80 system. Locations of representative core photos in Fig. 9 are marked. See Fig. 13a, d for the two interpreted seismic profiles across the
two wells here. For explanation of seismic facies (SF) codes, see Fig. 11. Note the contrast in neutron, density and resistivity logs between the gas-charge well GN-1
and the well GS-1 with only residual gas.

basal erosion surface (ca. 3–3.5 km wide by 150–190 m deep, Fig. 12b,
c), which is incised into and capped by MTDs (SF1) (Fig. 13a, b). Within
the channel belt, amalgamated channel-fills (SF2) are overlain by leveed
aggradational channel-fills (SF3) or MTDs (SF1), and then by two leveed
mud-prone channel-fills (SF4) with a intervening MTD (SF1) (Fig. 13a,
b). An internal re-incision surface separates these vertically stacked
aggradational channel-fills and internal levees (SF5) from the amal­
gamated channel-fills; borehole data (well GS-1) indicate that the
amalgamated channel-fills comprises a mix of sandy lag deposits, muddy
debrites/slumps and thin-bedded heterolithic channel-fills (Lf2–6,
Fig. 10).
In segment 2 (the upstream limb of the Giza anticline), the main
channel belt is bounded by a slightly narrower and shallower basal
erosion surface (ca. 3 km wide and 150 m deep, Fig. 12b, c). This surface
shows a clear v-shaped geometry near the Giza anticline axis and growth
fault F5 (Figs. 12b and 13c). The internal architecture of the channel belt
shows an upward transition trend in architectural elements that is
largely comparable to that in segment 1 (from base to top: SF2➔SF3,

13
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 11. Seismic facies and interpreted depositional elements of the Giza P80 system. NA refers to no core data available. Lf1–6 refers to lithofacies 1–6 described in
Table 1 and Fig. 9.

14
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 12. (a) Interval attribute (maximum magnitude) map between horizons H1 and H2, showing the Giza P80 system with the four main segments (S1–S4) and
major faults (F0–F10) marked. S1–S4: segment 1 (updip of the Giza anitcline), segment 2 (upstream limb of the Giza anticline), segment 3 (downstream limb of the
Giza anticline), segment 4 (at faults F0-F4). Dotted white lines and red solid lines indicate, respectively, seismic profile locations and the basal erosion surface of the
main channel belt. (b) Depth structure map (perspective view) of the basal erosion surface. (c) Isochore map of the main channel-belt (between the basal erosion
surface and the top surface above, Fig. 4). Contour spacing is 20 m in (b) and (c). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

SF5➔SF4, SF5). However, marked architectural differences are also
present: for instance, within the channel belt, amalgamated channel-fills
appear to be more cannibalized and levee collapses are more common
than the other segments (Fig. 13c). Additionally, outside the channel
belt, an external lobe (lobe 1) starts to appear at the northern limit of this
segment (Figs. 13), and slide scars are also common and well developed
in this area. Well NAB-1 from this segment penetrates the top margin
(internal levee) of the channel belt with a serrated low GR signature
(Fig. 13c), suggestive of fine-grained muddy sediments (e.g., Lf2 in
Fig. 9) at this site.
In segment 3 (the downstream limb of the Giza anticline), several
distinct architectural differences from segments 1 and 2 are observed,
despite a similar vertical arrangement of architectural elements still
present within the channel belt (Fig. 13c, d, e). Firstly, the bottom of the
basal erosion surface is much flatter in this segment, compared to the v-
shaped geometry in segment 2 (Figs. 12b and 13c, d, ed, e). Additionally,
lobes (lobes 1–6; SF6) and levees (SF5) are developed both within and
outside the channel belt (Figs. 13d, e and 14). Furthermore, aggrada­
tional channel fills show more prominent lateral shifting than those in
segments 1 and 2 (Figs. 13). Also noteworthy is the higher net to gross
(net sand/conglomerate in gross interval) and coarser-grained character
of the channel-belt fill in the well GN-1 in this segment, as compared to
that in well GS-1 in segment 1 and NAB-1 in segment 2 (Figs. 3 and 10).
Such difference in grain size and sand/mud ratio within deep-water
channel-belt fills may result from downslope or on-axis to off-axis
changes in flow behaviors (e.g., Lowe et al., 2019). The difference be­
tween wells GN-1 and NAB-1 appears to reflect the more off-axis or
marginal position of the latter, where finer-grained heterolithic sedi­
ments are commonly deposited (e.g., Di Celma et al., 2011; Macauley
and Hubbard, 2013; Li et al., 2018). In contrast, well GS-1 is located at
the convex-up “hat” caused by differential compaction (Fig. 13a), indi­
cating its relatively axial position similar to GN-1. The difference be­
tween them may thus be largely due to downslope flow variations in that
some flows bypassed the site of well GS-1 and dropped their coarse
fractions downstream at well GN-1 (cf. Butterworth and Verhaeghe,
2012). This interpretation is consistent with the less confined and more
depositional setting at well GN-1, as indicated by deposition of lobes,
pronounced channel lateral migration, and the flatter bottom and lower
relief of the basal erosion surface.
In segment 4 (at faults F0-F4), the channel-lobe system is charac­
terized by a leveed, isolated channel (SF4; ~200 m wide by 30 m deep)
that cuts into an elongated lobe (1.5 km wide by 4 km long) (lobe 7 in
Fig. 15c). Detailed mapping of this channel indicates that it is connected
to the uppermost mud-prone channel within the channel belt in segment
1 (Figs. 13a and 15a). This uppermost channel cannot be tracked along
the whole length of the SE-NW oriented channel belt, but rather swings
around the tip of the growth fault F3 towards WNW, forming the lobe
(lobe 7) in segment 4 (Fig. 15b, c).
5.5. Evolution of the Giza P80 system
Four flattened depth slices and two supplemental horizon slices
through the Giza P80 channel-lobe system were used to generate RMS
amplitude and variance attribute maps (Fig. 16). They are effective in
revealing the main architectural elements that are expressed as ampli­
tude anomalies with distinctive plan-form geometries (e.g., lobe-shaped,
elongate, etc.). In combination with seismic profiles that help define the
relative timing of the system’s architectural elements, these seismic
geomorphology maps reveal the system’s overall evolution, which can
be characterized by the following four phases.
5.5.1. Phase 1: Channel belt incision
Phase 1 is recorded by the co-rendered RMS amplitude and variance
attribute map of flattened depth slice 1 that cuts through the bottom part
of the channel-lobe system (Fig. 16a, a’). It exhibits a SE-NW trending
channel belt with a higher channel sinuosity (average 1.3) in segment 1,
than in segment 2 (average 1.06) and segment 3 (average 1.21) (Fig. 17).
Notably the channel belt of the system takes a sharp (nearly 90 degree)
bend in segment 2 when approaching the Giza anticline. The channel-
belt fill in this phase is characterized by low-to-moderate seismic am­
plitudes. Cores from the two wells (GS-1 and GN-1, ca. 12 km apart) both
suggest that these amplitudes correspond to a mix of mass-transport
deposits and sandy or gravely gravity-flow deposits. (Figs. 10 and 13).
These observations suggest that this phase represents significant
erosion, bypass and mass wasting, forming an entrenched channel belt
with initial sandy/gravely lag deposits of bypassing gravity flows (i.e.,
basal lags) and muddy MTDs (cf. Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012).
Flows that formed these deposits and the underlying basal erosion

15
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 13. Successive uninterpreted (left) and interpreted (right) seismic profiles across the Giza P80 system from segments 1 to 3, showing its internal architecture
from upstream (a, a’) to downstream (e, e’) along the main channel belt. Seismic profile locations are shown in Figs. 12a and 14.

16
P. Li et al.
Fig. 14. Combined amplitude attribute maps (maximum magnitude) for three
traced horizons, showing the distribution of lobes in the study area. The
stratigraphic locations of three mapped horizons in (a), (b) and (c) are shown in
Fig. 13. S1–S3: segment 1-segment 3.
surface appear to be deflected when approaching the Giza anticline,
indicative of the existence and/or growth of this anticlinal structure
during development of the channel belt (Fig. 16a, a’).
5.5.2. Phase 2: Early-stage confined fills
Phase 2 corresponds to the lower portion of the system, and is clearly
imaged by the co-rendered RMS amplitude and variance attribute map
of flattened depth slice 2 (Fig. 16b). It is dominated by laterally amal­
gamated channel-fills that underwent little vertical aggradation
(Fig. 16b’) (cf. Samuel et al., 2003; Cross et al., 2009), recording a fill
stage confined within the channel belt of the system. Similarly to phase
1, channels bend sharply in segment 2 and show the highest sinuosity
(average 1.46) in segment 1, lowest (average 1.3) in segment 2 and
intermediate (average 1.33) in segment 3 (Fig. 17). Borehole data show
that deposits of this phase are generally coarser and thicker than those
formed during the other phases (Fig. 10), indicating the high-energy,
coarse-grained nature of flows during this period.
5.5.3. Phase 3: Late-stage confined and unconfined fills
Phase 3 corresponds to the middle and upper parts of the channel-
lobe system, which are visualized respectively by the attribute maps of
flattened depth slices 2, 3 (Fig. 16c, d and c’, d’) and the “purple hori­
zon” in Fig. 16e. This phase features a variety of depositional elements
relating to the channel belt, including aggradational and mud-prone
channel-fills, internal levees and internal lobes confined within the
channel belt, and external lobes and levee deposits that spilled out of the
channel belt at the Giza anticline (Figs. 13 and 16c, d, e). Aggradational
channels show an organized lateral to vertical stacking pattern (Fig. 13),
and a progressive increase in sinuosity through time until their meander
bends reached a relatively mature state (i.e., sinuous with large bend
wavelength and amplitude) (Figs. 16c, d, e and 17, see also Fig. 8B of
Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012). These observations suggest that
17
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
flows going through the channels during this phase overall waned and
became muddier through time, and finally reached an equilibrium with
the channel planform through aggradation across the study area (cf.
