\dr. Hort. Sci.

,2005 19(4): 22I-239

Review paper

Potassium nutrition of sweet potato

G. Byju, James George

Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum 695 017, Kerala, India.

Key words: Ipomoea batatas, K deficiency, nutrient interaction, potassium, sweet potato.

Abstract : Sweet potata (Ipomaea batatas (L.) Larn.) is an irnportant vegetable and food crop for humans and
an important feed for domestic animals as well as an industrial raw material for producing starch, sugar and
alcohol. Potassium is the most important nutrient element needed by sweet potato in terms of nutrient uptake
per unit area per unit tuber production. Since sweet potato is generally grown on highly weathered and leached
soils where available K status is loq management of K assumes greatest significance. This paper is a com-
prehensive review of the work done on potassium nutrition of sweet potato throughout the world and covers
aspects such as the role of potassium in sweet potato nutrition, potassium absorption during growth cycle, effect
of K on growth and yield, diagnosis of K defieiency, interaction of K with other nutrients and effect of K on tuber
quality.

1" Introduction
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. (Lam.); Family:
Convolvulaceae) is an herbaceous, dicotyledonous
plant (2n = 90) native to Central America (Hahn and
Hozyo, 1980; Horton et al., 1989). It is a perennial
plant but is regarded for practical purposes as an annual
crop with a gror.ving period of normally tlree to seven
inonths depending on the environment and cultivar
(O'Hair, 1990). The economically impofiant paft of the
plant is the tuberous root. Although sweet potato is a
short-day plant and rvill flower in days of 11 hr or less,
commercial varieties are vegetatively propagated. In
temperate areas, plants are propagated by slips or
sprouts obtained as cuttings from tuberous root grown
in nursery beds. In the tropics, propagation is from
stem cuttings taken from growing plants (Halavatau e/
al.,1998).
Sweet potato, a crop domesticated more than 5000
years ago, is the world's seventh most important food
crop after wheat, r-tce, maize, potato, barley and cassa-
va (O'Sullivan et al., 1996 b). Yet it gives more edible
energy per hectare per day (201 MJ ha' dayr) than
wheat, rice or cassava. In Japan, the average yield of 21
t ha' of fresh tubers is equivalent in food energy to 2.94
x 10' kcal ha'. This is 1.9 times the energy from a crop
of rice with an average grain yield of 4.5 t ha1 (Murata
et al", l9X6). Sweet potato is an important vegetable
Received for publication l0 November 2004.
Accepted for publication 13 October 2005.
and food crop for humans and an important feed for
domestic animals as well as an industrial material for
producing starch, sugar and alcohol (Steinbauer and
Kushrnan, 1971; Islam et al., 1997). Sweet potato pro-
duction has many advantages over the production of
other crops, i.e. rapid growth, higher yield, iess fertili-
zer and less water for its cultivation, especially under
poor soil conditions (Ko et al., 1992; Kozai et al.,
t996).
2. Sweet potato utilisation
The succulent, starchy roots of sweet potato serve as
a staple food in many countries like Papua New Gui-
nea, Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Hawaii and Cook Islands
(Craswell et al., L99f.Hartemink et al., 2A0A a, b).
Although sweet potato is chiefly regarded as energy
food, it could also serue to maintain the protein balan-
ce for a large portion of the population. Splittstoesser
(1977) showed that the protein content of sweet potato
cultivars ranges from 1.7 ta 11.87o on a dry weight
basis. Purcell et al. (1982) suggested that protein con-
tent of sweet potato can be improved through selection
and breeding since such a wide range of protein content
exists. A less explored source of nutritious food is the
young shoot of sweet potato. Many Asian countries use
sweet potato leaves for cooking (Gupta and Ray, 1979;
de la Pena, 1996); they are a source of vitamin A, Fe
and protein and they could serve as a supplement to
already known and consumed green leafy vegetables
(Amenyenu et al., 1998).
 The dry matter of sweet potato tuber varies ftom22 Sweet potato is a food crop in the United States Natio-
to 45Va in different varieties of the crop, a major portion nal Aeronautics and Space Adminisfration's (NASA) space
of which is carbohydrate. Energy is reported to be 465 programme. NASA, through its Controlled Environment
kJ (111 kcal) 100 gr fresh tuber. Raw tubers contain 4- Life Support System (CELSS) prograrnme, is conducting
l47o s,tgar on dry matter basis. The predominant sugar research on the growth and yield of food crops under con-
is sucrose followed by glucose, fructose and maltose. trolled environmental conditions for long term manned
Starch constitutes 50-807o of dry matter of the tuber. space missions. The sweet potato is one of the eight crops
Dietary fibre is about l4%o; protein content rs 5Vo on dry selected by NASAto provide a balanced diet as part of this
weight basis (Obigbesan, 1973; Onwueme, 1978). progranlme (Moftley et al., I99I). Two cultivars most
Rural women and children often suffer from the often used in the CELSS research are 'Georgia Jet' and 'TI-
combined effects of iron and vitamin deficiency, which 155' (Mason and Cadren, 1982;llrll et a1.,1984).
could be linked to a lack of consumption of green leafy
and deep orange flesh vegetables. Because sweet pota-
to is relatively easy to cultivate, is drought tolerant, 3. Sweet potato production zones and nutrient con-
nutritious (Table 1) and available all year round, it can straints
play a major role in helping to minimize food and
nutrient deficiency problems in developing countries Sweet potato is grown in a wide range of environ-
(Amenyenu et aI., 1998). ments between latitudes 40'N and 40'S of the equator,
and between sea level and 2300 m altitude (Hahn,
Table I - Nutrientcontent of sweet potato compared with rice (fresh
1977). it is widely grown throughout the tropics and
weight basis)
warm temperate regions of the world. Out of the total
Sweet potato Sweet potato Polished area under sweet potato cultivation, 907o of the area
Composition
tuber leaf rice lies in Asia, and China alone accounts for 807o of world
Moisture (7o) 1 l.l 87.8 l2 production (Table 2). Table 3 and figure 1 report the
Energy (kJ/100g) 438 151 l 500
Protein (7o) 1.43 4.0 6.5
change in world sweet potato area and production over
Dietary fibre (Vo) 1.64 2.4 the years.
Minerals (mg/1009)
Calcium 29 37 4.0 Table2 -Area, production and productivity of sweet potato in the
Iron o.4s 1.0 0.5 world and in different countries
Phosphorus 5l 94
Potassium 260 -530 Region
Area Production Productivity
Vitamins (mg//009) (,000 ha) (,000 t) (t ha')
Vitamin A 0.011 0.18 0 World 8867 t29164 t4.51
Thiamin 0.086 0.16 0.08 China 6311 t20204 19.05
Riboflavin 0.031 0.37 0.03 Uganda 529 1894 3.58
Nicotinic acid 0.60 t.l4 3.00 Vietnam 303 1697 5.6t
Vitamin C at ll 0 Indonesia 248 1900 7.66
(References: Huett, 19761' Huett and O'Neill, 1976; Wenkam, 1983; India 141 tl14 8.33
Bradbury and Holloway, 1988; Craswell et al., 1996).

Sweet potato is also considered as a good food security 'A. Humanfood

or famine-prevention crop and an insurance against drou-
ght (Yuan et a1.,1964 Yamada et a1.,7986;Amenyenu el
al., 1998). The Japanese used it when typhoons demoli-
shed their rice fields. In the densely populated semi-arid
plains of eastern Africa, sweet potato is called cilera
abana, "protector of the child". This name alludes to the
vital role it fulfills in thousands of villages, where people
depend on the crop to combat hunger.
Another important use of sweet potato is as feed. Nearly
half of Asia's production is used as animal feed. In China,
most of the crop is used as animal (pig) feed and some is
used in the commercial production of noodles and other
consumff products (Koh e/ aI'19ffi:.Zaag et al.,I99l).k
is also used as a carbohydrate source and starch for industrial
products like ethanol. Storage root contains about 50-79Vo
starch and 4-l5%o sugar on a dry weight basis (Ashokan and
Nair, 1983; Lila and Bala,1987 Sen e/ a1.,199O) or7-287o
starch on fresh weight basis (Ravi and Indira 1999).
