Lesson 1: Introduction to

Environmental Science
Environmental Science
is the interdisciplinary study of the
environment, incorporating different fields of
science, each with its respective approach in
addressing various environmental issues and
problems, both on a local or global
perspective.
is a scientific study of the environment to
understand and manage contemporary
environmental challenges. Environmental
the study of the interactions between humans,
→ refers to the conditions around which affects
other organisms, and their surroundings and
people and other organisms
how these interactions affect their
surroundings =====================================
It is humanity’s relationship with the earth’s
living and nonliving components Ecology
is a continuously evolving field, having its
roots in early civilization, where many ancient is a branch of biological science that deals with
cultures revere nature, providing us with food, the relationships between biotoic (living
water and shelter. things) and the abiotic (non-living
In the early 1980s, industry was seen as the components) factors of the environment
major contributor to air and water pollution, Focus of study: ecosystem
but with technological advancements in
industrial pollution control, industries are no Ecosystem
longer the major sources of pollution. It has → occupies an important hierarchy in the level of
become apparent that the actions and organization in nature
lifestyles of individual citizens have become
→ more complex than a community
the major sources of pollution.
→ consisting of organisms interacting with one
o Thus, we are now witnessing the
another and with the nonliving matter and
emergence of new environmental
energy within a defined area
problems. Climate change-related
→ EX: forest ecosystem consisting of plants
disasters, emerging wastes, COVID-19
(mostly trees), animals and microorganisms
pandemic and other similar outbreaks,
that decompose, all interacting with each
unmitigated mass tourism, genetically
other and interacting with the physical and
modified organisms and biodiversity
chemical components of the air, water and soil,
loss are among the fast-emerging
driven by the life-sustaining energy of the sun.
issues that over time, will assume
greater importance.
 ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
• can serve as a guide on how society can
establish its harmonious relation with nature
• Many environmental problems are rooted
within the various structures of society, and
unless we look into the socioeconomic and
political aspects of our society would we be
able to solve these environmental problems
1. Interdependence and Interconnectedness
o “Everything is connected to everything
else”: means that what one does will affect
another, whether directly or indirectly
o Can be seen through environmental
interactions and flow of energy (food web)
o In nature, living things are interdependent
on one another and with their
surroundings.
▪ EX: Food chain and food web
o Moreover, it is not limited to living things
alone but also the connection of the biotic
factors with the physical factors.
▪ EX: how the type and distribution
of soil, chemical characteristics of
the water affects the distribution of
organisms.
2. Change and Material Cycles
o “Everything in Nature Changes”
o May be demonstrated by rhythmic change
(circadian, seasonal) and/or sequential
change (ecological succession)
o Some changes improve the quality of the
environment while others create impacts
that degrade it.
o Materials in the environment undergo
cyclic changes, passing through geologic
and biological systems. Likewise, when
energy flows through nature, it is neither
created nor destroyed, but changes from
one form to another.
▪ “Everything in Nature has to go
Somewhere”
▪ Biogeochemical cycles:
Exemplified by conditions brought
about by displacement or
alterations in the natural cycle in
the environment
o Materials are natural resources, but when
placed in the wrong place at the wrong
time become wastes and pollute the
environment, diminishing the utility of a
resource.
o Remember: the Earth is a closed system,
and that its self-cleaning capacity is
limited.
o Many would argue that pollution is a
necessary evil, that while it is inevitable in
many circumstances can be efficiently
controlled using innovative, environment-
friendly approaches.
3. Law of Limits and Population Dynamics
o “The environment has a carrying capacity”
o Observance of the threshold levels so as
not to create adverse environmental
impacts (utilization of resources,
population dynamics)
o Carrying capacity = the maximum
number of users of a resource without
creating adverse environmental impacts
o An ecosystem can support only a certain
number of individuals at a given time.
When the carrying capacity is exceeded, an
imbalance in the system occurs
4. Diversity and Stability
o “All Forms of Life are Important”
o Biodiversity promotes environmental
stability and maintain natural order of life.
o Since organisms require a place to thrive
on: “All Ecosystems are Important"
o The more diversity among life forms and
ecosystems are, the more resilient and
stable the environment will be.
o Protected areas, nature reserves and
wildlife conservation areas are invaluable
 in ensuring biodiversity in the genetic,
species and ecosystem levels.
o Respect for human cultures also promote
social and environmental stability.