Peakall et al., 2000; Kneller, 2003; McHargue et al., 2011). On the other
hand, the episodic development of high-amplitude lobes at the Giza
structure indicates sporadic sandy and large flows before attaining the
equilibrium state (Cross et al., 2009).
5.5.4. Phase 4: Avulsion and abandonment
Phase 4 is recorded by the RMS amplitude map of flattened depth
slice 4 (Fig. 16d) and the “yellow horizon” in Fig. 16f. It is characterized
by a low-sinuosity low-amplitude (mud-prone) channel with asym­
metric levees, which is sandwiched between MTDs within the channel
belt in segment 1 (Figs. 10 and 13a). This channel appears to swing from
the channel belt around the tip of the growth fault F3, which feeds and
incises into a high-amplitude (sand-prone) lobe (Fig. 16d, d’). These
observations suggest that this final phase features a series of events, from
a mass wasting event across the channel belt, through the channel belt
avulsion, to another mass wasting event that finally buried the channel
belt (Figs. 10 and 13a).
This four-phase depositional model for the Giza P80 channel-lobe
system is comparable to the one proposed by Butterworth and Ver­
haeghe (2012), in terms of the general evolutionary trend of architec­
tural elements within the channel belt. However, significant differences
exist in the interpretation of the origin of those external lobes laterally to
the channel belt, which we discuss in the next section.
6. Discussion
6.1. What is the origin of lobes?
Lobes are present both within and outside the channel belt of the
Giza P80 system (Fig. 16). In the previous study (Butterworth and
Verhaeghe, 2012), the external lobes (lobes 1–3 in Figs. 13, 14 and 16)
lateral to the channel belt of the system at the Giza anticline were
interpreted as terminal (frontal) lobes of a leveed channel system pre­
cursor to the channel belt. This interpretation implies that subsequent
channel propagation into the basin resulted in channel belt incision into
the precursor lobes and emplacement of levees on these lobes (cf.
“HARP” of Flood et al., 1991 and Normark et al., 1997), thus suggesting
that all of the fills within the channel belt postdate these lobes.
In this study, an alternative interpretation is proposed for these
lobes. We argue that they represent overbank or crevasse lobes that
spilled out of the channel belt at its later filling stage (phase 3 in section
5.5), as a result of sporadic out-sized flows passing through a relatively
low-relief channel belt (cf. Eschard et al., 2013; Cronin et al., 2007,
2013; Wynn et al., 2007). These lobes were subsequently cut by the
channel belt due to channel incision and widening. Such a view is sup­
ported by several lines of evidence. Firstly, the locations of these lobes
coincide with the lower relief zone and meander bends of the channel
belt where avulsion and overspill processes tend to occur (Fig. 12a, 14
and 16). Secondly, these lobes occur at a similar stratigraphic level to
those inside the channel belt, some of which appear to be connected (e.
g., the one near Well NAB-1 and the bigger one to its northeast, Fig. 12a,
14 and 16c). This suggests that at least some lobes internal to the
channel belt were coeval with the external ones. Thirdly, these external
lobes are isolated from each other rather than coalescing laterally to
form a larger distributary lobe complex/system or intra-slope fan that is
commonly related to precursor lobes of a channel belt, whether on
slopes with simple steps (e.g., Deptuck et al., 2012; Van der Merwe et al.,
2014), tortuous corridors (e.g., Smith, 2004; Hay, 2012) or ponded mini-
basins (e.g., Winker, 1996; Prather et al., 1998, 2012b; Beaubouef and
Friedmann, 2000).
Another two possible interpretations for these lobes are crevasse or
avulsion lobes prior to the development of the channel belt. Avulsion of
a nearby channel system can result in avulsion lobes and a throughgoing
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 15. Architecture of the Giza P80 system in segment 4. (a) NE-SW oriented and (b) NW-SE oriented seismic profiles across segment 4 of the system. (c) Amplitude
attribute (maximum magnitude) map of the mud-prone channel indicated in (a) and (b).

18
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 16. Uninterpreted (a–d) and interpreted (a’–d’) amplitude attribute maps on four flattened depth slices (from base to top), and on two horizon slices (e–f),
showing the geomorphic evolution of the Giza P80 system and its spatial relationship with the interpreted structures. Note that late phase 3 and phase 4 are both
captured in (d) due to their proximity to the slice level, and that these two phases are respectively imaged by the “purple horizon” slice (e) and “yellow horizon” slice
(f). The stratigraphic locations of the slices in (a–d), (e) and (f) are indicated in (g). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

19
P. Li et al.
Fig. 17. Isochore map of sub-unit SU-2b (the study unit, Fig. 2c) overlain by mapped channel axes of different phases of the Giza P80 system, showing the spatial and
temporal changes in channel sinuosity and their relations to the inferred topography in the study area.
avulsion channel or channel belt, forming a channel-lobe stratigraphic
relationship similar to that observed in this study (e.g., Armitage et al.,
2012; Lowe et al., 2019). However, the absence of other contemporary
channel systems nearby, and the orientation of these lobes (pointing to
the studied channel belt itself), lead us to reject this interpretation. One
may also consider these as crevasse lobes of earlier channels that run
along the area where the channel belt of the Giza system subsequently
developed (cf. Cronin et al., 2013; Ma et al., 2020). However, as
mentioned above, the coincidence of these lobes with the lower relief
zone and meander bends of the channel belt of the system (Figs. 13c, d, e
and 14), strongly suggests their close relationship with the later-stage
development of the system.
In addition to the overbank/crevasse lobes discussed above in
segment 3, another elongate external lobe (1.5 km wide by 4 km long)
that marked the permanent re-routing (avusion) of the channel belt
occurs in segment 4 (lobe 7, Figs. 15c and 16d, e). It is incised by a mud-
prone channel and appears to be contained within the topographic low
defined by faults F0-F3 (Figs. 6b and 12a). This architecture is remi­
niscent of “fill-and-spill” successions that record a fan or apron to bypass
channel transition on stepped or ponded slopes (e.g., Adeogba et al.,
2005; Deptuck et al., 2012; Prather et al., 2012b), though at a relatively
small scale. With comparison to these studies, this depositional lobe is
interpreted as a ponded (avulsion) lobe, recording an early fill of the
structurally induced intra-slope depression (without differentiation be­
tween ‘ponded accommodation’ with a horizontal bounding surface, and
‘healed slope accommodation’ with a basin-ward dipping upper
bounding surface; Prather et al., 1998; Smith, 2004). In contrast, the
down-cutting mud-prone channel is thought to indicate subsequent
20
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
sediment bypass downslope, as a response to a new base level once the
accommodation is filled up (Prather et al., 1998; Pirmez et al., 2000). In
addition to external lobes, several internal lobes are also recognized
within the channel belt (Fig. 16d, d’). Given their stratigraphic position,
relationship to the channel belt, as well as the plan-form distributive
pattern, they might represent terminal frontal lobes formed as the whole
system backstepped (Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012; Morris et al.,
2014), or late-stage crevasse lobes confined within the channel belt (cf.
Cronin et al., 2007, 2013; Ma et al., 2020) (Figs. 18 and 19).
6.2. Controls on the channel-lobe system
Various different factors have been suggested as the principal con­
trols on the development of the Pliocene deep-water systems in the
offshore Nile Delta area, including relative sea-level fluctuations, fluvial
sediment supply, tectonics and mass transport (e.g., Samuel et al., 2003;
Cross et al., 2009; Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012; Niyazi et al.,
2018). Here, these factors are assessed first in terms of whether and how
they might have influenced the Giza P80 channel-lobe system. Then, A
general model is then proposed for the response of the channel-lobe
system to interacting flows and topography.
6.2.1. Relative sea-level fluctuations
Four large Pliocene sea-level cycles can be recognized from the
regional relative sea-level curve of Kellner et al. (2018) that was
modified from Haq et al. (1987) and with age controls for mapped se­
quences from Wornardt (1999) and Hardenbol et al. (1998) (Fig. 18).
The biostratigraphic data from the exploration wells in the study area
P. Li et al. Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496

Fig. 18. Correlation of the relative sea level, sediment discharge, ages of mapped sequence and the exploration well GN-1 in the study area (modified from Niyazi
et al., 2018). Ages of mapped sequences from Kellner (2009) after Wornardt (1999), relative sea-level curve from Kellner (2009) after Haq et al. (1987), sediment
discharge of Nile River from Niyazi et al. (2018) calculated based on Macgregor (2011). Red and blue triangle represents large-scale fining-upward (retrogradational)
and coarsening-upward (progradational) trends, which may correspond to the lowstand to transgressive systems tracts and the highstand systems tract of a third-
order sequence, respectively. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

(Fig. 3) suggest that the Giza P80 system (between 2.8 and 2.54 Ma) is
closely correlated with the latest Pliocene (Piacenzian) sea-level cycle
between 2.76 and 2.55 Ma, the period when the “Pia2” 3rd-order
sequence of Hardenbol et al. (1998) developed. This correlation, with
the system’s pronounced basal erosion surface (> 100 m relief) (Fig. 13)
and overall fining-upward trend (Figs. 10 and 18), suggest that the
system probably represents a 3rd order deep-water lowstand to trans­
gressive systems tracts (cf. Posamentier and Kolla, 2003), which was
controlled by relative sea-level changes between 2.76 and 2.55 Ma.
Basal incision (and pre-incision MTDs), phase 1 basal lags and MTDs,
and phase 2 amalgamated channels most likely developed during the
sea-level fall and early lowstand, when mass wasting and large erosive
or bypassing gravity flows tend to occur (cf. Samuel et al., 2003; Cross
et al., 2009; Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012). Phase 3 aggradational
channels with levees and lobes, as well as mud-prone channels probably
occurred during the late lowstand to early transgressive stage, when
smaller, muddier and more depositional flows prevailed. Phase 4 avul­
sion and resulting abandonment of the main channel belt is more likely
to be related to other controls discussed below.