Anumber of products are made from sweet potato, the
most important products of which are summarized below.t
Primary producrs. Dried chips; Sweet potato cubes in Philippines;
Fried sweet potato chips in Peru; Jams, Jelly, Pickle, Sauce and Soft
drinks; Non-alcoholic beverage in Philippines; Canned sweet potato,
popular in US market.
Secondary products from s/arcl2. Noodles - China, Korea, Japan
and Taiwan. Alcoholic beverages - Japan, China. Chinese alcohol
plants mainly use dried sweet potato chips as raw material; Shochu is
a traditional Japanese liquor made from sweet potato.
B. Animalfeed
Pig and cattle feed; Fresh vines are palatable to cattle; Sweet pota-
to based poultry rations have been tested by Chinese researchers.
C. Industrial products
Non-fermented products. Sugar syrup - Maltose, Cyclodextrins,
Malto oligo-saccharides; Pectin - from peels and trim wastes; Pig-
ments - Carotenoids and Anthocyanins by acid hydrolysis followed by
enzymatic treatment; Enzymes - good source of b-amylase (In US, the
entire production of b-amylase comes from sweet potato); Modified
starches - Anionic, Cationic and phosphate stabilized starches.
Fermented products. ATcohohc beverages - dried sweet potato chips
are used for ethanol production; Citric acid - in China and Japan, citric
acid is made from saccharified sweet potato starch and byproducts;
Monosodium glutamate - Starch to be saccharified to sugar, then con-
verted by microbes such as Brevibacterium glutanicum to glutamic acid.
Then convefted to mono sodium glutamate; Lactic acid, gluconic acid
and various amino acids could also be made from saccharified starch.
Table 3 - World sweet potato area and production over the years Soils in sweet potato-growing areas are generally
Area Production acidic and have low extractable K concentrations.
Year (,000 ha) (,000 0 Sweet potato response to K fertilizers has been repor-
t962 t2473 103536 ted in these soils under high input agriculture (Nand-
t957 r3908 n634t puri et al.,l98l; CTCRI, 1983; Byju and R.ay, 2001).
1972 14815 t24382
r977 r4334 1 38 148
Different workers have studied the nutrient removal
1982 11104 140186 from soil by sweet potato. A sweet potato crop yielding
t987 9292 135236 20 that of tuber removed I23, 15.5 and ll5 kg har N,
r993 9i 123150
8867
11
129164
P and K, respectively (Mohankumar et al., 2000).
!298
(References: de la Pena, 1996; FAO, 1999).
AVRDC (197 5) reported that a crop yielding 30 t ha' of
tops and 22 tha' of tubers takes up 80,29 and 185 kg
har of N, P and K, respectively. Table 4 presents the
1E;0 llrl '#Area ,000 ha nutrient removal from soil by different parls of sweet
14011011 potato (O'Sullivan et al., 1997). It is clear from the
*Production '000 t
l lrl 0t: table that potassium is the element removed by sweet
potato in largest quantity compared to all other
e 800!r
nutrients, indicating the importance of this element in
I rnrrn
sweet potato nutrition"
4rl [[iD
Highly weathered, leached Ultisols and Oxisols
with relatively low total and available potassium are
TDDII
often used for sweet potato cultivation. Sweet potato is
I
grown extensively on unlimed moderately to strongly
acidic soils, and is believed to be a crop that is well
adapted to soils of low to moderate fertility (Hahn,
Fig. I - World sweet or;; and production over the years (Sour-
1911). Although the plant produces reasonably good
ce: Data from Table "r."
3).
yields under these conditions, due to certain adaptation
mechanisms to a low K supply, the production of high
In most developing countries the yields of sweet
and stable yields is possible only on soils well supplied
potato have remained static since the early 1960s (Hor-
with potassium or with adequate potassium fertilization
ton et al., 1989) and many countries have recorded
(Norman et a1.,1984). It is considered to be tolerant of
yield declines in recent years (FAO , 1999). The excep-
acidic soils (Howeler. 1991), a conclusion supported by
tion to this trend is China, where sweet potato yields
results of field experiments on acidic soils where sweet
have doubled since 1965, largely due to the high prio-
potato has produced satisfactory yields (Perez-Escolar,
rity given to fertilizers in agricultural development in
1911', Abruna et al., 19'79, 1982). Also, sweet potato
China (Borlaug and Dowswell,1994). Although sweet
cultivars differ in their tolerance to low levels of
potato is grown in areas with relatively high rainfall, it
nutrients (Ila'ava et a1.,2000).
cannot withstand waterlogging and is usually grown on
Although soil acidity and low soil phosphorus are
ridges or mounds; it has good drought tolerance. An
the major fertility constraints in these soils, potassium
average yield of about 20 tonnes of fresh weight per
usually becomes limiting to crop growth under conti-
hectare (equivalent to 6 tonnes of dry matter) in four to
nuous cultivation (von Uexkull, 1985). This is prima-
five months has been recorded in a number of coun-
tries.
riiy because both available and reserve potassium are

Table 4 - Nutrient removal from soil by sweet potato crop of 72 tlha (average) and 50 t/ha (high)
Nutrient Removal (kg ha') with root yield of
12 tha' 50 t ha,
Nutrienl
Vines Total
N 52 26 26 215 110 105
P 9 6 3 38 25 IJ
K 90 60 30 376 250 126
Ca 16 3.6 12.4 65 15 50
Mg 6.5 J 3.5 2'7 t2.5 14.5
S 4.3 1.8 2.5 18 7.5 10.5
C1 18 10 8 75 +3 32
Fe 0.160 0.060 0.100 0.670 0.250 0.420
B 0.014 0.024 0.050 0.310 0.100 0.2t0
Mn 0.175 0.424 0.151 0.'730 0.100 0.630
Zn 0.062 0.036 0.026 0.264 0.150 0.110
Cu 0.037 0.018 0.019 0.1 55 0.075 0.080
Mo 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.023 0.015 0.008
(References: ACIAR monograph No. 48).
usually low in these soils (Sparks and Huang, 1985).
Soil and crop management factors also contribute to the
occurrence of potassiurn deficiency. For example,
potassium application usually ranks far behind nitrogen
and phosphorus (Pushp arajah, 1 985). Potassiurn uptake
by plants is similar to that of nitrogen, however, and is
usually an order of magnitude greater than that of pho-
sphorus (Cooke, 1985). Sweet potato consumes consi-
derable amounts of potassium (de Geus, 1973; Con-
stantin et a1.,1975) but can produce reasonable yields
in soils of poor fertility (Hiil e/ al., 1990). Potassium
removal by a sweet potato crop yielding20 t ha-t tubers
is found tobe 175 kg ha,potassium (Mohankumar er
a1.,2000). Additionally, removing crop stover from the
field hastens the depletion of soil potassium (Piere,
1982; Vilela and Ritchey, 1985). Rajendran et al.
(1976) reporled that the above-ground parls of tuber
crops result in utilization of significant amounts of
potassium. Through combination of the above factors,
the soil eventually becomes depleted of available potas-
sium. Although potassium can be replenished through
fertilisation, excessive fertilisation can result in lea-
ching losses (Ritchey, 1979; Sajjapongse and Rooan,
1982; Gill and Kamprath, 1990) and in losses from the
luxury consumption of potassium (Brady, 1984).
4. Role of potassium
Potassium plays many key roles in crop production.
It increases root growth and improves drought resistan-
ce, activates many enzyme systems, maintains turgor,
reduces water loss and wilting, aids in photosynthesis
and food formation, and reduces respiration thereby
preventing energy losses. Potassium also enhances
translocation of sugars and starches, increases protein
content of plants, produces grain rich in starch, builds
cellulose and reduces lodging, and helps retard crop
diseases (Mohankumar et al., 2000).