5. Balance of Nature and Stewardship
o “Nature Knows Best”: is an affirmation
that Nature has its own laws and processes
to maintain itself, and therefore going
against what Nature prescribes will have
undesirable consequences.
o “There’s No Such Thing as a Free Lunch”.
▪ Although Nature is capable of self-
maintenance and self-regulation,
human activities should be
consistent with the natural laws
and processes.
▪ We should bear in mind that
humans are part of nature. We are
not masters but stewards of the
Earth and its resources.
o “Nature is God’s gift to all and it is
everybody’s duty to protect it.” .
▪ It has its own value, regardless of its
value to humans. Therefore, Man is
morally responsible for decisions
relating to his environment.
6. Finiteness of Resources
o “Ours is a finite Earth”: means that most
resources are nonrenewable, vulnerable to
depletion and degradation unless it is used
prudently and wisely.
o But as populations increase and the
demand for resources increase, bear in
mind that Nature has limits beyond which
its resources can no longer sustain
overpopulation.
o The use of resources must ensure
maximum benefits not only for the present
but for future generations for an indefinite
period of time.
▪ Shifting to an environment-friendly
lifestyle can reduce the demand for
resources and environmental
stress.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
is a topic of applied ethics that examines the
moral basis of environmental responsibility
with the end goal focused on the moral
foundation of environmental responsibility
and how far this responsibility extends
Resolving environmental issues requires a
consideration of both ethics and morals.
Ethics
→ is a branch of philosophy which transcends all
cultural and religious boundaries to discern
fundamentally what is right and what is wrong
Morals
→ reflect the predominant mindset of a society
about ethical issues at a distinct time period
3 Ethical Principles = = = = = = =
1. Anthropocentrism.
human-centered morality
Environmental anthropocentrism
revolves around environmental
responsibility derived from human
interest alone.
Only humans have intrinsic value and
moral standing.
The rest of the natural world has
instrumental value (use to humans).
We can best protect nature by looking out
for human needs.
It is assumed that only human beings are
morally significant organisms and have a
direct moral standing. Since a healthy
environment is paramount to human
existence, we have a duty toward the
environment in the pursuit of human
interests.
 ▪ Proponents contend that our
environmental duties are derived
both from the immediate benefit
that the present generation receive
from the environment as well as
from the benefit that future
generations of people will receive.
But critics argue that since future
generations of people do not yet
exist, then, strictly speaking, they
cannot have rights any more than a
dead person can have rights.
▪ Indisputably, both parties
acknowledge that environmental
concern derives solely from human
interests.
2. Biocentric.
Life-centered morality
This is a widely embraced view that all
forms of life have an inherent right to exist.
All and only living beings, specifically
individual organisms (not species or
ecosystems) have intrinsic value and
moral standing.
Humans are not superior to other life
forms nor privileged, and must respect the
inherent worth of every organism
Some biocentric advocates give species a
hierarchy of values, where they contend
that we have a greater responsibility to
protect animal species than plant species,
while others say that the rights of certain
species are denied from where the rights
of humans begin.
▪ For example, when rats and
mosquitoes are labelled as pests,
they see nothing wrong in
exterminating them. Extreme
biocentrists believe that each
individual organism, not just each
species, has a basic right to survive.
On a different note, animal rights
advocates put more value on
animals than on plants.
▪ Trying to decide which species
deserve protection from death or
early extinction due to human
activities is an ethical dilemma,
where, it is very difficult to be
ethically consistent.
3. Ecocentrism.
Ecosystem-centered morality
a holistic view that maintains that the
environment deserves direct moral
consideration and not one that is merely
derived from human and animal interests.
This comes with a view that the
environment has direct rights, which
entitles it with moral personhood,
deserving of a direct duty to be protected,
and that it has inherent worth.
Non-living things, species, and natural
processes have moral standing or intrinsic
value and are deserving of respect.
Individuals must be concerned about the
whole community of life/nature.
Humans should strive to preserve
ecological balance and stability
The environment, by itself, is considered
morally at par with humans.