6.2.2. Fluvial sediment supply
Rapid sediment accumulation on the seafloor could be the result of
enhanced sediment supply, leading to slope instability and mass trans­
port that may transform into turbidity currents (Hampton, 1972; Nor­
mark & Piper 1991; Reading and Richards, 1994). The Pliocene Giza
system, like many other Tertiary deep-water systems in the offshore Nile
Delta area, was constructed mainly by influxes of terrigenous sediments
transported by the Nile River (Abdel Aal et al., 2000). It is well know
that the Nile sediment discharge peaked in mid-Pliocene due to the
significant uplift of one of its source areas - the Ethiopian Highlands
and/or increased African Monsoon rainfall at this time (Macgregor,
2011; Macgregor, 2012; Palacios, 2013; Niyazi et al., 2018; Fig. 18).
Another secondary peak of the Nile sediment discharge, however, is
commonly overlooked and can be observed on the discharge curve
calculated by Niyazi et al. (2018) based on the data of Macgregor (2011)
(Fig. 18). This peak occurred at approximately 2.76 Ma when the Giza
P80 system started to develop. It is thus likely that the increased sedi­
ment supply of Nile River at this time contributed to the initiation of the
Giza P80 system by slope failure due to rapid sediment loading.

21
P. Li et al.
Fig. 19. Summary model (not to scale) illustrating the distributions of the major architectural (depositional) elements of the Giza P80 channel-lobe system and their
relations to structurally induced topography. Note that elements 1-5 occur within the channel belt of the system throughout the study area, whereas elements 6-8 are
present only at the structurally influenced area.
6.2.3. Tectonics
The previous study of Butterworth and Verhaeghe (2012) has
emphasized the existence of the Giza anticline when the Giza P80 system
was active. Our analysis in section 5.1.2 confirms this interpretation, but
also highlights another eleven faults (F0–F10). These structures, which
are probably controlled by the large-scale Coastal and Rosetta fault
systems outside of the study area (Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012; see
their Fig. 1), formed a structural template that is depicted in Fig. 6b and
summarized in Fig. 19. It is characterized by the slope-parallel Giza
anticline and crestal faults F4–F10, nearly orthogonal to the channel belt
of the system, and faults F0–F3 that are oblique to the channel belt and
roughly parallel to its ponded (avulsion) lobe (Fig. 19).
These structurally induced topographic features appear to have
played an important role in controlling the channel course, sinuosity,
internal architecture and fills of the system. For instance, the Giza
anticline and fault F3 have forced channels to divert from their original
courses for about 1–2 km and 8 km, respectively (Figs. 12a and 17a). In
addition, channel sinuosity decreased on the upstream limb of the
anticline, and then increased on its faulted downstream limb, where
channels show a pronounced lateral stacking pattern, with lobes and
levees present both within and outside the main channel belt (Figs. 16
and 17). Not surprisingly, another channel-lobe (lobe 7a) transition also
occurred in a structurally (faults F0–F3) influenced area (Fig. 12a).
Furthermore, the faulted anticlinal topography also affected sand
deposition within the channel belt (see Fig. 9 and Section 5.4, and figs.
9–12 of Butterworth and Verhaeghe, 2012).
Similar channel responses to structures have also been reported
elsewhere (e.g., Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Adeogba et al., 2005;
Ferry et al., 2005; Heiniö and Davies, 2007; Gee et al., 2007; Jolly et al.,
2017). It is commonly suggested that such topographic features as the
Giza anticline and normal faults (F0–F10) may disrupt the equilibrium
profiles towards which submarine channels tend (Pirmez et al., 2000;
Georgiopoulou and Cartwright, 2013). In such cases, submarine chan­
nels will respond by changes in morphology (channel course and sinu­
osity) or erosion/deposition, in order to the smooth out the disruption
and reach the equilibrium.
6.2.4. Mass transport
In the study area, mass transport-related slump scarps defines a
22
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
corridor that shows a remarkably similar orientation to the overlying
channel belt of the Giza P80 system (Fig. 16a, a’), as observed between
the modern-day Rosetta Canyon and slump scarps of the nearby area
(Fig. 1a, Garziglia et al., 2008; Loncke et al., 2009). This relationship
suggests that the slump scarps probably created unfilled accommodation
space resulting in the subsequent erosional fairway following part of the
same route (cf. Kneller et al., 2016 and references therein). Additionally,
this style of supra-MTDs relief at the Giza anticline might also provide
accommodation space for the lobes external to the channel belt (But­
terworth and Verhaeghe, 2012). Mass-transport processes have also
been widely reported to cause channel avulsions (e.g., Kolla, 2007;
Loncke et al., 2009; Ortiz-Karpf et al., 2015) and are interpreted to
contribute to the channel-belt avulsion and abandonment of the Giza
P80 system. The MTDs at the onset of phase 4 of the Giza P80 system
filled the stratigraphically uppermost part of the channel belt down dip
at well GN-1, whereas they only partly filled the channel belt up dip at
well GS-1 (Fig. 10). Due to the downdip plugging of the fairway by
MTDs, the subsequent channel (the uppermost mud-prone channel in
Fig. 13a) breached and abandoned the fairway rather than took the old
route by incising into its segment plug. This may be further facilitated by
potential local slope gradient change close to the avulsion point, as a
result of the activity of nearby growth fault F3 (Figs. 12a, 15 and 16d’).
6.3. Model for channel responses to interacting flows and topography
Sea-level changes and sediment supply influenced the flows reaching
the study area (e.g., flow type, size and sand to mud ratio), while the
structures and MTDs determined the topography or gradients these
flows encountered. An overall temporal evolution of waning and mud­
dier flows through the Giza P80 system is envisaged, given that it formed
during a 3rd sea-level lowstand to transgressive phase and when sedi­
ment supply decreased over time (Fig. 18). Considering the relative role
of flows and topographic features, channels exhibit a tendency to evolve
from flow-dominated to topography-dominated responses through the
evolution of the Giza P80 system (Fig. 20). The style of response would
depend mainly on the height of the topography or slope curvature with
respect to the thickness and properties of the flow, as well as the length
and orientation of the topography (cf. Clark and Cartwright, 2009;
Kneller and Buckee, 2000; Mayall et al., 2010; Oluboyo et al., 2014;
P. Li et al.
Fig. 20. Cartoon illustrating channel responses to interacting flows and topographic features, through the evolution of the Giza P80 channel-lobe system, with the
main controlling faults marked. S1-S4: segment 1-segment 4.
Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Soutter et al., 2021). Channel responses of
the flow-dominated type are best reflected at the initiation stage (phase
1), when the flows were sufficiently large and powerful compared to the
relief of the Giza structure in the area. They are expressed as channels
cutting (with a relatively small-scale diversion of ca. 1–2 km) through
the Giza structure, where there is no marked down-slope variation in
channel fills (Figs. 10 and 20). In contrast, responses that fit better into
the topography-dominated type are best seen in the abandonment stage
(phase 4). They are expressed as large-scale channel diversion (ca. 8 km)
along Fault F3, and formation of a ponded lobe as a result of small flows
captured by the intra-slope depression caused by Faults F0–F3 (Figs. 12a
and 20). The oblique incidence angle of the gravity flows and the length
of the growth fault F3 and associated rollover anticline (Figs. 12a and
15) might also have played a significant role at this stage (cf. Mayall
et al., 2010; Oluboyo et al., 2014; Soutter et al., 2021). Channel re­
sponses at the middle stage (phase 2 and 3) lie somewhere between the
two scenarios. During this period flows appeared to have a stronger
response to the underlying topography than the previous stage, resulting
in marked changes in channel fills (e.g., increased net/gross seen in well
GN-1, see Fig. 10), as well as channel morphology (e.g., channel
straightening) at the Giza anticline (Figs. 17 and 20). In addition,
episodic sandy flows interacted strongly with this topographic feature
during phase 3, forming high-amplitude (sandy) lobes. The change in
response at this stage might be due either to active tectonics increasing
the height of the topography or slope curvature, or to diminution in the
size and power of the flows(Posamentier and Kolla, 2003).
6.4. Implications for hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation
The development of the submarine channel-lobe system on an
irregular slope has important implications for hydrocarbon reservoir
distribution. The Giza system exhibits an evolutionary trend from “thin/
poor reservoirs” (basal lags/MTDs) in phase 1, through “good reser­
voirs” (sandy amalgamated channel-fills) in phase 2, to “difficult-to-
develop reservoirs” (sandy aggradational channel-fills and levees) in
phase 3–4 (Fig. 16, Mayall and O’Bryne, 2002). Notably, phase 1 sandy
gravity-flow lags tend to alternate with muddy MTDs rather than sit in
isolation on a basal erosion surface (see Fig. 10; cf. Mayall and Stewart,
2000; Mayall et al., 2006), suggesting multiple barriers and possible
thief zones at the channel-belt base. In addition, phase 2 and early phase
3 show marked downslope variations in channel-fills, with sandstone
sweet spots located on the faulted downstream limb of the Giza anticline
(Figs. 3, 10 and 16; cf. Ferry et al., 2005; Clark and Cartwright, 2009;
Tripsanas et al., 2012). This is in contrast to the scenarios elsewhere that
23
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
sandstones are mainly or entirely deposited in the updip depression of
relatively large obstructions, due to flow ponding/blocking (e.g., Clark
and Cartwright, 2009). The two end-member situations may transition
into each other, because of healing of large structures by deposition or
tectonic uplifting of small structures, which can result in preferential
sand accumulation shifting from the updip area of an obstacle to its
downdip area, and the reverse, respectively (cf. Tripsanas et al., 2012
and references therein). Identification and detailed mapping of such syn-
depositional structures is thus crucial in pinpointing areas where good
reservoir is most likely to occur.