Since root crops are mainly carbohydrate producers,
they have an especially potassium high requirement,
which has a special role in carbohydrate synthesis and
translocation (Jackson and Volk, 1968; Liebhart,1968;
Mengel, 1977; Sharfuddin and Voican, 1984; Li and
Kao, 1990). Abundant potassium supply favours the
primary processes of photosynthesis. It also regulates
the balance between assimilation and respiration in a
way that improves net assimilation, a prerequisite for
vigorous growth and formation of reserve assimilates.
Tsuno (197I) and Tsuno and Fujise (1968) reported
that a liberal supply of potassium is a key factor for
increasing sink capacity and photosynthesis in sweet
potato. They reported that high levels of potassium
manuring are required to maintain photosynthetic acti-
vity of sweet potato leaves. The translocation of photo-
synthates from the green pafis of the plant is of utmost
importance for building up of the storage organs. An
abundant supply of potassium is needed for both short
and long distance translocation (Haeder et al., 1973;
Addiscott, 1974:Haeder,7977 Biswas, 1981; Li and
Kao, 1985). This applies to the push side of transloca-
tion - the formation of assimilates in the green parts of
the plant - as well as the 'pull side' - the conversion of
the translocates in the building up of the storage
organs. The osmotic effects of the potassium concen-
tration, as well as more specific effects of the K* ion,
seem to be involved in the translocation processes. An
expression ofthis is probably the very high and varying
potassium content of the petioles of the root crops. The
petioles are much involved in translocation and conse-
quently petiole analysis is a useful indicator of the
potassium status of the crop.
Storage root initiation is the result of high primary
cambial activity (Wilson, 1982) and potassium is nee-
ded to speed up this activity in the tuberous roots in
which starch is stored (Hahn and Hozyo, 1984). Potas-
sium is also needed for cambial activity (Tsuno and
Fujise, 1965; Ho et a1.,1966; Naix et al.,l98I; Rashid
and Waithaka, 1988; AVRDC, 1990). Potassium also
probably affects the activity of the starch synthetase.
When potassium is added, the activity of the enzyme,
starch synthetase, increases but when it is lacking, the
enzyme activity can be extremely low (Murata and
Akazawa, 1968; 1969).
Wall (1939; 1940) reported that for sweet potato
potassium is necessary for the synthesis of amino acids
and protein from ammonium ions. It is also inferred
that potassium is related to protein metabolism as poin-
ted out by Steward and Preston (1941) and Roberl
(1953). Thus, it is believed that protein synthesis is
expedited by a high ratio of K/N, and that this promo-
tes tuber weight increase (Oommen, 1989; Ravi and
Indiva,1999).
5. Potassium absorption during growth cycle
To prevent soil degradation over the long term. it is
necessary to ensure a positive nutrient balance in the
landscape. In undisturbed environments, nutrient inputs
arise from the soil itself, through weathering (which is
often slow) from the atmosphere (although these inputs
are often small), and from N-fixation by free-living and
symbiotic organisms. With human intervention, additio-
nal inputs come from the application of fertilizers, com-
posts and manures. Losses from a system arise through
nutrient removal in harvested products and through
such processes as volatilization, runoff, leaching, fixa-
tion and denitrification. (Craswell et a1.,1996). Nutrient
removal is dependent both on the concentrations of
nutrients in the harvested product and on the yield obtai-
ned (Steeghs,1979, Syriac and Kunju, 1989).
Bradbury and Holloway (1988) summarized data
available on nutrient concentrations in sweet potato
(Table 5). Nutrient concentration on a dry matter basis
was calculated using 757o moisture in the tubers.
Table 5 - Potassium content and nutrient removal by sweet potato Table 6 - Normal potassium content in sweet potato
Nutrient removal (kg ha') with Stage of Potassium
Plant part
Concentration tuber yield ol development (7o of dry matter)
Nutrient (of dry matter) 12 t ha' 100 t ha' Petioles 40 DAP 9.5
K rn4-r4 31-43 260-360 Leaf blades 40 DAP 3.7
(References: Bruns and Bouwkamp, 1989). Tubers 40 DAP 2.1
Petiotres At harr,,est 3.7
Leaf blades At harvest )o
Considerable potassium can be removed by sweet Tubers At harvesi 1.2
p.otato tubers (up to 360 kg ha,). The halvest index of DAP= days after planting
(Refereces: Bruns and Bouwkamp, 1989).
sweet potato was found in the range 5.8-8.8 in a num-
ber of lines (Enyi, 1911;Li et al., l99l) though a con-
siderably lower value of 3.2 has also been reported ment of tubers because high leaf concentrations (above
(Yoshida et al., I970). Scott (1950) reported that most 47o') promote translocation of photosynthate from the leaf
of the potassium uptake by sweet potato vines occurred to the tuber, which is inhibitory to photosynthesis at high
in the third month of a five-month crop, and most of the concentrations.
uptake by tubers occurred in the fourth and fifth months. Greatest tuber enlargement occurs when the fenlltzer
Mukhopadhyay et al. (1993) conducted a study in West N:K ratio is low (Norman et al., 1984;Bor"rwkamp and
Bengal, India to determine the accurnulation of dry mat- Hassan, 1988). AVRDC (1975) recommended a ratio of
ter and starch and concentration of N, P and K as influen- less than 1:3, though the optimum will vary with soil C:N
ced by potassium nutrition and their partitioning arnong and N:K ratios (Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey,l976). Because of
the plant parts of sweet potato at different growth stages. the imporlance of potassium to the nutrition of sweet
Dry matter accumulation in leaf increased up to the 90th potato, responses to potassium are frequent in the tropics
day, whereas in shoot and tuber it increased gradually up (Anderson, 1974), and sometimes very high. Gollifer
to 150 days after planting, irrespective of potassium treat- (1972) obtained tuber yield increases ofup to 867o from
ments. An increasing trend of dry matter accumulation in II2kg ha'potassium in the Solomon islands.
all the plantparts was obtained up to 75 kg ha' KrO. Split According to Das and Behera (1989), with an increa-
application (half basal and remaining half 35 days after se in potassium application there was a steady increase of
planting) resulted in higher dry matter accumulation at potassium content in different sweet potato plant parts.
harvest compared to full basal application. Also, the nitrogen content of tuber, stem and leaf increa-
Kamatani (1945) observed that potassium content of sed with increases in potassium levels. Potassium helped
aerial parts reached the highest value (about 5.57o) 40 in a higher rate of nitrogen absorption by sweet potato. In
days after planting. After that it decreased, more gradual- general, nitrogen contents were higher in the stems and
ly in the late growth period, and over 27a even at the time leaves as compared to the root tubers, but phosphorus did
of harvesting. Potassium content in the petiole was the not differ significantly due to different potassium levels;
highest (>l}Vo at 40 days after planting) and in general it the vines had higher phosphorus than the tuber"
was almost twice as high as the content in the leaf blade The nutrient concentration (g kg t) in roots and vines
and stem. After planting, the potassium content in the of six sweet potato cultivars grown at three intra-row
aerial part decreased in all organs, but it increased with spacing in 1982, 1983 and 1984 at the University of
the rooting of seedlings, reached a peak about 40 days Maryland's (USA) Vegetable Research Farm is shown
after planting, then decreased again. In the petiole and in Table 7. The cultivar MD 708, which produced high
stem, the potassium content decreased remarkably in the yields of root and vine dry matter, appeared to have a
late growth stage, but in other organs, little change was low concentration of nutrient element in the roots and a
observed in the potassium content. Potassium content in high concentration in the vines. This latter finding helps
the fibrous root was the second highest following that in explain the high dry matter yields obtained. Cultivar x
the petiole in the early stage of growth, but it rapidly
decreased after that period. The content in the tuberous
root moved almost in parallel with that of fibrous root, Table 7 - Potassium content in roots and vines of six sweet potato cul-
but the former value was lower than the latter. livars
Haque et al. (1998) observed no effect of potassium K content in
on tuber initiation, but tuberisation index, tuber diameter Cultivar
and tuber weight increased with increased potassium Centennial 19.6b "t 27.2b
Jewel 19.2b 24.0 c
application. Janssen (1978) reported that the potassium Redmar 21.3 a 23.8 c
contents in the aerial part and storage roots of sweet pota- Travis 21.8 a 28.1 ab
to at harvest w ere 2.J and I .2 7o of the dry matter, respec- MD 320 19.3 b 27.4b
tively. MD 708 19.7 h 30.5 a
, Means ithin a column foliowed by the same letter or lenets are not
r.l
The normal potassium content in sweet potato at two
significantly different by DMRT (p < 0.01). Means of four replica-
growth stages is presented in Table 6. According to Tsuno tions and three years.
and Fujise (1968), potassium is important to the develop- (References: Br-uns and Bouwkamp, 1989).
intra-row spacing interactions were not significant for
potassium concentration in the roots or vines. A signifi-
cant linear increase in the total potassium content in the
plant occurred with increasing intra-row spacing of all
cultivars. The rate of increase was greater in the roots
and vines of 'MD 708' than all other cultivars. Both
high total vine dry weight and nutrient concentration in
the vines contributed to the high totals observed in the
vines of 'MD 708'. The increase in total root dry matter
of this cuitivar alone must account for the higher total
nutrient content observed in the roots. Increase in intra-
row plant spacing decreased nutrient uptake per unit
land area. This decrease was significant for all three
spacings (15, 30 and 45 cm), suggesting that sweet
potato will increase the utilization of available nutrients
as plant spacing is reduced.