▪ Planetary health advocates argue
that the “right” of the planet is a
natural extension of the concept of
human rights and therefore
entitled to a similar degree of
environmental protection.
▪ Moreover, environmental ethics
consider one’s actions towards the
environment as a matter of right
and wrong, rather than one of self-
interest.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES o Some hold an almost religious
belief regarding nature. They have a

& BEHAVIORS reverence for life and respect the

right of all creatures to live, no
matter what the social and
1. Development Ethic economic costs.
based on individualism or egocentrism
assumes that the human race is and should
3. Conservation or Management Ethic
be the master of nature and that the Earth
a scientific preservationist view leaning
and its resources exists for our benefit and
on the concept of sustainable
pleasure
development, where it recognizes the
o Many believed the moral
desire for decent living standards, but
ascendancy for this view was
must work towards a balance of resource
gained from the Old Testament,
use and resource availability.
Genesis 1:26 where God said, “Let
o should strike a balance between
Us make Man in Our image, after
total development and absolute
Our likeness, to rule over the fish of
preservation
the sea and the birds of the air, over
o emphasizes that rapid and
the livestock, and over all the earth
uncontrolled growth in population
itself and every creature that crawls
and economics is unsustainable
upon it.” and Genesis 1:28 where
and prone to fail in the long run.
God blessed them and said to them,
Goal: People living altogether in one world
“Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the
indefinitely without depriving the future
earth and subdue it; rule over the
generation the opportunity to meet its
fish of the sea and the birds of the
needs as well.
air and every creature that crawls
upon the earth.
This view is further reinforced by the 4. Tragedy of the Commons.
work ethic, which dictates that humans The worldview that the Earth has
should continuously effect change and that resources that are easily replenished and
resources utilized represent “progress and abundant enough for everyone to enjoy.
prosperity”, which itself is good. This idea of commonly shared resources
o The idea that “if it can be done, it where most are renewable had led to its
should be done” is the motivating overexploitation and eventual
factor that drives our actions and degradation, mainly due to its open-access
energy when engaged in creative nature.
work. o Examples of these are the
atmosphere, the open ocean and its
fishes.
2. Preservation Ethic
This phenomenon was first described in
Considers nature being special in itself
1968 by economist/biologist Garret
since it has intrinsic value or inherent
Hardin, in an essay entitled the “Tragedy
worth beyond human appropriation.
of the Commons”.
Preservationists have diverse reasons for
o Hardin explained that each user of
wanting to preserve nature.
a shared common resource reasons
that, “If I do not use this resource,
 someone else will” or “a small
amount used or pollute is not
enough to matter, anyway, it’s a
renewable resource”
o This reasoning can be presumed to
be logical if the number of users is
small, assuming that with such
small impact, nature can indeed
renew itself. However, the
collective effect of many users
exploiting a shared resource can
eventually degrade and exhaust it
irreversibly and consequently
everyone suffers in the end. Thus,
the shared resource or
“commons” had met its tragedy.
5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1943): a fundamental
theory in psychology that can explain why
poverty is a major contributing factor to many
environmental problems today.
Poverty and environmental degradation are
intertwined in a vicious cycle, where
insufferable circumstances leave poor people
with no choice but to engage in practices that
have adverse impacts on the environment as
they seek basic provisions to improve their
quality of life.
A degraded environment creates less
opportunities, so poor people become more
vulnerable in the process.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is
represented through a five-tier model of
human needs, arranged in hierarchical stages
within a pyramid.
o Needs lower down in the hierarchy
must be satisfied first before
individuals can attend to needs higher
up. From the bottom of the hierarchy
upwards, the needs are: physiological,
safety, love and belonging, esteem, and
self-actualization.
o Majority of the poor linger at the
bottom of the pyramid, where their
primary concern is to satisfy their
physiological needs in order to survive.
This makes environmental protection
the least of their concerns.
o Only when one has achieved self-
actualization at the top of the pyramid
would it open him to engage in
altruistic endeavors such as
environmental protection.
6. Precautionary Principle
1970s: from the German principle
'Vorsorge', or foresight
based on the belief that the society should
exert efforts to avoid environmental
damage by careful forward planning.