Mayall and O’Bryne (2002) emphasized in their four-fold scheme
that the uppermost fill within a confined channel belt features “difficult-
to-develop” reservoirs due to narrow and sinuous channel geometry and
thin-bedded nature of levee sands. Phase 3 and 4 of the Giza channel-
lobe system clearly accords with this assertion. However, “good reser­
voirs” are likely present in the different types of depositional lobes (e.g.,
internal frontal/crevasse lobes within the channel belt and external
lobes outside the channel belt), as indicated by their high-amplitude
reflections. Additionally, large volumes of sandstones may also be pre­
sent in the same channel-lobe system basinward of the ponded lobe (lobe
7, Fig. 12a), due to sand bypass through an incised channel cutting into
the lobe (Figs. 12a and 16d, cf. Adeogba et al., 2005). On the other hand,
low-amplitude incised channel that dissects the depositional lobe may
lead to compartmentalization of reservoir sand bodies (Figs. 12a and
15ca). Also, late-stage mass wasting and channel avulsion tend to in­
crease reservoir heterogeneity, thus further adding to the difficulty of
reservoir development (Fig. 10).
Another potential application of this study lies in the well-log pat­
terns of the main channel-belt fills where the main architectural ele­
ments of different phases 1–4 have distinct log responses (Figs. 10 and
11). Coarse-grained basal lags of phase 1 in both wells show a large kick
in GR. Sandy amalgamated channel-fills of phase 2 show a blocky to bell-
shaped GR log motif (well GN-1 in Fig. 10), whereas muddy amalgam­
ated channel-fills of this phase display a serrate GR log motif with some
blocky/bell-shaped intervals (well GS-1 in Fig. 10). Aggradational
channel fills and levees of phase 3 are mainly characterized by a serrate
GR motif with some low-amplitude bell-shaped GR intervals (Fig. 10).
The log responses observed in this study bear strong resemblance to
those reported from other slope channel systems (e.g., Fig. 11 of Mayall
et al., 2006; Fig. 7 of Porter et al., 2006). This suggests that evolutionary
phases and associated 2D or 3D reservoir elements of submarine channel
systems may be recognized from 1D vertical log patterns or sections.
P. Li et al.
7. Conclusions
Integration of 3D seismic reflection data with borehole data from the
Giza field, offshore west Nile Delta, enables us to examine in detail how
a submarine channel-lobe system developed on a topographically com­
plex slope. The main conclusions of this study are as follows:
(1) A variety of depositional elements are recognized in the study
area, including amalgamated channel-fills, aggradational
channel-fills, mud-prone channel-fills, levees, lobes and MTDs.
They formed a Pliocene submarine channel-lobe system over a
period of ca. 0.26 Ma, on a continental slope that was influenced
by relative sea-level changes, sediment supply, tectonics (folding
and faulting) and mass failure. The channel-lobe system show
characteristic distribution patterns in time and space.
(2) Temporally, four evolutionary phases characterize the system,
from channel-belt incision, through laterally amalgamated
channels, to leveed aggradational channels with internal frontal/
crevasse lobes and external lobes, and finally to channel-belt
abandonment, and formation of the avulsion channel and pon­
ded lobe. This study interprets the external lobes lateral to the
channel belt as late-stage overbank/crevasse lobes rather than
precursor lobes, highlighting the synchroneity of these lobes with
some of the fills within the channel belt. The wider implication is
that an erosional surface-bounded channel belt is not a canyon-
style fairway in the areas where such lateral overbank/crevasse
lobes are present.
(3) Spatially, marked changes in stratigraphic architecture and
planform morphology of the channel-lobe system occur in the
areas affected by folds and faults. Specifically, these spatial var­
iations are expressed as channel diversion, straightening,
increased lateral migration with higher net/gross, and channel to
lobe transitions. This sequence of changes provides a predictive
framework for channel responses to interaction between pre-
existing or syn-depositional small structures and also to overall
increasingly muddy flows that declined in strength with time,
producing a general tendency from flow-dominated to
topography-dominated systems.
(4) Major topographic features, in combination with temporal
changes in flow properties, strongly influence the spatio-
temporal distribution of sand-rich channel-fills and lobes. The
downdip area of anticlines and down-thrown side of faults are
“sweet spots” for early-stage sandy channel-fills and late-stage
lobe deposits, and form favorable traps in intra-slope environ­
ments. Their identification is thus significant for hydrocarbon
exploration in such settings. This study shows that some of the
major deep-water depositional elements present distinct log re­
sponses that can be used to recognize those elements in the
subsurface.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work comprised part of the PL’s PhD study, which was funded
by the China Scholarship Council (CSC) and the PRACCS research con­
sortium at the University of Aberdeen, which received funding from BG
Group, BP, DONG, RWE Dea, Petrochina, Statoil and Tullow Oil. This
work also benefits from the postdoctoral fund (2017M620819) and
NSFC fund (41802132) that provided traveling support for PL to attend
domestic and international conferences, which helped to sharpen the
interpretation here. The authors would like to thank Ian Kane and Mike
24
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
Mayall for providing many helpful comments on earlier drafts of this
paper. Ovie Emmanuel Eruteya and Luke Pettinga are thanked for the
insightful review of the early version of the manuscript. We are grateful
to the editor Michele Rebesco, the reviewer Vittorio Maselli, and three
other anonymous reviewers, for their helpful suggestions and
constructive critiques that have significantly improved this manuscript.
The authors also acknowledge BP for the permission to publish this data
set and Schlumberger for providing academic licenses of their seismic
interpretation software (Petrel).
References
Abdel Aal, A., El Barkooky, A., Gerrits, M., Meyer, H., Schwander, M., Zaki, H., 2000.
Tectonic evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean basin and its significance for
hydrocarbon prospectivity in the ultradeep-water of the Nile delta. Lead. Edge 19,
1086–1102.
Adeogba, A.A., McHargue, T.R., Graham, S.A., 2005. Transient fan architecture and
depositional controls from near-surface 3-D seismic data, Niger Delta continental
slope. AAPG Bull. 89, 627–643.
Armitage, D.A., Mchargue, T., Fildani, A., Graham, S.A., 2012. Postavulsion channel
evolution: Niger Delta continental slope. AAPG Bull. 96, 823–843.
Back, S., Van Gent, H., Reuning, L., Grӧtsch, J., Niederau, J., Kukla, P., 2011. 3D seismic
geomorphology and sedimentology of the Chalk Group, southern Danish North Sea.
J. Geol. Soc. 168, 393–406.
Badalini, G., Kneller, B., Winker, C.D., 2000. Architecture and processes in the late
Pleistocene Brazose trinity turbidite system, Gulf of Mexico continental slope. In:
Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M., Coleman, J., Rosen, N.C., Nelson, H., Bouma, A.H.,
Styzen, M.J., Lawrence, D.T. (Eds.), Deep-water Reservoirs of the World.
Proceedings of the 20th Annual Research Conference. Gulf Coast Section SEPM
Foundation, pp. 16–34.
Barton, M.D., 2012. Evolution of an intra-slope apron, offshore Niger Delta Slope: Impact
of step geometry on apron architecture. In: Prather, B.E., Deptuck, M.E., Mohrig, D.,
Van Hoorn, B., Wynn, R.B. (Eds.), Application of the Principles of Seismic
Geomorphology to Continental-Slope and Base-of-Slope Systems: Case Studies from
Seafloor and Near-Seafloor Analogues, SEPM Special Publication 99, pp. 181–197.
Beaubouef, R.T., Friedmann, S.J., 2000. High-resolution seismic/sequence stratigraphic
framework for the evolution of Pleistocene intra slope basins, Western Gulf of
Mexico: depositional models and reservoir analogs. In: Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M.,
Coleman, J., Rosen, N.C., Nelson, H., Bouma, A.H., Styzen, M.J., Lawrence, D.T.
(Eds.), Deep-water Reservoirs of the World. GCSSEPM Foundation 20th Annual
Research Conference, pp. 40–60.
Bond, R., 2001. Volume-based visualisation and interpretation of three-dimensional
seismic data. First Break 19, 472–478.
Booth, J.R., DuVernay, A.E., Pfeiffer, D.S., Styzen, M.J., 2000. Sequence stratigraphic
framework, depositional models, and stacking patterns of ponded and slope fan
systems in the Auger Basin; Central Gulf of Mexico Slope. In: Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M.,
Coleman, J., Rosen, N.C., Nelson, H., Bouma, A.H., Styzen, M.J., Lawrence, D.T.
(Eds.), Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World. Gulf Coast Section SEPM Foundation,
20th Annual Bob F. Perkins Research Conference, pp. 82–103.
Booth, J.R., Dean, M.C., DuVernay, A.E., Pfeiffer, D.S., Styzen, M.J., 2003. Paleo-
bathymetric controls on the stratigraphic architecture and reservoir development of
confined fans in the Auger Basin: central Gulf of Mexico. Mar. Pet. Geol. 20,
563–586.
Bouma, A.H., 1962. Sedimentology of some Flysch Deposits: A Graphic Approach to
Facies Interpretation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 168.
Bouma, A., Normark, W., Barnes, N. (Eds.), 1985. Submarine Fans and Related Turbidite
Systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 351.
Brooks, H.L., Hodgson, D.M., Brunt, R.L., Peakall, J., Hofstra, M., Flint, S.S., 2018. Deep-
water channel lobe transition zone dynamics: Processes and depositional
architecture, an example from the Karoo Basin, South Africa. GSA Bull. 130,
1723–1746.
Brown, A.R., 2011. Interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data, 7th edition. AAPG
Memoir 42, Tulsa, Oklahoma, p. 665.
Butterworth, P.J., Verhaeghe, J., 2012. Evolution of a Pliocene upper slope channel
complex set, Giza Field, West Nile Delta, Egypt: interaction of sedimentation and
tectonics. In: Rosen, N.C., Weimer, P., Coutes dos Anjos, S.M., Henrickson, S.,
Marques, E., Mayall, M., Schroeder, F. (Eds.), New Understanding of Petroleum
Systems on Continental Margins of the World. SEPM, Gulf Coast Section, 32nd
Annual Bob F. Perkins Research Conference, Proceedings, pp. 541–572.