Potassium increases the leaf area index (LAI) and
the effect may be through its indirect influence in
enhancing the availability of nitrogen to plants. Accor-
ding to Tsuno and Fujise (1964 a, b), potassium helps
to increase the photosynthetic activity by maintaining
an optimum leaf area index and promotes the translo-
cation of carbohydrates to the developing tubers. Fuji-
se and Tsuno (1967) suggested that potassium contri-
butes to high photosynthetic activity of, leaves, and
Nair and Nair (1995) observed a higher crop growth
rate (CGR) with application of IlO at 75 kg ha1. The
lack of response to applied potassium in modifying the
LAI and net assimilation rate (NAR) may be the reason
for the absence of significant variation in CGR.
6. Potassium supply on growth and yield
Effect on yield-contributing factors
Sugawara (1938) reported that when potassium
application is increased, tubers swell and large sweet
pbiatoes are obtained. The most important effect of
potassium on sweet potato is that the enlargement of
ioot tubers is expedited, and even with heavy nitrogen
application, overgrowth of the aerial part is lessened
anO trigtt root tuber yield is secured if potassium dosa-
ge is increased. From 1940 to 1945, NPK appiication
experiments on sweet potato were conducted at various
plices in Japan (Togari, 1948). Potassium produced the
greatest effect on yield among the three nutrients (Indi-
ia and Lakshmi, 1984; Jones et al', 1977). Ho et al.
(1967) observed a high correlation (r= +0.878)
between the yield index and the potassium content in
the blade 40 days after planting, and r = +0.919
between the yield index and potassium content 100
days after planting. Tuber yield increased proportional-
ly with an increase in potassium dosage (Chatterjee and
Mandal, 1976).
Sweet potato is often considered, like cassava, a
crop assoclated with poor soils, probably because it is
wei suited to sandy soils. Sweet potato has a high
requirement of potassium relative to nitrogen. A crop
yielding 30 t ha' of tops and22 t ha1 of tubers takes up
80,29 and 185 kg ha1 of N, P and K, respectively
(AVRDC, 1975).
Continuous sole cropping of sweet potato without
fertilizer inputs in New Britain (10 crops over five
years) led to a yield reduction of 867o (Newton and
Jamieson, 1968). In the highlands of Papua New Gui-
nea, soil fertility deciine in sweet potato areas is rever-
sed by growing Casuarina spp. for 10-20 years (New-
ton, 1960). Casuarina spp. are actinorrhizal nitrogen
fixers (Torrey, 1982). Prior cropping with annual iegu-
mes such as soybeans gave higher sweet potato yields
than prior cropping with sweet potatoes in the Philippi-
nes (Acedo and Javier, 1980). On various soils in
Papua New Guinea which had been continuously crop-
ped with sweet potato for several years, large yield
increases were obtained by the application of either
inorganic potassium fertilizers or organic composts
high in potassium (Hafizuddin and Haque, 1979;
Bourke, 1985 a; D'Souza and Bourke, 1986; Floyd e/
al., 1988 a; Byju et a1.,2002'1.
Bourke (1985 a) observed that potassium fertilizer
increased the number of tubers per plant and mean tuber
dry weight by seven weeks after planting. This is consi-
stent with the observation of Wilson (1982) that the
period eight to 12 weeks after planting is criticatr in
tuberous root differentiation. Thus, the practical irnpli-
cation is that potassium fertilizer should be applied at or
soon after planting. Potassium fertilizer significantly
reduced the percent dry weight of tubers at 19 weeks
from3lVo at K0 to 32% at K3 levels. This has confir-
med the findings of earlier workers (Duncan et al.'
1958; Fujise and Tsuno, 1969; Behura and Swain,1996;
Byju and Ray,2002; Byju and Nedunchezhiyan,20A4)'
Potassium ferttlizer increased total dry matter pro-
duced and the proportion of dry matter diverted to the
tubers, i.e. harvest index (HI) (Byju, 2002). The increa-
se in total dry matter production by potassium appiica-
tion was not related to an increase in leaf area duration
(LAD), The indication is that potassium fertilizer
increased tuber yield thlough an inctease in the pro-
portion of dry matter diverted to the tubers (HI) rather
ihan any influence on photosynthetic capacity (LAD)
and its influence on photosynthetic efficiency [net assi-
milation rate (NAR)I is unknown. Potassium at higher
levels increased LAD and excessive leaf growth was
suppressed, resulting in higher root yield (Hahn, 1977).
Nicholaides et al. (1985) observed that totai tuber
yields were increased by applied potassium, but the
magnitude of response was determined by initial soil
potassium level.
Potassium fertilizer increased tuber number and also
mean tuber weight to a lesser degree (Ghuman and Lal,
1973 a). According to Fujise and Tsuno (1969), potas-
sium increased photosynthetic activity of the leaves
through accelerated respiration of the tubers. The
influenc-e of potassium in increasing tuber number may
aiso increase photosynthetic activity by providing
further carbohydrate sinks, because inadequate sink
size can inhibit photosynthesis.
Dffirent potassium rates on yielcl
Different workers have given different potassium
fertrbzer recommendations for sweet potato, ranging
from 50 to 375 kg ha' (de Geus, 1967; Bourke, 1985 a;
Li and Yen, 1988; Mukhopadhyay and Jana, 1990;
Bonsi et al., 1992; Nair and Nair, 1995). Differential
response to applied potassium has been reported from
various parts of India (Varghese, 1981; Ravindran and
Bala, 1987; Elizabeth and Kunju, 1989; Antony and
Inasi, 1990;Mukhopadhyay et a1.,1992; Nair and Nair,
1992;Byju and Ray, 2001;2002).
Prasad and Rao (1986) found that application of
potassium up to 75 kg ha1 KrO increased tuber yield of
OP-l variety of sweet potato under red loam soils of
Bhubaneswar, India. The highest yield was obtained
with 75: 50: 50 kg ha'N, PrO. and KO respecti\/e1y.
Varghese et al. (1987) conducted a study in Kerala,
India to assess the influence of irrigation, nitro-een and
potassium on the growth and yield of sweet potato
grown in summer rice fallows after second crop of
paddy. The initial available potassium status u'as lorv
(<0.2 cmol kg' K). They observed that sweet potato
requires irrigation at IWCPE ratio of 1.2 tapproximate
interval of 11 days) for higher tuber yield; the applica-
tion of nitrogen and potassium at the rate of 50 k-e ha'
is sufficient for sweet potato grown under in^igation'
Ravindran and Bala (1987) observed that u'ith increa-
sing levels of N, P,O. and KrO, the tuber ,vield increa-
sed under both upland and lowland situations in Kera-
la, India and beyond 75:50:75 kg ha' the tuber lield
declined.