In environmental policy-making, it is a
strategy to address environmental issues
with potential of harm while extensive
scientific knowledge on the matter is
lacking.
o It emphasizes caution, pausing and
reviewing before leaping into new
innovations that may prove
disastrous.
It is analogous to Benjamin Franklin’s
axiom that “an ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure” and novelist
Samuel Lover’s idiom “better safe than
sorry”, where it is wise to be careful and
protect yourself against risk rather than be
careless.
 However, opponents to this approach
takes it with a grain of salt, arguing that it
is unscientific and an obstacle to progress.
In the issue of global warming, climate
change skeptics use the precautionary
principle, where the lack of data to prove
that anthropogenic greenhouse gases
(GHG) is the principal cause of climate
change justifies the business-as-usual use
of fossil fuels unless data is sufficient
enough to effect a reversal of lifestyle.
But for climate change advocates and
When an activity raises threats of harm to
human health or the environment,
precautionary measures should be taken
even if some cause and effect relationships
are not fully established scientifically.
The Proponent of an activity, rather than
the public, should bear the burden of
proof.
Environmental Justice
→ defined as fair treatment
→ speaks of fairness for the application of laws
designed to protect the health of human
beings and the productivity of ecological
systems
→ no group of people, including racial, ethnic, or
socioeconomic groups should bear a
disproportionate share of the negative
environmental consequences resulting from
industrial, municipal and commercial
operations or the execution of national and
local policies.
→ also interchangeably referred to as
“environmental equity”
o defined as the equal protection against
environmental hazards of all
individuals, groups or communities
regardless of race, ethnicity, or
economic status
→ End Goal: fairness and speaks of the
impartiality that should guide the application
of laws designed to protect the health of
human beings and the productivity of
ecological systems on which all human
activity, economic activity included, depends.
.
❖ This is one of the oldest principles of
environmental law and also one of the most
intuitive, which traces its origins among the
celebrated passages of the Greek philosopher
Plato in ‘The Dialogues of Plato” which
stated that, “If anyone intentionally spoils the
water of another…let him not only pay for
damages, but purify the stream or cistern
which contains the water.”
❖ It makes practical and moral sense to make the
polluter pay for its wrongs and is expected to
deter would-be polluters in the future.
❖ In the interest of environmental justice, it
seems fair that “if you make a mess, it is your
duty to clean it up”.
.
❖ This principle is deeply rooted in various
cultural and religious traditions, built upon
the use of equity.
❖ Initially formulated by the Greek philosopher
Aristotle, intergenerational equity serves
as the guiding principle in international law
for formulating standards in allocating and
sharing resources and for distributing the
burdens of caring for the resources and the
environment in which they are found.
❖ became the foundation for the concept of
sustainable development, during the 1987 UN
World Commission on Environment and
Development, contained in the Brundtland
Report which defined sustainable
 development as “meeting the needs of the responsibility to preserve nature for
present without compromising the ability of succeeding generations.
future generations to meet their own needs.” ❖ This is “intergenerational responsibility,”and
became known as the “Oposa Doctrine,”
where its echoes can be heard in courtrooms
around the world. This ushered in a new era in
. legal jurisprudence, where, in another
landmark case of Oposa vs MMDA, the
❖ Article II Section 16 of the 1987 Supreme Court again ruled in favor of Oposa,
Constitution: provides that “The State shall issuing the Writ of Mandamus, which led to
protect and advance the right of the people to the massive cleanup of Manila Bay.
a balanced and healthful ecology in accord o The writ is a legal instrument in the
with the rhythm and harmony of nature.” form of a court order commanding a
❖ This provision was put to the “acid test” in dilatory organization or individual, in
the Oposa vs. Factoran Case, where the this particular case, several
Supreme Court of the Philippines, in a government agencies, to perform its
landmark decision on July 30, 1993 upheld legal duties and obligations, or be
the Doctrine of Intergenerational penalized for contempt of court.