Catterall, V., Redfern, J., Gawthorpe, R., Hansen, D., Thomas, M., 2010. Architectural
style and quantification of a submarine channel–levee system located in a
structurally complex area: offshore Nile Delta. J. Sediment. Res. 80, 991–1017.
Chopra, S., Marfurt, K.J., 2007. Seismic attributes for prospect identification and
reservoir characterization. Tulsa, Oklahoma, SEG Geophysical Development Series
11, 464.
Clark, I.R., Cartwright, J.A., 2009. Interactions between submarine channel systems and
deformation in deep-water fold belts: examples from the Levant Basin, Eastern
Mediterranean Sea. Mar. Pet. Geol. 26, 1465–1482.
Clark, I.R., Cartwright, J.A., 2011. Key controls on submarine channel development in
structurally active settings. Mar. Pet. Geol. 28, 1333–1349.
P. Li et al.
Covault, J.A., Romans, B.W., Fildani, A., McGann, M., Graham, S.A., 2010. Rapid
climatic signal propagation from source to sink in a Southern California sediment-
routing system. J. Geol. 118, 247–259.
Cronin, B.T., 1995. Structurally-controlled deep-sea channel courses: examples from the
Miocene of south-east Spain and the Alboran Sea, south-west Mediterranean. In:
Hartley, A.J., Prosser, D.J. (Eds.), Characterisation of Deep Marine Clastic Systems.
Geological Society of London Special Publication, 94, pp. 113–133.
Cronin, B.T., Çelik, H., Hurst, A., 2007. Sinuous channels in late stages of entrenched
deep-water channel complexes: Hasret Mountain Main Channel, Turkey. In:
Nilsen, T., Shew, R., Steffens, G., Studlick, J. (Eds.), Atlas of Deep-Water Outcrops,
AAPG Studies in Geology 56, pp. 368–372.
Cronin, B.T., Castillo, J., Martinez, J., 2013. Magdalena fan confined slope channel
architecture: lessons learned about reservoir quality from seismic expression of slope
entrenchment, bypass and levee development in mixed sand-mud Atlantic margins.
In: AAPG Annual Convention Abstract 90166, AAPG Annual Convention, 8–11
September, Cartagena, Colombia.
Cross, N.E., Cunningham, A., Cook, R.J., Taha, A., Esmaie, E., El Swidan, N., 2009.
Three-dimensional seismic geomorphology of a deep-water slope-channel system:
the Sequoia field, offshore west Nile Delta, Egypt. AAPG Bull. 93, 1063–1086.
Demyttenaere, R., Tromp, J.P., Ibrahim, A., Allman-Ward, P., Meckel, T., 2000. Brunei
deep water exploration: from sea floor images and shallow seismic analogues to
depositional models in a slope turbidite setting. In: Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M.,
Coleman, J., Rosen, N.C., Nelson, H., Bouma, A.H., Styzen, M.J., Lawrence, D.T.
(Eds.), Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World. Gulf Coast Section SEPM Foundation,
20th Annual Bob F. Perkins Research Conference, pp. 304–317.
Deptuck, M.E., Steffens, G.S., Barton, M., Pirmez, C., 2003. Architecture and evolution of
upper fan channel-belts on the Niger Delta slope and in the Arabian Sea. Mar. Pet.
Geol. 20, 649–676.
Deptuck, M.E., Sylvester, Z., Pirmez, C., O’Byrne, C., 2007. Migration–aggradation
history and 3-D seismic geomorphology of submarine channels in the Pleistocene
Benin-major Canyon, western Niger Delta slope. Mar. Pet. Geol. 24, 406–433.
Deptuck, M.E., Sylvester, Z., O’Byrne, C., 2012. Pleistocene seascape evolution above a
“sim- ple” stepped slope profile—Western Niger Delta. In: Prather, B.E., Deptuck, M.
E., Mohrig, D., Van Hoorn, B., Wynn, R.B. (Eds.), Application of the Principles of
Seismic Geomor- phology to Continental-Slope and Base-of-Slope Systems: Case
Studies from Seafloor and Near-Seafloor Analogues, EPM (Society for Sedimentary
Geology) Special Publication 99, pp. 199–222. https://doi.org/10.2110/
pec.12.99.0199.
Deptuck, M.E., Sylvester, Z., 2018. Submarine fans and their Channels, Levees, and
Lobes. In: Micallef, A., Krastel, S., Savini, A. (Eds.), Submarine Geomorphology.
Springer Geology, Netherland, pp. 273–299.
Di Celma, C.N., Brunt, R.L., Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S., Kavanagh, J.P., 2011. Spatial and
temporal evolution of a Permian submarine slope channel-levee system, Karoo Basin,
South Africa. J. Sediment. Res. 81, 579–599.
Dorn, G.A., Cole, M.J., Tubman, K., 1995. Visualization in 3-D seismic interpretation.
Lead. Edge 14, 1045–1050.
Doughty-Jones, G., Mayall, M., Lonergan, L., 2017. Stratigraphy, facies and evolution of
deep-water lobe complexes within a salt-controlled intra-slope minibasin. AAPG
Bulletin 101, 1879–1904.
Eschard, R., Albouy, E., Deschamps, R., Euzen, T., Ayu, A., 2013. Downstream evolution
of turbiditic channel complexes in the Pab Range outcrops (Maastrichtian, Pakistan).
Mar. Pet. Geol. 20, 691–710.
Ferry, J.-N., Mulder, T., Parize, O., Raillard, S., 2005. Concept of equilibrium profile in
deep-water turbidite systems: Effects of local physiographic changes on the nature of
sedimentary process and geometries of deposits. In: Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S. (Eds.),
Submarine Slope Systems, Geological Society of London Special Publication 244,
pp. 181–194.
Fielding, L., Najman, Y., Millar, I., Butterworth, P., Garzanti, E., Vezzoli, G., Barfod, D.,
Kneller, B., 2018. The initiation and evolution of the River Nile. Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett. 489, 166–178.
Figueiredo, J., Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S., 2010. Depositional environments and sequence
stratigraphy of an exhumed Permian mud-dominated submarine slope succession,
Karoo basin, South Africa. J. Sediment. Res. 80, 97–118.
Flood, R.D., Manley, P.L., Kowsmann, R.O., Appi, C.J., Pirmez, C., 1991. Seismic facies
and late Quaternary growth of Amazon submarine fan. In: Weimer, P., Link, M.H.
(Eds.), Seismic Facies and Sedimentary Processes of Submarine Fans and Turbidite
Systems. Springer, New York, pp. 415–433.
Fonnesu, F., 2003. 3D seismic images of a low sinuosity slope channel and related
depositional lobe (West Africa deep-offshore). Mar. Pet. Geol. 20, 615–629.
Gamberi, F., Rovere, M., 2011. Architecture of a modern transient slope fan (Villafranca
fan, Gioia basin—Southeastern Tyrrhenian Sea). Sediment. Geol. 236, 211–225.
Gamberi, F., Rovere, M., Mercorella, A., Leidi, E., 2014. The influence of a lateral slope
on turbidite lobe development on a modern deep-sea slope fan (Villafranca deep-sea
fan, Tyrrhenian Sea). J. Sediment. Res. 84, 474–486.
Garziglia, S., Migeon, S., Ducassou, E., Loncke, L., Mascle, J., 2008. Mass-transport
deposits on the Rosetta province (NW Nile deep-sea turbidite system, Egyptian
margin): Characteristics, distribution, and potential causal processes. Marine
Geology 250, 180–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2008.01.016.
Gee, M.J.R., Gawthorpe, R.L., 2006. Submarine channels controlled by salt tectonics:
examples from 3D seismic data offshore Angola. Mar. Pet. Geol. 23, 443–458.
Gee, M.J.R., Gawthorpe, R.L., Bakke, K., Friedmann, S.J., 2007. Seismic geomorphology
and evolution of submarine channels from the Angolan continental margin.
J. Sediment. Res. 77, 433–446.
Georgiopoulou, A., Cartwright, J.A., 2013. A critical test of the concept of submarine
equilibrium profile. Mar. Pet. Geol. 41, 35–47.
25
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
Gong, C., Wang, Y., Zhu, W., Li, W., Xu, Q., Zhang, J., 2011. The central Submarine
Canyon in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northwestern South China Sea: Architecture,
sequence stratigraphy, and depositional processes. Mar. Pet. Geol. 28, 1690–1702.
Hampton, M.A., 1972. The role of subaqueous debris flows in generating turbidity
currents. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 42, 775–793.
Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J., Vail, P.R., 1987. Chronology of the fluctuating sea levels since
the Triassic. Science 235, 1156–1167.
Hardenbol, J., Thierry, J., Farley, M.B., Jacquin, T., de Graciansky, P.-C., Vail, P.R.,
1998. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Chronostratigraphic Framework of European Basins.
In: de Graciansky, P.-C., Hardenbol, J., Jacquin, T., Vail, P.R. (Eds.), Mesozoic and
Cenozoic sequence stratigraphy of European basins, Tulsa, Oklahoma, SEPM Special
Publication 60, pp. 3–13.
Hart, B.S., 2011. Introduction to seismic interpretation. Tulsa, Oklahoma, AAPG
Discovery Series 16, 215.
Hay, A.E., 1987. Turbidity currents and submarine channel formation in Rupert Inlet,
British Columbia, II. The roles of continuous and surge-type flow. J. Geophys. Res.
92, 2883–2900.
Hay, D., 2012. Stratigraphic evolution of a tortuous corridor from the stepped slope of
Angola. In: Prather, B.E., Deptuck, M.E., Mohrig, D., Van Hoorn, B., Wynn, R.B.
(Eds.), Application of the Principles of Seismic Geomorphology to Continental-Slope
and Base-of-Slope Systems: Case Studies from Seafloor and Near-Seafloor Analogues,
SEPM Special Publication 99, pp. 163–180.
Heiniö, P., Davies, R.J., 2007. Knickpoint migration in submarine channels in response to
fold growth, western Niger Delta. Mar. Pet. Geol. 24, 434–449.