Elizabeth and Kunju (1989), in a studl'to determtne
the effect of graded levels of N, P and K on the l ield of
sweet potato in the reclaimed alluvial soils of Kuttanad,
Kerala, India, grown in the interspaces of middle aged
(40-45 years) coconut palms, found that NPK ievei of
50:25:50 kg hal is sufficient for su'eet potato gro\\-n as
an intercrop in the fertile reclaimed alluvial soils of the
region. However 75:75 '75 k-e ha', that -ear-e ma-rimum
tuber yield (13.76 t har) and maximum net profit (Rs.
13, 508/- per ha), was the most economical treatment.
Mukhopadhyay et al. (1992), in a study to derermine
the effect of basal and split application of potassium on
growth and yield of sweet potato under an alluvial zone
of West Bengal, India, observed that the response of
potassium fertilization was more pronounced when it
was applied in splits. The highest leaf area index (8.56
at 90 days after planting), crop growth rate (17.65 g m'
dayl between 60-90 days), tuber bulking rate Q.aB g
ha-r day-1 at t20 days after planting), number of tubers
per plant A.81), total tuber yield (18.16 t ha r) and total
vine yield (22.12 t ha 1) were recorded al 7 5 kg KO ha '
when applied in two splits. In a study to find out the
optimum levels and time of application and uptake of
nitrogen and potassium under upland conditions in
Kerala, India, Nair and Nair (1992) observed the highe-
st tuber yield at a IlO level of 75 kg ha'. Application
of a two-thirds dose of nitrogen and potassium as basal
followed by application of the remaining one-third
dose, one month after planting, was found effective. A
dose of 50:75 N:K was found to be the optimum.
A study conducted by Patil et al. (1982) at the Uni-
versity of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad,India
indicated that closer spacing (40 x 30 cm), moderate
nitrogen (75 kg har) and higher potassium levels (100
kg ha' I(,O) produced the highest tuber yield of sweet
potato in a red sandy loam soil. Patil et al. (199A a) also
studied the correlation between important characteri-
stics like leaf area index, leaf area duration, relative
growth rate and crop growth rate as influenced by
varying levels of nitrogen and potassium and inter-row
spacing at UAS.
Rajendran et al. (1911) reported higher dry matter
content in sweet potato with increasing dose of potas-
sium application. Das and Behera (1989) observed an
increase in dry matter content with increasing potas-
sium rates. Padmaja and Raju (1999), in a study in
Andhra Pradesh, India, reported that the potassium
concentration and total potassium uptake increased
with increasing potassium application rates up to 40 kg
har. The tuber yield obtained when no potassium was
applied was 17.7 t har while it was 28.2 t ha-l at 40 kg
ha1 potassium application. The potassium source, KCI
or K.SO' was not shown to be significant.
Seesahai and Ferguson (1998) reported that applica-
tion of cattle manure, grass, coconut coir and sawdust
offered significantly higher potassium than unamended
soil. However, unamended soil had significantly higher
potassium than coffee hull, rice hull and bagasse mix-
tures. At the end of the experiment, coffee hull had
significantly higher potassium than all other treat-
ments. Chicken manure, horse manure, rice hull, coco-
nut coir and grass gave significantly higher values than
the unamended soil. Lu et al. (2001) reported that
almost no potassium is traditionally applied, except
that contained in organic manure. Field trials and
balanced fertilization demonstrations were carried out
in the major sweet potato production regions of China
to better understand the importance of potassium ferti-
lizer on crop yield. All nine field trials showed that ade-
quate potassium inputs greatly increased sweet potato
yields. Yields were increased by 1.6 to 21.5 t hat with
potassium application (average 9.20 t62 r) with respon-
ses of 5.1-50.7Vo (average 28.77o). Yield response per
kg K,O was 10.5-95.3 kg (average 43.9 kg). The study
also indicated that potassium benefit was greater in
high- than in low-yielding fields. Between the two
sources, KCI and K,SO* , they observed that KCI was
more efficient in increasing yield than IISO* applied at
the same rate. Their study found an optimal potassium
rate of 150-300 kg ha' K,O.
Kabeerathurnma and George (1993) conducted an
experiment under controlled conditions to evaluate los-
ses of applied nutrients and to monitor nutrient rnobi-
lity in the soil. They observed that 30-407o of avaitrable
potassium was found to be retained in the top 0-30 cm
layer. The loss was found to be less in farmyard manu-
re treatments due to the K. ions being retained in
exchange sites of soil, and further enhanced by reten-
tion by organic colloids. Cultivation of sweet potato
subsequently without adding farmyard manure leads to
depletion. They concluded that 50 kg ha' nitrogen with
farmyard manure (which gave positive nitrogen balan-
ce and marginal gain in the soil), 25 kg ha' P,O. and 75
kg ha'KrO is an economic NPK combination for sweet
potato.
Field experiments on potassium responses were
conducted in Indonesia on three soil types, namely ulti-
sols, andisols and entisols (Wargiono, 1981). Results
from these trials showed that application of 90 kg ha
IlO increased tuber yield significantly in the ultisols
(latosol) but not in the andisols and the entisols" The
author did not give initial soil potassium. A potassium
fertilizer trial on a potassium-deficient red latosol (ulti-
sols) in Hunan Province, China showed that application
af 76 kg ha' KrO increased fresh tuber yield from 23 t
ha.' (control) to 33 1 6n ' (JAAS and SAAS, 1982).
A summary of selected data from yield responses to
potassium appiication is reported in Table 8. These data
indicate that potassium supply is a critical yield-limi-
ting factor for sweet potato growing in the strongly
weathered laterite soils. Sweet potato, grown in paddy
soils (e.g. entisols) and other moderately fertile soils
(e.g. alfisols and inceptisols), generally give greater
responses to nitrogen than to potassium application.
Sweet potato is widely grown as a minor season crop
after paddy rice on raised beds or ridges in Japan,
Taiwan and southern China. It is also widely grown as
a summer crop after wheat in eastern China.
Fujise and Tsuno (1957) recommended ploughing in
potassium fertllizer to a depth of 40 cm, noting that it
is the deeper roots that most actively provide potassium
for tuber growth in the late stages of crop development.
Such deep placement is rarely practiced, other than by
the burial of compost under mounds in some traditional
production systems. Split application of potassiurn,
before planting and after four weeks of growth, are
Table 8 - Effect of potassium application on yield of sweet potato in
potassium deficient laterite soils (ultisols and oxisols)
K rate Fresh tuber Reference
Location
(kg/ha) yield (t/ha)
Maura, Indonesia 014 Wargiono, l98l
90 22
Maharashtra. India 012 Nwale and Salvi, 1984
90 23
Hunan, China 023 JAAS and SAAS, 1982
76 33
Morogoro, Tanzania 028 Uriyo, 1973
60 37
Nofih Carolina, USA 019 Purcell and Walter. 1982
76 30
often used (Hill, 1989), with the fertilizer banded along
the row. The beneficial effect of split application of
potassium was studied by Kuo (1972), Hossain et al.
(1987) and Arima and Shibayama (1998).
Bao et al. (1985), in an analysis of 392 experiments,
came to the conclusion that potassium fertilizer was
very effective on sweet potato. On average, applying
70 kg hal potash increased the tuber yield by 3.7 t.
They also observed that potassium fertilizer increased
the yield of sweet potato by increasing the number of
tubers and the ratio of large to small tubers. In an expe-
riment on red sandy loam soils (Gowda et al", tr990),
with potash applied at 40, 80 and l2A kg har as basal
or in splits at planting and 30 days later, higher tuber
yields were recorded in these treatments as compared
to application of nitrogen and phosphorus alone. Yield
t
was greatest at 40 kg ha' potash applied as basal dose.
The most economic dose of potash was reported as 60
kg ha' in Kerala (Ashokan et al., 1984) while in
another study Nair et al. (1995) reported maximum
yield from sweet potato with application of potash at
50 kg ha'. Table 9 summarises the application levels
for sweet potato in various parts of the world. Under
Delhi conditions, a dose of 40 kg har KrO was reported
by Dayal and Sharma (I993).In a study to deterrnine
the effect of iirigation, N and K on sweet potato at
IARI, New Delhi, India, the same authors (Dayal and
Sharma, 1999) observed that increasing levels of potas-
sium up to 200 kg ha' K,O gave a higher number of
roots per plant, total yield and marketable yield. Howe-
ver, characters like plant height, number of branches
and foliage weight increased up to 100 kg har KO, and
beyond this level of K,O a declining trend was obser-
ved for these traits.