Responsibility on the environment in ❖ Oposa also judiciously made use of another
Philippine jurisprudence. legal instrument unique to the Philippines, the
❖ It was a milestone case heralded not only in “Writ of Kalikasan” (“kalikasan” means
Philippine legal system but also in “nature”), a court order which can be enforced
international environmental law. to deal swiftly with environmental threats
❖ Appalled by the state of the Philippine forest affecting life, health, or property that may
in which only 4% of the country’s original cover two or more municipalities or
800,000 hectares remains in 1990, due to the provinces.
government’s reckless issuance of logging
permits to logging concessionaires for an
absurd 3.9 million hectares, an area five time
as much forest that actually exists, Attorney
Oposa sued DENR Secretary, Fulgencio
Factoran, acting on behalf of 43 children,
including his own, and on behalf of children
not yet born.
❖ The plaintiffs demanded that all existing
timber concessions be cancelled, and that no
new ones be issued. The lower court upheld
the DENR’s position on the grounds that
people who didn’t yet exist had no right to sue.
❖ Upon appeal, the Supreme Court ruled in favor
of Oposa, where the high court agreed that
“the rhythm and harmony of nature”
undoubtedly required the “management,
renewal and conservation” of natural capital,
and imposed on each generation a
Module 2: Interconnectedness
Ecology
is the science that deals with the way
organisms interact with one another and with
the nonliving surroundings.
It studies how organisms adapt to their
environment and how their surroundings are
utilized and altered by the presence and
activities of these organisms.
In all these interactions, energy and matter is
involved and that living things require a
constant flow of energy and matter to ensure
their survival.
o If the flow of energy and matter ceases,
it deprives the organism of it means to
survive and ultimately dies.
John Donne: 'no man is an island' = no one
person can survive on their own without help
from others.
o This is metaphorically applicable with
all creations in Nature and my tito Nat.
Every species was created to interact
with each other and has been doing so
from the moment it existed.
o The survival of an organism depends
on other organisms in some way. One
organism may eat another and use it
for energy and raw materials. Another
organism may temporarily use another
without harming it. One organism may
provide a service for another, such as
when birds or insects disperse plant
pollen or seeds or when
microorganisms break down dead
organic matter for reuse.
o All interactions take place in a unit of
the environment called an ecosystem.
Ecosystem
is a community of organisms interacting
with other organisms while at the same
time, interacting with the nonliving
environment
o The interaction results in a self-
sustaining system which uses
energy and cycled materials.
In any ecosystem, a continuous exchange
of energy and materials take place
between living (biotic) and nonliving
(abiotic) components. While interactions
among living organisms is likely to occur
even unintentionally, abiotic factors also
affect one another.
There is interdependence among the
different components of an ecosystem.
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS
Abiotic Factors = = = = = = = = = =
comprise several broad yet interrelated
categories:
a) energy
b) nonliving matter
c) processes that involves the interactions of
nonliving matter and energy
All organisms require a source of energy to in
order to survive
Important ecological processes involving
interactions of matter and energy are abiotic
factors as well.
Environment
→ everything that affects an organism during its
lifetime.
→ It is a multifaceted concept.
o For example, during its lifetime, an
animal such as a dog is likely to interact
with a wide range organisms such as
bacteria that thrives on its wastes,
organisms that serve as its food,
parasites that it harbors, mates,
competitors and predators. At the
same time, it requires drinking copious
amount of water, breathe huge
quantities of air and respond to daily
changes in weather conditions.
Because of this complexity, it is logical
to subdivide the concept of
environment into abiotic or nonliving
factors and biotic or living factors.
Sun
→ is the primary source of energy where all
organisms can derive directly or indirectly
→ Plants: the sun directly provides the energy in
order to sustain themselves.
→ Animals: acquire energy by eating plants or
other animals that eat plants.
→ Ultimately, the amount of living matter that
can exist in an area is determined by the
amount of energy plants, algae and bacteria
can collect.
Atoms and Molecules
→ In addition to the energy provided by the sun,
other essential requirements for all forms of
life are atoms of elements such as carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus and molecules such as
water to maintain and sustain themselves.
o Organisms continuously obtain these
materials from their environment.
→ becomes an integral part of an organism’s
body structure for a certain period, after
which, they are eventually returned to the
environment through specific processes such
as respiration, excretion or death and decay.
Habitat
→ an important abiotic aspect of the
environment that represents the physical
structure as well as the geographic and
topographic location of the space that an
organism inhabit
a) Some habitats are at sea level or beneath,
while others are at high elevations.
b) Some spaces are homogenous and flat
while others are a jumble of rocks of
different sizes.
c) Some habitats are close to the equator
while others are near the poles.