Hodgson, D.M., Haughton, P.D.W., 2004. Impact of syn-depositional faulting on gravity
current behaviour and deep-water stratigraphy: Tabernase Sorbas Basin, SE Spain.
In: Lomas, S., Joseph, P. (Eds.), Confined Turbidites Systems, Geological Society of
London Special Publication 222, pp. 135–158.
Hodgson, D.M., Kane, I.A., Flint, S.S., Brunt, R.L., Ortiz-Karpf, A., 2016. Time-
transgressive confinement on the slope and the progradation of basin-floor fans:
Implications for the sequence stratigraphy of deep-water deposits. J. Sediment. Res.
86, 73–86.
Hodgson, D.M., Bernhardt, A., Clare, M.A., Da Silva, A.C., Fosdick, J.C., Mauz, B.,
Midtkandal, I., Owen, A., Romans, B.W., 2018. Grand challenges (and great
opportunities) in sedimentology, stratigraphy, and diagenesis research. Front. Earth
Sci. 6, 173. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2018.00173.
Howlett, D.M., Gawthorpe, R.L., Ge, Z.Y., Rotevatn, A., Jackson, C.A.L., 2020. Turbidites,
topography and tectonics: evolution of submarine channel-lobe systems in the salt-
influenced Kwanza Basin, offshore Angola. Basin Res. 1–35. https://doi.org/
10.1111/bre.12506.
Hsiung, K.H., Yu, H.S., Chiang, C.S., 2014. Seismic characteristics, morphology and
formation of the ponded Fangliao Fan off southwestern Taiwan, northern South
China Sea. Geo-Mar. Lett. 34, 59–74.
Hsiung, K.H., Yu, H.S., Chiang, C.S., 2018. The modern Kaoping transient fan offshore
SW Taiwan: morphotectonics and development. Geomorphology 300, 151–163.
Hubbard, S.M., Covault, J.A., Fildani, A., Romans, B.W., 2014. Sediment transfer and
deposition in slope channels: deciphering the record of enigmatic deep-sea processes
from outcrop. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 126, 857–871.
Jackson, C.A.L., Barber, G.P., Martinsen, O.J., 2008. Submarine slope morphology as a
control on the development of sand-rich turbidite depositional systems: 3D seismic
analysis of the Kyrre Fm (Upper Cretaceous), Maloy slope, offshore Norway. Mar.
Pet. Geol. 25, 663–680.
James, H., Bond, R., Eastwood, L., 2004. Direct visualisation and extraction of
stratigraphic targets in complex structural settings. In: Davies, R.J., Cartwright, J.A.,
Stewart, S.A., Lappin, M., Underhill, J.R. (Eds.), 3D Seismic Technology: Application
to the Exploration of Sedimentary Basins, Geological Society of London Memoir 29,
pp. 227–234.
Janocko, M., Nemec, W., Henriksen, S., Warcho, M., 2013. The diversity of deep-water
sinuous channel belts and slope valley-fill complexes. Mar. Pet. Geol. 41, 7–34.
Jegou, I., Savoye, B., Pirmez, C., Droz, L., 2008. Channel-mouth lobe complex of the
recent Amazon Fan: the missing piece. Mar. Geol. 252, 62–77.
Jobe, Z.R., Sylvester, Z., Howes, N., Pirmez, C., Parker, A., Cantelli, A., Smith, R.,
Wolinsky, M.A., O’Byrne, C., Slowey, N., Prather, B., 2017. High-resolution,
millennial-scale patterns of bed compensation on a sand-rich intraslope submarine
fan, western Niger Delta slope. GSA Bull. 129, 23–37.
Jolly, B.A., Lonergan, L., Whittaker, A.C., 2016. Growth history of fault-related folds and
interaction with seabed channels in the toe-thrust region of the deepwater Niger
Delta. Mar. Pet. Geol. 70, 58–76.
Jolly, B., Whittaker, A., Lonergan, L., 2017. Quantifying the geomorphic response of
modern submarine channels to actively growing folds and thrusts, deep-water Niger
Delta. GSA Bull. 129, 1123–1139.
Kane, I.A., Catterall, V., McCaffrey, W.D., Martinsen, O., 2010. Submarine channel
response to intrabasinal tectonics: the influence of lateral tilt. AAPG Bull. 94,
189–219.
Kane, I.A., Hodgson, D., 2011. Submarine channel levees: criteria for recognition of levee
subenvironments: exhumed examples from the Rosario Fm. (Baja, Mexico) and the
Laingsburg Fm. (Karoo Basin). Mar. Pet. Geol. 28, 807–823.
Kastens, K.A., Shor, A.N., 1985. Depositional processes of a meandering channel on
Mississippi fan. AAPG Bull. 69, 190–202.
Kellner, A., Brink, G.J., Khawaga, H.E.I., 2018. Depositional history of the western Nile
Delta, Egypt: late Rupelian to Pleistocene. AAPG Bull. 102, 1841–1865.
Kenyon, N.H., Amir, A., Cramp, A., 1995. Geometry of the younger sediment bodies on
the Indus Fan. In: Pickering, K.T., Hiscott, R.N., Kenyon, N.H., Ricci Lucchi, F.,
Smith, R.D.A. (Eds.), Atlas of deep-water environments: Architectural style in
turbidite systems. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 212–215.
P. Li et al.
Kneller, B.C., Branney, M.J., 1995. Sustained high-density turbidity currents and the
deposition of thick massive sands. Sedimentology 42, 607–616.
Kneller, B.C., Mccaffrey, W.D., 1995. Modelling the effects of salt-induced topography on
deposition from turbidity currents. Salt, sediment and hydrocarbons. Gulf Coast
Section SEPM 1, 137–145.
Kneller, B.C., Buckee, C.M., 2000. The structure and fluid mechanics of turbidity
currents; a review of some recent studies and their geological implications.
Sedimentology 47, 62–94.
Kneller, B., 2003. The influence of flow parameters on turbidite slope channel
architecture. Mar. Pet. Geol. 20, 901–910.
Kneller, B., Dykstra, B., Fairweather, L., Milana, J.P., 2016. Mass-transport and slope
accommodation: implications for turbidite sandstone reservoirs. AAPG Bull. 100,
213–235.
Kneller, B., Bozetti, G., Callow, R., Dykstra, M., Hansen, L., Kane, I., Li, P., McArthur, A.,
Catharina, A.S., Santos, T.D., Thompson, P., 2020. Architecture, process, and
environmental diversity in a late cretaceous slope channel system. J. Sediment. Res.
90, 1–26.
Kolla, V., 2007. A review of sinuous channel avulsion patterns in some major deep-sea
fans and factors controlling them. Mar. Pet. Geol. 24, 450–469.
Lamb, M.P., Toniolo, H., Parker, G., 2006. Trapping of sustained turbidity currents by
intraslope minibasins. Sedimentology 53, 147–160.
Li, L., Wang, Y., Xu, Q., Zhao, J., Li, D., 2012. Seismic geomorphology and main controls
of deep-water gravity flow sedimentary process on the slope of the northern South
China Sea. Sci. China Earth Sci. 55, 747–757.
Li, P., Kneller, B., Thompson, P., Bozetti, G., Santos, T.D., 2018. Architectural and facies
organisation of slope channel fills: Upper cretaceous Rosario Formation, Baja
California, Mexico. Mar. Pet. Geol. 92, 632–649.
Lin, C.S., He, M., Steel, R.J., Zhang, Z.T., Li, H., Zhang, B., Wu, W., Shu, L.F., Tian, H.X.,
Zhang, X., Xing, Z.C., Wang, S.Q., Zhang, M.L., 2018. Changes in inner- to outer-shelf
delta architecture, Oligocene to Quaternary Pearl River shelf-margin prism, northern
South China Sea. Mar. Geol. 404, 187–204.
Lofi, J., Déverchère, J., Gaullier, V., Gillet, H., Gorini, C., Guennoc, P., Loncke, L.,
Maillard, A., Sage, F., Thinon, I., 2011. Seismic Atlas of the Messinian Salinity Crisis
Markers in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Société Géologique de France.
Loncke, L., Gaullier, V., Mascle, J., Vendeville, B., Camera, L., 2006. The Nile deep-sea
fan: an example of interacting sedimentation, salt tectonics, and inherited subsalt
paleotopographic features. Mar. Pet. Geol. 23, 297–315.
Loncke, L., Gaullier, V., Droz, L., Ducassou, E., Migeon, S., Mascle, J., 2009. Multi-scale
slope instabilities along the Nile deep-sea fan, Egyptian margin: A general overview.
Marine and Petroleum Geology 26, 633–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpetgeo.2008.03.010.
Lowe, D.R., 1982. Sediment gravity flows: II. Depositional models with special reference
to the deposits of high-density turbidity currents. J. Sediment. Petrol. 52, 279–297.
Lowe, D.R., Graham, S.A., Malkowski, M.A., Das, B., 2019. The role of avulsion and splay
development in deep-water channel systems: sedimentology, architecture, and
evolution of the deep-water Pliocene Godavari “A” channel complex, India. Mar.
Petrol. Geol. 105, 81–99.
Ma, H.X., Fan, G.Z., Shao, D.L., Ding, L.B., Sun, H., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y.G., Cronin, B.T.,
2020. Dee-water depositional architecture and sedimentary evolution in Rakhine
Basin, northeast Bay of Bengal. Pet. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12182-020-
00442-0.
Macauley, R.V., Hubbard, S.M., 2013. Slope channel sedimentary processes and
stratigraphic stacking, Cretaceous Tres Pasos Formation slope system, Chilean
Patagonia. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 41, 146–162.
Macgregor, D., 2011. Rift shoulder source to prodelta sink: the cenozoic development of
the Nile drainage system. In: Search and Discovery Article, p. 50506.
Macgregor, D.S., 2012. The development of the Nile drainage system: integration of
onshore and offffshore evidence. Pet. Geosci. 18, 417–431.
Marchès, E., Mulder, T., Gonthier, E., Cremer, M., Hanquiez, V., Garlan, T., Lecroat, P.,
2010. Perched lobe formation in the Gulf of Cadiz: interactions between gravity
processes and contour currents (Algarve Margin, Southern Portugal). Sediment.