Table 9 - Potassium application levels for sweet potato
Country/Place K,O (kg ha,) Reference
India 50 Nat et al., 1995; Nair, 2000
Papua New Guinea 3'75 Bourke. 1985 a
USA r00-120 Jacob and Uexkueli, 1958
Puerlo Rico 106 Landrau and Samueis, 195 I
F{awaii 150 Jacob and Uexkuell. 1958
Egypt 106 Li and Yen. 1988
Taiwan i80 Jacob and Ue.xkuell, 1958
Madeira r25 Jacob and Uexkuell, 1958
Japan 100-200 Tsuno.1981
Sreelatha et al. (1999) conducted a study to deter-
mine the soil test crop response in sweet potato variety
Kanjangad, and they observed that 10.72 kg IlO is
required to produce 1 ton of sweet potato tuber. Equa-
tions for fertrhzer recommendations to obtain targeted
yields from soils with different test values were deve-
loped based on basic data of tuber yield, nutrient
uptake and soil test values.
Crop nutrient requirement (kg tonr of tuber): KrO:
t0.72
 Fertiliser adjustment equation for potassium:
FK"O = 1.700T * 1.348SK - 8.00 -41.65 with 5t
cattle iranure where
FK,O and SK were fertilizer IlO in kg ha-l and soil
K"O ii kg ha-l, respectively. The predetermined crop
yi-eld target in t ha-l is indicated by T.
. Rajput et al. (1981) found that K application at the
rate of 50 kg ha-l is optimum in vertisols. Nair and
Mohankumar (1984) found that75 kg ha-l potassium is
best in acid laterite soils in Kerala, India. Ashokan er
at. (1984) studied the potassium requirement of sweet
potato 'Chindamoni' in rain-fed uplands of Kerala,
india and found the most economic dose as 60.4 kg ha
1'
With increasing levels of potassium, the sugar content
of tubers decreased, whereas the starch content increa-
sed. Performance of six promising genotypes of sweet
potato, as influenced by three levels of NPK applica-
tion, was evaluated by Nayar and Vimala (1991). The
difference in tuber yield between NPK level at
75:50:75 and 50:37:50 kg/ha was marginal'
Dffirent soil test levels
Nicholaides et al. (1985) observed that potassium
concentration in young sweet potato leaf and petiole
tissue at mid season was affected by potassium rate.
The maximum yield in this study for the highest yiel-
ding trial was associated with 38.1 g kg-l potassium in
the tissue. Total yield response was obtained only in the
three experiments where initial soil test K levels were
<0.08 cmol 1-1, and not in those trials where initial soil
test K levels were > 0.1 cmol l-1. Ho et al. (1968) found
maximum sweet potato yields associated with leaf
potassium concentration >31 g kg l. Earlier studies
reported no response to potassium amendments when
soil test potassium levels were >0.12 cmol l-l (Duncan
et a1.,1958; Bates, 1971;Worley and Harman, I974).
The soil containing 0.05 cmol l-1 potassium required
application of about 210 kg ha-l potassium to reach
95% relative yield, while soils with 0.08 cmol l-l potas-
sium reached that yield with only application of 175
kg-t hu potassium. Sweet potato total yields increased
with potassium application when Mehlich-l extracta-
ble soil test pohs;ium levels were <0.08 cmol 1-1, but it
is probable that potassium applications would increase
yields of the most marketable portion when soil test
potassium levels are <0.05 cmol 1.
-l
Nicholaides et al. (1985) was able to obserr'ue a yield
response to potassium fertilizer when potassium soil
tesi levels were <0.08 cmol l-1 (Mehlich-I extractant).
Results from field trials on laterite soils with low
exchangeable potassium (mostly below 0.20 cmol kg-1)
indicatJd that the application of 60-90 kg ha KrO
I cient plant and a healthy plant, the leaves were old
i
gave a yield increase in the order of 10 t ha of fresh
tuber with moderate applications of nitrogen and pho-
sphorus, r.e. 45 and25 kg ha-1 of N and PrO' respecti-
vely (Uriyo,19"73; Wargiono, 1981; JAAS and SAAS,
1982; Purcell et a1.,1982; Chandra et al., 1983; Nwale
and Sclvi lqR/.\
Soils high in
available potassium status did not
respond by significantly improving the tuber yield fol-
lowing added levels of potash at Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, India (Muthuswami et al., 1981). The same
authors also observed that between the two sources, a
schoenite source of potassium had a similar influence
on the yield of sweet potato as that of muriate of pota-
sh.
7. Diagnosis of potassium deficiency
Potassium may be redistributed readily from older
to younger pafis of the plant in times of shortage, thus
symptoms of potassium deficiency are likely to appear
first on the oldest leaves. Visible symptoms of nutrient
disorders in sweet potato have been reported by Bolle-
Jones and Ismunadji (1963) and Spence and Ahmad
(1961). Ames et al. (1976), Clark and Moyer (1988),
Hill (1989) and Nam et al. (1996) provided summaries
of previously reported deficiency symptoms. Howevet,
the descriptions were generally not sufficient for dia-
gnosis, and the data on tissue nutrient concentrations
were mostly in a form not easily applied to tissue sam-
pled from the field.
Index tissue
The concentration of any nutrient is not uniform
throughout a plant, but varies considerably with the
type and age of the tissue. It is essential for accurate
diagnosis that the sampled tissue corresponds as clo-
sely as possible to that for which the critical concentra-
tions were defined (Craswell et al.,1996). The selected
index tissue should be easily identified and collected in
the field, and should also be a tissue which reflects the
plant's status with respect to any given nutrient, throu-
gh a significant change in the tissue nutrient concentra-
tion. Young leaves would be expected to be the most
sensitive indicators of deficiencies of phloem-immobi-
le elements such as calcium (Ca) or iron (Fe), while
older leaves should show a greatet concentration shift
for deficiency of mobile elements, and for mineral toxi-
cities. Therefore, in selecting a single tissue for dia-
gnosis of any nutrition disorder, a compromise must be
made (Blamey,1996).
In most cases, the selected tissue is a young but phy-
siologically mature leaf. This is often identified as the
youngest fully expanded leaf blade (YFEB). O'Sulli-
van et al. (1996 a) identified 7-9thleaf biades as index
tissue for sweet potato on the basis that it corresponded
to relatively low concentration ratios between a defi-
enough that concentrations were not changing rapidly
with age, and the sample was still relatively easily
identified in the field. As with other major nutrients,
potassium deficiency can cause substantial growth
reduction before specific symptoms develop. In the
field, symptoms often develop after two to three
months, when the expanding storage roots begin to
place increased demand on potassium supplies.
Deficiency symptoms
Potassium deficiency symptoms become evident on
the oldest leaves which develop a yellow chlorosis in
marginal and interveinal zones (O'Sullivan et a1.,1996
a). Brown necrotic lesions develop within the chlorotic
zones, and may spread to cover the entire leaf blade.
Cultivars vary in the extent to which lesions spread
predominantly from the margins to interveinal zones,
or are initiated in interveinal regions nearer the midrib,
or show relatively little regard for veinal distribution.
Necrosis associated with potassium deficiency is usual-
ly dark in colour, and the necrotic areas become dry
and brittle. The necrotic stage is often preceded by a
light green interveinal chlorosis affecting mature to
older leaves, and often most obvious on the leaves of
axillary shoots. Interveinal areas are pale green and are
finely divided by the network of minor veins that retain
a darker colour. In mild cases, this chlorosis may be the
only visible symptom of disorder (Dowling et al.,
1996).
Potassium deficient crops tend to produce small,
thin storage roots of poor quality. Orange-fleshed
varieties usually have a paler-than-normal flesh colour.
Spence and Ahmad (1967), in their water culture expe-
riments, observed that from early stages there was
restricted growth with short internodes and smaller lea-
ves. Leaf blades were darker green in colour (bluish
green), particularly around the margin. Petioles were
shortened and had less pigmentation at the junction
with the lamina than in the controls.