→ These habitats exist at various geographic
scales and form part of the hierarchy of
ecological structures.
Climate
→ reflects the prevailing weather patterns in an
area covering a certain duration of time is an
ecological process involving solar energy
interacting with matter that makes up the
Earth.
→ Climatic condition is determined by a variety
of factors, which includes the amount of solar
radiation, proximity to the equator, prevailing
wind patterns and closeness to water.
Daily and seasonal changes
HIERARCHY OF ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
→ are the products of temperature changes
influenced by the intensity and duration of Level Components
sunlight in an area.
Biosphere Aka. Ecosphere
Wind it is the summation of all
ecosystems worldwide.
→ is an effect of temperature differences in an On a planetary scale, it only
area. occupies the planet’s
surface, confined in a closed
Solar radiation
system that is self-
→ is a major contributing factor in generating regulating.
ocean currents, as well as the evaporation of
Biome A distinct biological community
water into the atmosphere, its condensation
of organisms with common
into clouds and its subsequent precipitation as characteristics in an
it falls back to earth. environment with a shared
Precipitation climatic condition covering a
wide geographical area.
→ is manifested in several forms, depending on
the climate: rain, snow, hail or fog. Ecosytem The community of organisms
and populations interacting
Soil quality and formation with one another and with the
chemical and physical factors
→ are also influenced by seasonal precipitation
making up their environment
patterns, in addition to the prevailing weather
patterns, local topography and the geologic Community Populations of different plants
history of the region. and animals living and
→ These factors interact to produce soils that interacting in an area at a
range from sandy, dry and infertile to fertile particular time
and moist with fine particles.
Population Group of organisms of the same
species living within a
particular area

Organism Any form of life which includes

plants and animals
Biotic Factors = = = = = = = = =
The biotic factors of an organism’s
environment include all forms of life with
which it interacts.
A general way of categorizing them would
include the following:
o Producers - plants that carry out
photosynthesis (autotrophs)
o Consumers - animals that eat other
organisms (heterotrophs)
o Decomposers - bacteria and fungi
that cause decay
o Parasites - bacteria, viruses and
other parasitic organisms that cause
disease.
most important interactions are the ones that
occur between organisms.
There are several general types of organism-
to-organism interactions that are common in
all ecosystems.
If we examine how organisms interact up
close, we will see that each organism
possesses specific attributes that make it
suitable to its role.
Important: understand that the process of
natural selection influences how
interactions between different species of
organisms can result in species that are finely
tuned to a specific role and how each species
developed special characteristics that evolved
to carry out its specific role or niche.
o Because these interactions involve two
kinds or organisms interacting, we
should expect coevolution to transpire
between the two organisms after a long
period of interaction and a harmonious
relationship has successfully struck a
balance.
1. Predation.
→ common kinds of interaction
→ occurs when one organism known as a
predator, kills and eats another organism
known as the prey.
o The predator benefits from this
interaction as it harms the prey,
consequently killing and eating it.
→ Many examples of predator-prey relationships
exist in nature:
o snakes and mice; chicken and
earthworms; tigers and deers; frogs
and insects.
→ Plants also exhibit predatory behavior as
observed in the Venus flytrap, where it has
specially modified leaves that can entrap
unsuspecting insects before eventually
digesting them.
2. Competition.
→ two organisms do every possible means to
obtain the same limited resource.
→ Both organisms were assumed harmed to
some extent and have suffered to a certain
degree. However, one would eventually
prevail over the other.
o For example, if a large number of
dipterocarp trees happen to grow close
to one another, they will compete for
sunlight, water, and soil minerals.
None of the trees would grow rapidly
as it can since in cannot maximize its
utilization of the resources because it is
restricted by the presence of the other
 trees. Eventually, some of the trees
which obtained a greater share of the
resources will grow faster. The trees
which were unable to take catch up will
get less and less of the resources,
eventually will wither and die.
→ It forces both organisms to expend energy in
fighting to survive, where one got more
resources and the other got less or nothing.
→ If competition occurs among members of the
same species
→ occurs between organisms of different species
→ “no two species can occupy the same
ecological niche in the same place at the same
time”
→ When several species of predator prey on the
same species as a food source, the prey
population significantly declines, making the
food source scarce for the predators.