Geol. 229, 81–94.
Maselli, V., Kneller, B., Taiwo, O.L., Iacopini, D., 2019. Sea floor bedforms and their
influence on slope accommodation. Mar. Pet. Geol. 102, 625–637.
Maselli, V., Kroon, D., Iacopini, D., Wade, B.S., Pearson, P.N., de Haas, H., 2020. Impact
of the East African Rift System on the routing of the deep-water drainage network
offshore Tanzania, western Indian Ocean. Basin Res. 32, 789–803.
Mayall, M., O’Bryne, C., 2002. Reservoir prediction and development challenges in
turbidite slope channels. In: Paper OTC 14029, presented at the Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, 6–9 May.
Mayall, M., Stewart, I., 2000. The architecture of turbidite slope channels. In: Weimer, P.,
Slatt, R.M., Bouma, A.H., Lawrence, D.T. (Eds.), Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World.
Gulf Coast Section SEPM 20th Annual Research Conference, pp. 578–586.
Mayall, M., Jones, E., Casey, M., 2006. Turbidite channel reservoirs-key elements in
facies prediction and effective development. Mar. Pet. Geol. 23, 821–841.
Mayall, M., Lonergan, L., Bowman, A., James, S., Mills, K., Primmer, T., Pope, D.,
Rogers, L., Skeene, R., 2010. The response of turbidite slope channels to growth-
induced seabed topography. AAPG Bull. 94, 1011–1030.
McHargue, T.R., 1991. Seismic facies, processes, and evolution of Miocene inner fan
channels, Indus Submarine Fan. In: Weimer, P., Link, M. (Eds.), Seismic facies and
sedimentary processes of submarine sans and turbidite systems, pp. 402–413.
McHargue, T., Pyrcz, M.J., Sullivan, M.D., Clark, J.D., Fildani, A., Romans, B.W.,
Covault, J.A., Levy, M., Posamentier, H.W., Drinkwater, N.J., 2011. Architecture of
turbidite channel systems on the continental slope: patterns and predictions. Mar.
Pet. Geol. 28, 728–743.
26
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
Meiburg, E., Kneller, B., 2010. Turbidity currents and their deposits. Annu. Rev. Fluid
Mech. 42, 135–156.
Mitchum Jr., R.M., 1985. Seismic stratigraphic expression of submarine fans. AAPG
Mem. 39, 117–136.
Mitchum Jr., R.M., Vail, P., 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea-level,
part 7: Stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection patterns in depositional
sequences. In: Payton, C. (Ed.), Seismic Stratigraphy: Application to Hydrocarbon
Exploration, AAPG Memoir 26, pp. 135–144.
Mitchum Jr., R.M., Vail, P., Thompson, S., 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes
in sea level, part 2: The depositional sequence as the basic unit for stratigraphic
analysis. In: Payton, C. (Ed.), Seismic Stratigraphy: Application to Hydrocarbon
Exploration, AAPG Memoir 26, pp. 53–62.
Morris, E., Hodgson, D., Brunt, R., Flint, S., 2014. Origin, evolution and anatomy of silt-
prone submarine external levees. Sedimentology 61, 1734–1763.
Moscardelli, L., Wood, L.J., Mann, P., 2006. Mass-transport com- plexes and associated
processes in the offshore area of Trinidad and Venezuela. AAPG Bull. 90,
1059–1088.
Mulder, T., Etienne, S., 2010. Lobes in deep-sea turbidite systems: state of the art.
Sediment. Geol. 229, 75–80.
Mutti, E., Normark, W.R., 1987. Comparing examples of modern and ancient turbidite
systems: Problems and concepts. In: Leggett, J.K., Zuffa, G.G. (Eds.), Marine clastic
sedimentology. Graham and Trotman, London, pp. 1–38.
Mutti, E., Normark, W., 1991. An integrated approach to the study of turbidite systems.
In: Weimer, P., Link, M. (Eds.), Seismic Facies and Sedimentary Processes of
Submarine Fans and Turbidite Systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 75–106.
Mutti, E., 1992. Turbidite Sandstones. In: San Donato, Milanese. Universita´di Parma,
Agip, p. 275.
Nelson, C.H., Maldonado, A., Coumes, F., Got, A., Monaco, A., 1985. Ebro Fan,
Mediterranean. In: Bouma, A.H., Normark, W., Barnes, N. (Eds.), Submarine Fans
and Related Turbidite Systems. Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 121–127.
Niyazi, Y., Eruteya, O.E., Omosanya, K.O., Harishidayat, D., Johansen, S.E.,
Waldmann, N., 2018. Seismic geomorphology of submarine channel-belt complexes
in the Pliocene of the Levant basin. Offshore Central Israel. Mar. Geol. 403, 123–128.
Normark, W.R., Piper, D.J.W., 1991. Initiation pro- cesses and flow evolution of turbidity
currents: Implica- tions for the depositional record. SEPM Special Publication 46,
207–230. https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.91.09.0207.
Normark, W.R., Posamentier, H., Mutti, E., 1993. Turbidite systems: state of the art and
future directions. Rev. Geophys. 31, 91–116.
Normark, W.R., Damuth, J.E., the LEG 155 Sedimentology Group, 1997. Sedimentary
facies and associated depositional elements of the Amazon Fan. In: Flood, R.D.,
Piper, D.J.W., Klaus, A., Peterson, L.C. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling
Program, Scientific Results. College Station, Texas, Ocean Drilling Program, v. 155,
pp. 611–651.
Olafiranye, K., Jackson, C.A.L, Hodgson, D.M., 2013. The role of tectonics and mass-
transport complex emplacement on upper slope stratigraphic evolution: A 3D seismic
case study from offshore Angola. Marine and Petroleum Geology 44, 196–216.
Oluboyo, A.P., Gawthorpe, R.L., Bakke, K., Hadler-Jacobson, F., 2014. Salt tectonic
controls on deep-water turbidite depositional systems: Miocene, southwestern Lower
Congo Basin, offshore Angola. Basin Res. 26, 597–620.
Ortiz-Karpf, A., Hodgson, D.M., McCaffrey, W.D., 2015. The role of mass-transport
complexes in controlling channel avulsion and the subsequent sediment dispersal
patterns on an active margin: the Magdalena Fan, offshore Colombia. Mar. Pet. Geol.
64, 58–75.
Palacios, Z.H., 2013. Climate change as a controlling parameter in sediment supply: the
Nile province. University of Aberdeen (Doctoral dissertation).
Peakall, J., McCaffrey, B., Kneller, B., 2000. A process model for the evolution,
morphology, and architecture of sinuous submarine channels. J. Sediment. Res. 70,
434–448.
Pettingill, H.S., Weimer, P., 2002. Worldwide deepwater exploration and production:
past, present, and future, Lead. Edge 21, 371–376.
Piper, D.J.W., Normark, W.R., 1983. Turbidite depositional patterns and flow
characteristics, Navy submarine fan, California borderland. Sedimentology 30,
68–694.
Pirmez, C., Flood, R.D., 1995. In: Flood, R.D., Piper, D.J.W., Klaus, A., Peterson, L.C.
(Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, initial reports, 155. Ocean
Drilling Program, College Station, Texas, pp. 23–45.
Pirmez, C., Hiscott, R.N., Kronen Jr., J.K., 1997. Sandy turbidite successions at the base
of channel-levee systems of the Amazon Fan revealed by FMS logs and cores:
unraveling the facies architecture of large submarine fans. In: Flood, R.D., Piper, D.J.
W., Klaus, A., Peterson, L.C. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, v. 155, Ocean Drilling
Program, College Station, TX, pp. 7–33.
Pirmez, C., Beaubouef, R., Friedmann, S., Mohrig, D., 2000. Equilibrium profile and
baselevel in submarine channels: examples from Late Pleistocene systems and
implications for the architecture of deep-water reservoirs. In: Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M.,
Coleman, J.L., Rosen, N., Nelson, C.H., Bouma, A.H., Styzen, M., Lawrence, D.T.
(Eds.), Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World. GCSSEPM Foundation 20th Annual
Research Conference, pp. 782–805.
Pohl, F., Eggenhuisen, J.T., Kane, I.A., Clare, M.A., 2020. Transport and burial of
microplastics in deep-marine sediments by turbidity currents. Environ. Sci. Technol.
54, 4180–4189.
Porter, M.L., Sprague, A.R.G., Sullivan, M.D., Jennette, D.C., Beaubouef, R.T., Garfield, T.
R., Rossen, C., Sickafoose, D.K., Jensen, G.N., Friedmann, S.J., Mohrig, D.C., 2006.
Stratigraphic organization and predictability of mixed coarse- andfine-grained
lithofacies successions in a Lower Miocene deep-water slope-channel system. In:
Harris, P.M., Weber, L.J. (Eds.), Giant hydrocarbon reservoirs of the world: From
P. Li et al.
Rock to reservoir characterization and modeling, AAPG Memoir 88/SEPM special
publication, pp. 281–305.
Posamentier, H.W., Meizarwin, P., Wisman, S., Plawman, T., 2000. Deep-water
depositional systems: ultra deep Makassar Strait, Indonesia. In: Weimer, P., Slatt, R.
M., Coleman, J.L., Rosen, N., Nelson, C.H., Bouma, A.H., Styzen, M., Lawrence, D.T.
(Eds.), Deep-Water Reservoirs of the World. GCSSEPM Foundation 20th Annual
Research Conference, pp. 806–816.
Posamentier, H.W., Kolla, V., 2003. Seismic geomorphology and stratigraphy of
depositional elements in deep-water settings. J. Sediment. Res. 73, 367–388.
Posamentier, H.W., Davies, R.J., Cartwright, J.A., Wood, H.W., 2007. Seismic
geomorphology-an overview. In: Davies, R.J., Posamentier, H.W., Wood, L.J.,
Cartwright, J.A. (Eds.), Seismic Geomorphology: Applications to Hydrocarbon
Exploration and Production, Geological Society of London Special Publication 277,
pp. 1–14.