Interveinal chlorosis started in the old leaves begin-
ning at the tips of the laminae and extended around the
margin at the sides but not quite to the bases (Cibes and
Samuels, 1957). Chlorosis also extended inwards
between the secondary veins almost to the midrib. The
syrnptoms finally showed up as severe general chloro-
sis with dark green bands at the base of the laminae and
along the secondary veins almost to the midrib. The
chlorotic bands eventually became dark brown and
necrotic. A characteristic and previously undescribed
symptom appeared on the under surface of leaves befo-
re the appearance of chlorosis. Small, shiny, light
brown spotting showed up on the under surface only;
the chlorosis then appeared on the upper surface oppo-
site the spotting (O'Sullivan et a1.,1997).
The appearance of interveinal chlorotic mottle to
small necrotic pits in interveinal tissue of leaves of
intermediate age may resemble symptoms of mangane-
se deficiency. However, in the case of manganese defi-
ciency, the green zones around the veins are broader
and more diffuse. The absence of symptoms on the
youngest leaves, and the occunence of necrotic lesions
on the oidest leaves indicate potassium deficiency.
Interveinal patches of necrosis surrounded by chlorotic
zones are also symptomatic of magnesium deficiency.
The magnesium deficient crops are generally pale in
colour, and the pattern ofinterveinal chlorosis is usual-
ly more regular, with the major veins remaining green
for their entire length (O'Sullivan et al.,1996 c).
Sweet potato varieties such as 'Wanmun' have a
high level of anthocyanin pigmentation in young leaves
and stems. With potassium deficiency, the first symp-
tom noted was fading of anthocyanin pigment in the tip
and young leaves, becoming a pale red-brown (O'Sul-
livan et al., 1993). In contrast to nitrogen or phospho-
rus deficiency, potassium deficiency tends to have a
much greater effect on storage root yield than on the
growth of the tops (Edmond and Sefick, 1938; Bourke,
1985 a).
Diagnostic soil and plant tissue tests
The determination of a critical concentration for
potassium in sweet potato leaves is complicated by the
fact that sweet potato has some capacity to substitute
sodium for part of its potassium requirement. In the
presence of sufficient sodium, a critical concentration
of 2.67o potassium has been determined in the 7-9th
youngest leaf blades. In solution culture experiments
with very low sodium concentrations, the critical con-
centration of potassium was found to be approximately
4.OVo (O'sullivan et al., 1996 b; Barraclough and
Leigh, 1993; Ivahupa, 1997). The maximum substitu-
tion effect seems to be achieved at relatively low
sodium concentrations (Ivahupa, 1997), as would be
found in most soils. Therefore, a critical concentration
of 2.67a would apply in most field conditions. This
appears to be consistent with field observations of the
response of crops to potassium fefillizer.
Crop responses to potassium fertilization are gene-
rally expected at exchangeable potassium values in the
range 0.2-0.6 cmol(+) kg-l soil, although this relation-
ship depends on the soil texture and total cation
exchange capacity (CEC); sandy soils may respond
only in the range 0.05 - 0.25 cmol(+) kgl (Landon,
1991).In the highlands of Papua New Guinea, Good-
body and Humphreys (1986) found a positive correla-
tion between sweet potato yield and exchangeable
potassium over a range of 0.2-1.0 cmol(+) kg-l soil.
Correction of potassium deficiency
Since sweet potato crops remove a considerable
amount of potassium from the soil (approximately 8 kg
potassium in storage roots and vines per 1 ton ofroots),
continuous cropping without fertilization can lead to
exhaustion of soil potassium reserves. Potassium defi-
ciency occurs most commonly on sandy soils, which
have a low CEC, and on oxisols and ultisols with low
base status. Some volcanic ash soils have large potas-
sium reserves, but may have a low CEC, and therefore
low available potassium and a poor ability to retain
added potassium.
 Potassium can be added to the soil either in the form
of inorganic fertilizers or in organic mulches and com-
posts. Recommendations for fertilizer additions range
from 50 to 320 kg ha 1 K. Organic mulches are much
more bulky than inorganic fertilizers, thus requiring
more labour, but the efficiency of nutrient use by the
crop may be higher (Floyd et a1.,1988 b). D'Souza and
Bourke (1986) recommended an application of coffee
pulp compost at 20 t ha-1 in the Nembi Plateau of Papua
New Guinea. Table 10 shows the critical potassium
concentration in 7 -9th leaf blades.
From sand culture studies Bolle-Jones and Ismu-
nadji (1963) observed that deficiency symptoms deve-
loped in the leaf blade at 0.507o K. They pointed out
that these estimates were tentative and based on the
analysis of all the laminae of the deficient plants,
regardless of whether the laminae showed symptoms or
not. Spence and Ahmad (1967), from their water cultu-
re studies using sweet potato, analysed stems and lea-
ves at harvesting time and observed that the critical
concentration for potassium deficiency is 0.157o.
Table l0 - Critical nutrient concentration for potassium in 7-9th leaf
blades
Critical concentration Adequate range
('E") (Vo) Reference
4.0 4.7-6.0 O'Sullivan et a|..1996 c
2.3 3.0-4.3 C)'Sullivan et al.. 1993
8. Interaction with other nutrients
Tsuno and Fujise (1968) noticed that in the fields
giving high average sweet potato yield, exchan-eeable
potassium was high in the subsoil and they conducted
an experiment with deep placement (40 cm) of potas-
sium. They reported that potassium alone was not so
effective but the combined application of nitrogen and
potassium showed a remarkable yield-increasing effect.
Their interpretation was that shallow roots growing on
the stems mostly died in the later growth period; the
roots growing from the root tubers distributed deep in
the soil survived and the presence of a large amount of
inorganic nutrients at depth permitted continuous sup-
ply of nutrients up to the late growth stage. They further
observed that nitrogen and potassium together kept the
roots healthy for a longer period than potassium alone.
Knavel (197I) observed that increased potassium
application decreased top nitrogen content. The nitro-
gen content of tuber and phosphorus content in all the
plant parts of sweet potato were found unaffected by
potassium application (Pandey and Jauhery, 1970;
Muthuswamy and Krishnamoorthy, 1976; Pardales et
al.,I9'/8; Purcell et a|.,1982; Preston, 1990). The rela-
tive yield of tuber and vine depends upon a balanced
supply of nitrogen and potassium. In intensively crop-
ped Ultisols in Sierra Leone, application of 200 kg ha
1 potassium at a N:K ratio of 3 gave maximum tuber
yield but low vine yield. High vine yield was obtained
at a low rate of potassium (50 kg ha-l) and a N:K ratio
of 3:1(Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey, 797 6).
Excessive application of potassium may lead to
magnesium or calcium deficiency, due to suppression
of the uptake of these elements (Spear et al., 1978). On
sandy soils, magnesium and calcium applications may
be necessary, in addition to potassium, to maintain a
favourable balance (Duncan and Stark, 1951; Landon,
l99l). Potassium application increased nitrogen con-
tent in tuber, potassium content in leaf, shoot and tuber,
but had no effect on phosphorus content of different
plant parls of sweet potato (Samuels, 1967).Duncan et
a/. (1958) observed that increasing KCI rates resulted
in higher chlorine concentrations in the vegetative tis-
sue, which had no apparent detrimental effect on yield
or quality of sweet potato. Hence, the generally less
expensive source of KCI should be economically pre-
ferable.
Grimme et al. (1977) reported that an increase in
potassium rate resulted in a decrease in tissue calcium
and magnesium concentrations. It is possible that there
was some antagonistic effect of potassium on calcium
and magnesium in the studied variety. Godfrey-Sam-
Aggrey and Garber (1977) sampled the fourth fully
expanded leaves of sweet potato vine tips at harvest to
study the effects of timing and rates of potassium ferti-
lizers on leaf nutrients and their relationship to sweet
potato tuber yields. Potash showed significant effects
on leaf phosphorus, zinc, calcium, magnesium, K./P and
CalMg. Significant quadratic effects of the tuber
yields, as well as significant cubic K x timing interac-
tion effect on tuber yields, were observed. There were
significant negative corelations between tuber yields
and leaf nitrogen and between tuber yields and leaf
phosphorus, indicating that increases in either leaf
nitrogen or leaf phosphorus depressed yields (Feliciano
andLopez,l9l6).