Prather, B.E., Booth, J.R., Steffens, G.S., Craig, P.A., 1998. Classification, lithologic
calibration, and stratigraphic succession of seismic facies of intraslope basins,
deepwater Gulf of Mexico. AAPG Bull. 82, 701–728.
Prather, B.E., Pirmez, C., Sylvester, Z., Prather, D.S., 2012a. Stratigraphic response to
evolving geomorphology in a submarine apron perched on the upper Niger Delta
slope. In: Prather, B.E., Deptuck, M.E., Mohrig, D., Van Hoorn, B., Wynn, R.B. (Eds.),
Application of the Principles of Seismic Geomorphology to Continental-Slope and
Base-of-Slope Systems: Case Studies from Seafloor and Near-Seafloor Analogues,
SEPM Special Publication 99, pp. 145–161.
Prather, B.E., Pirmez, C., Winker, C.D., 2012b. Stratigraphy of linked intra-slope basins:
Brazos-Trinity system western Gulf of Mexico. In: Prather, B.E., Deptuck, M.E.,
Mohrig, D., Van Hoorn, B., Wynn, R.B. (Eds.), Application of the Principles of
Seismic Geomorphology to Continental-Slope and Base-of-Slope Systems: Case
Studies from Seafloor and Near-Seafloor Analogues, SEPM Special Publication 99,
pp. 83–109.
Prather, B.E., 2020. Controls on reservoir distribution, architecture and stratigraphic
trapping in slope settings. In: Scarselli, N., Adam, J., Chiarella, D., Roberts, D.G.,
Bally, A.W. (Eds.), Regional Geology and Tectonics: Principles of Geologic Analysis.
Elsevier, pp. 481–508.
Prélat, A., Covault, J.A., Hodgson, D.M., Fildani, A., Flint, S.S., 2010. Intrinsic controls
on the range of volumes, morphologies, and dimensions of submarine lobes.
Sediment. Geol. 232, 66–76.
Reading, H.G., Richards, M., 1994. Turbidite systems in deep-water basin margins
classified by grain size and feeder system. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin 78, 792–822.
Rodriguez, C.R., Jackson, C.A.L., Bell, R.E., Rotevatn, A., Francis, M., 2020. Deep-Water
Reservoir Distribution on a Salt-Influenced Slope. Offshore Brazil Santos Basin.
Ross, D.A., Uchupi, E., 1977. Structure and sedimentary history of southeastern
Mediterranean Sea-Nile Cone area. AAPG Bull. 61, 872–902.
Roveri, M., Flecker, R., Krijgsman, W., Lofifi, J., Lugli, S., Manzi, V., Sierro, F.J.,
Bertini, A., Camerlenghi, A., De Lange, G., Govers, R., Hilgen, F.J., Hübscher, C.,
Meijer, P.T., Stoica, M., 2014. The Messinian salinity crisis: past and future of a great
challenge for marine sciences. Mar. Geol. 352, 25–58.
Saller, A.H., Noah, J.T., Ruzuar, A.P., Schneider, R., 2004. Linked lowstand delta to
basin-floor fan deposition, offshore Indonesia: an analog for deep-water reservoir
systems. AAPG Bull. 88, 21–46.
Saller, A., Werner, K., Sugiaman, F., Cebastiant, A., May, R., Glenn, D., Barker, C., 2008.
Characteristics of Pleistocene deep-water fan lobes and their application to an upper
Miocene reservoir model, offshore East Kalimantan, Indonesia. AAPG Bull. 92,
919–949.
Samuel, A., Kneller, B., Raslan, S., Sharp, A., Parsons, C., 2003. Prolific deep marine
slope channels of the Nile Delta, Egypt. AAPG Bull. 87, 541–560.
Shanmugam, G., 1996. High-density turbidity currents: are they sandy debris flows?
J. Sediment. Res. 66, 2–10.
Sikkema, W., Wojcik, K.M., 2000. 3D visualisation of turbidite systems, lower Congo
Basin, offshore Angola. In: Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M., Coleman, J.L., Rosen, N.,
Nelson, C.H., Bouma, A.H., Styzen, M., Lawrence, D.T. (Eds.), Global Deep-Water
Reservoirs. Gulf Coast Section SEPM 20th Annual Conference, pp. 928–939.
Smith, R., 2004. Silled sub-basins to connected tortuous corridors: Sediment distribution
systems on topographically complex sub-aqueous slopes. In: Lomas, S.A., Joseph, P.
27
Marine Geology 437 (2021) 106496
(Eds.), Confined Turbidite Systems, Geological Society of London Special Publication
222, pp. 23–43.
Sømme, T.O., Helland-Hansen, W., Martinsen, O.J., Thurmond, J.B., 2009. Relationships
between morphological and sedimentological parameters in source-to-sink systems:
a basis for predicting semi-quantitative characteristics in subsurface systems. Basin
Res. 21, 361–387.
Soutter, E.L., Bell, D., Cumberpatch, Z.A., Ferguson, R.A., Spychala, Y.T., Kane, I.A.,
Eggenhuisen, J.T., 2021. The Influence of Confining Topography Orientation on
Experimental Turbidity Currents and Geological Implications. Front. Earth Sci. 8,
540633. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.540633.
Spychala, Y.T., Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S., Mountney, N.P., 2015. Constraining the
sedimentology and stratigraphy of submarine intraslope lobe deposits using
exhumed examples from the Karoo Basin, South Africa. Sediment. Geol. 322, 67–81.
Steffens, G.S., Biegert, E.K., Scott Sumner, H., Bird, D., 2003. Quantitative bathymetric
analyses of selected deep-water siliciclastic margins: receiving basin configurations
for deep-water fan systems. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 20, 547–561.
Stevenson, C.J., Jackson, C.A.-L., Hodgson, D.M., Hubbard, S.M., Eggenhuisen, J.T.,
2015. Deep-water sediment bypass. J. Sediment. Res. 85, 1058–1081.
Talling, P.J., Masson, D.G., Sumner, E.J., Malgesini, G., 2012. Subaqueous sediment
density flows: depositional processes and deposit types. Sedimentology 59,
1937–2003.
Taylor, K.S., Folefac, A., Elsherbiny, A.S., Abonaem, K., Fathy, A., Mohamed, R.E., 2009.
Complex reservoir heterogeneity in a stacked turbidite system: The Sapphire field,
offshore Nile Delta. In: Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M., Coleman, J., Rosen, N.C., Nelson, H.,
Bouma, A.H., Styzen, M.J., Lawrence, D.T. (Eds.), Global deep-water reservoirs. Gulf
Coast Section SEPM Foundation 28th Annual Bob F. Perkins Research Conference,
pp. 311–344.
Tripsanas, E.K., Lee, E., Hack, W., Shipp, R.C., 2012. Architectural changes and
preferential sand deposition in a confined channelelevee system forced to surmount
a ridge crest. In: Prather, B.E., Deptuck, M.E., Mohrig, D., van Hoorn, B., Wynn, R.B.
(Eds.), Application of the Principles of Seismic Geomorphology to Continental-Slope
and Base-of-Slope Systems: Case Studies from Seafloor and near-Seafloor Analogues,
SEPM Special Publication 99, pp. 269–277.
Van Andel, T., Komar, P.D., 1969. Ponded sediments of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between
228 ̊ and 238 ̊North latitude. GSA Bull. 80, 1163–1190.
Van der Merwe, W.C., Hodgson, D.M., Brunt, R.L., Flint, S.S., 2014. Depositional
architecture of sand-attached and sand-detached channel-lobe transition zones on an
exhumed stepped slope mapped over a 2500 km2 area. Geosphere 10, 1076–1093.
Weimer, P., Slatt, R.M., 2007. Introduction to the Petroleum Geology of Deep-Water
Settings. AAPG Studies in Geology 57, Tulsa, p. 816.
Weimer, P., Bouroullec, R., Lapinski, T.G., Van den Berg, A.A., Cepeda, R., Roesink, J.G.,
Leibovitz, M., 2017. Sequence stratigraphic evolution of the Mensa and Thunder
Horse intra-slope basins, northern deep-water Gulf of Mexico—Lower Cretaceous
through upper Miocene (8.2 Ma): a case study. AAPG Bull. 101, 1109–1143.
Winker, C.D., 1996. High-resolution seismic stratigraphy of a Late Pleistocene submarine
fan ponded by salt-withdrawal mini-basins on the Gulf of Mexico continental slope.
In: 1996 Offshore Technology Conference, Proceedings, OTC 8024, pp. 619–628.
Wornardt, W., 1999. Revision of sequences boundaries and maximum flflooding surfaces:
Jurassic to Recent: Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, May 3–6,
1999, 19 p.
Wu, N., Jackson, C.A.L., Johnson, H.D., Hodgson, D.M., Nugraha, H.D., 2020. Mass-
transport complexes (MTCs) document subsidence patterns in a northern Gulf of
Mexico salt minibasin. Basin Res. 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12429.
Wynn, R.B., Cronin, B.T., Peakall, J., 2007. Sinuous deep-water channels: genesis,
geometry and architecture. Mar. Pet. Geol. 24, 341–387.
Zhao, X., Li, M., Qi, K., Liu, L., Hu, G.Y., Wu, W., Zhang, W.B., Ge, J.W., 2019a.
Development of a distinct submarine depositional system on a topographically
complex Niger Delta slope. Geol. J. 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3622.
Zhao, X., Qi, K., Patacci, M., Tan, C., Xie, T., 2019b. Submarine channel network
evolution above an extensive mass-transport complex: a 3D seismic case study from
the Niger delta continental slope. Mar. Pet. Geol. 104, 231–248.
Zucker, E., Gvirtzman, Z., Steinberg, J., Enzel, Y., 2017. Diversion and morphology of
submarine channels in response to regional slopes and localized salt tectonics,
Levant Basin. Mar. Pet. Geol. 81, 98–111.