In a study at Papua New Guinea, 10 sweet potato cul-
tivars were grown in adjacent plots in the absence and
presence of gypsum, added at the rate of 500 kg ha-l.
Amino acid analysis showed that no change occurred
in the total sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine
and cystine) with addition of gypsum to the soil (Brad-
bwy et aI., 1985), but there was a highly significant
increase in the calcium content from 12.9 (2.9) to 18.4
(3.7) mg 1001 g fresh weight. This indicates that the
uptake of minerals by the tuber depends on the amount
present in the soil and is consistent with the conclu-
sions of Scott and Bouwkamp (1914).
Purceltr et al. (1982) noted that the concentration of
chlorine and sulfur in young sweet potato leaf and
petiole tissue generally reflected the potassium source
and chlorine as always dependent on a rate x source
interaction. No effect of potassium source was found
on any other tissue nutrient concentration, yield or qua-
lity. Also the SOo source was reported to have no effect
on the protein content of sweet potato roots. Jackson
and Thomas (1960) observed that the concentration of
chloride in sweet potato tops, 60 days after transplan-
ting, increased from 1.8 to 10.1 g kg-l with increasing
KCl rates when calcium and magnesium were not limi-
ting. No adverse effect of chlorine was evident in the
study as yields increased from 3.43 to 22.02 Mg ha-l.
9. Potassium on tuber quality
Root crops growers not only aim for high yields but
also for high quality tubers, with high nutritional value,
and fitness for storage and processing. These require-
ments can be summarized in the term 'quality' and vary
for different crops and according to the purpose for
which the produce is destined (Janssen, 1978).In most
root crops and for most purposes, high dry matter and
carbohydrate contents are basic requirements for high
quality. The ratio root/shoot dry matter should be high.
(Izawa and Okamoto, 1959; Kaddar et al., 1984; Kuo
and Chen, 1992;Konabe and Ivahupa, 1996). These
general quality criteria and many others are closely
related to the nutrient supply for the crop, the pattern of
nutrient uptake and nutrient balance. The increased
rates of assimilation and growth caused by abundant
nitrogen supply often result in an accumulation of pre-
cursors and intermediates in the processes of carbohy-
drate and protein formation (Leonard et al., 1948,
1949;Lowe, l97l; Nair, 1987). Examples of this are
accumulations of reducing sugars (Muller, 1964) and
of soluble amino and amide compounds in several root
crops. These increased contents of simple and soluble
organic compounds often lower the quality of the har-
vest. Potassium was reported to help in starch and
sugar accumulation in tubers (Davidescu and Davide-
scu, 1959; Ghuman and Lal, 1973 a,b).
The qualitative disadvantages associated with the
ample supply of nitrogen needed to obtain optimum
yields are reduced if a proper balance is maintained
with the other necessary nutrient elements. A good sup-
ply of potassium is especially effective in controlling
the qualitative drawbacks of abundant nitrogen (Win-
ner, 1966; Herlihy and Carroll , 1969). Both the absolu-
te supply of potassium to the crops and the N-K rela-
tionship and interactions have to be taken into account
(Steineck, 1974).
Das and Behera (1989) conducted a study to deter-
mine the effect of varying levels of potassium on post
harvest qualities of sweet potato (Table 11). Higher
rates of potassium increased the protein content of
sweet potato varieties. The variety H-42had the maxi-
mum protein content, followed by 'H-41'1, the protein
content was more in stem than leaf and tubers. Potas-
sium also increased the starch content of tubers. Simi-
lar results were also reported by Magoon et al. (1969).
Table I I - Potassium and post harvest qualities of sweet potato tubers
K level Dry matter Starch Protein
(kg ha,) (t ha') (v") (vo)
0 t1.46 20.48 4.22
50 14.76 22.r2 5.28
100 t8.92 22.82 4.43
150 19.80 23.03 4.43
(References: Das and Behera, 1989).
The varieties H-41 andH-42 had higher starch content
in tubers than the two local varieties Jankia white and
Bhubaneswar white. Soils high in available potassium
status did not respond by significantly improving the
tuber yield following added levels of potash at Coim-
batore, Tamil Nadu, India (Muthuswamy et a1.,1981).
It was also observed that between the two soufces,
schoenite source of potassium had similar influence on
the starch content of sweet potato as that of muriate of
potash. Ashokan et aL (1984) found that with increa-
sing levels of potassium, the sugar content of tubers
decreased, whereas the starch content increased.
Rajendran et al. (1971) observed higher dry matter
content in sweet potato with increased potassium appli-
cation. Starch content in tuber gradually increased with
potassium application, which was maximum at 100 kg
ha-1 IqO applied in two equal splits (73.9Eo). Duncan
et al. (1958) observed that increasing KCI rates resul-
ted in higher chlorine concentrations in the vegetative
tissue, which had no apparent detrimental effect on
quality of sweet potato. Hence, the generally less
expensive KCI source should be economically prefera-
ble. In spite of some reports recommending the use of
sulphate (de Geus, 1973), no improvement in yield or
quality was evident with the use of the more expensive
SSO* fertilizer. It was concluded, therefore, that chlo-
rine concentration {2.287o in the youngest fully deve-
loped leaf with petiole was not detrimental to sweet
potato. Similarly Ma et al. (1986) reported that yield
and quality of tubers were not affected by chlorine fer-
tilization at less than or equal to 190 kg ha-l.
In a trial conducted in China to determine the effect
of different potassium rates on sweet potato tuber qua-
lity, Lu et al., (2001) found that both average tuber wei-
ght and starch content, indicators of quality, increased
with potassium rates up to an optimum of 225 kg ha-l
KrO. Between the two sources (KCl and IISO*)
applied at the same rates, starch content of sweet pota-
to tubers tended to be higher with K2SO4 than with
KCl. However, total starch yield was higher with KCI
treatments due to the higher fresh sweet potato yield.
Constantin et al. (1977) observed that potassium
application increased starch content and altered root
shape. As potassium rate increased, the dry matter con-
tent decreased. Potassium application decreased pro-
tein content and firmness of canned roots, and slightly
increased the crude fibre content of roots. The highest
potassium rate of 140 kg ha-l reduced dry matter con-
 tent by 1.87o as compared to control. Nogueira e/ a/.
(1992) carried out an experiment in Brazil in a red-yel-
1ow latosol. They observed that the starch and caroiene
in roots were favourably influenced by potassium rates.
Split application of potassium was the most important
to increase starch, carotene contents and root produc-
tion. While the level of sugar is almost always increa-
sed in the leaves and stems under conditions of potas-
sium deficiency, the conditions are reversed in the case
of storage organs. The total sugar, and also saccharose,
markedly rise with the potassium supply. Starch shows
no particular relationship to potassium. It should be
emphasized, however, that the starch:glucose ratio, in
the case of most plants, rises with potassium supply.
The anions Cl- and SO,,2- cannot affect the specific
influence of potassium.
A study at the University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharwad, India on the effect of nitrogen and potassium
levels and inter-row spacing on cooking quality and
nutrient composition of sweet potato (patil et al., 1990
b) indicated that neither fertilizer levels nor spacing
influenced cooking quality. Interaction of wider spa-
cing and higher potassium levels significantly influen-
ced the nutrient composition of tubers and recorded the
highest crude protein, starch, reducing sugar and b-
carotene contents. Table 12 presents the correlation
between uptake and tuber quality.
Table 1 2 - Correlation between potassium uptake (g plant l) and tuber
quality
Sl. No. Character potassium uprake
I Starch qvol 0.60 **
2 Crude protein(7o) 0.41 'r
3 Reducing sugar (.Vo) 036 **
4 Carotene (mg l00g) 0.53 'r,
** Significant at 1 Va level.
* Signilicant at 5qo lerel.
(References: Patil et a1.,1990 a).
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