→ Intense competition for food will occur and
certain predator species will emerge more
successful than the others.
→ The offshoot of competition whether
intraspecific and interspecific is that the
survivor with the larger number of successful
individuals evolves from the interaction better
and is adapted to its environment more than
its less successful rival.
3. Symbiotic Relationships.
→ Symbiosis = is a close, harmonious, physical
relationship between two different species
having stabilized itself through a long period
of interaction.
→ This occurs when two species, usually in
physical contact, at least one of them derives
some sort of benefit from the interaction.
→ There are three different categories of
symbiotic relationships:
a) Parasitism
b) Commensalism
c) Mutualism
→ is a relationship, where one organism,
known as the parasite, lives in or on
another organism, known as the host, from
which it derives sustenance.
→ Generally, the parasite is much smaller
than the host, otherwise it would have
been a case of predation.
→ Even though the host is harmed by the
interaction, parasitism generally does not
inflict immediate death to the host.
o Some hosts may even live a long
time and the relationship can
evolve into commensalism if the
host remains unaffected by their
parasites indefinitely.
→ relationship between organisms where one
organism benefits while the other is
unaffected.
o As described earlier, it is possible for a
parasitic relationship to evolve into a
commensal one. Since parasites
generally evolve to do as little harm to
their host as possible in order to
survive longer, the host on the other
hand is striving to overcome the
negative effects of the parasite, the
interaction might eventually evolve to
the point where the host is not harmed
at all.
 Type Of Species Species
Interaction
Interaction 1 2
→ involves both species benefiting from the
interaction. Neither
→ Generally, mutualistic relationship is Neutralism 0 0 population is
affected
obligatory, where, the species cannot live
without each other. Both species are
Competition
o Although other mutual relationships directly
through Mutual - -
inhibited by
allow the species to exist separately, Inhibition
each other
but they become more successful when
they directly engage in a mutualistic Competition for
There is indirect
- - inhibition due to
relationship. Resource Use
scarce resources

4. Ambiguous Relationships. Amensalism - 0

One species is
affected while
→ There are relationships that are not as easy to the other is not
categorize without creating a shade of doubt
The smaller
about relationships that some organisms have species
with each other. Parasitism + -
(parasite) gains
→ For example, it is not always easy to say at the expense
of the bigger
whether a relationship is a predator-prey species (host)
relationship or a host-parasite relationship.
o How would you classify a mosquito or The bigger
species
a tick? Both animals require blood (predator) gains
meals to live and reproduce. Predation + -
at the expense
o Some ecologists contend that these of the smaller
species (prey)
organisms search for food the same
way as grazing animals do. However, Species 1
mosquitoes and ticks don’t kill or eat (commensal)
their prey. Neither do they live in or on Commensalism + 0 benefits while
species 2 (host)
a host for a long period of time. is not affected
o This raises debate on the issues and
difficulties encountered when we try to Interaction is
favorable to
place all kinds of organisms into a few Protocooperation + +
both but not
categories. One alternative to settle the obligatory
issue is to call them temporary
parasites or blood predators. Interaction is
obligatory for
Mutualism + +
both species to
benefit
 ECOSYSTEM ROLES
Producers
→ are organisms that use sources of energy
enabling them to make complex, organic
molecules from the simple inorganic
substances in their environment.
→ In nearly all ecosystems, energy is supplied by
the sun, and organisms such as plants, algae
and tiny aquatic organisms called
phytoplankton use light energy to carry on
photosynthesis.
→ Since producers are the only organisms in an
ecosystem that can trap energy and make new
organic material from inorganic material, all
other organisms rely on producers as a source
of food, either directly or indirectly.
Consumers
→ utilize organic matter which they have
consumed in order to provide themselves with
energy and the organic molecules necessary
to build their own bodies.
→ An important part of their role is the process
of respiration in which they break down
organic matter to inorganic matter.
→ However, some consumers have significantly
different roles from others. Each role
corresponds to the organism’s niche in the
ecosystem.
→ The niche of an organism is the functional
role it has in its surroundings.
o A description of an organism’s niche
includes all the ways it affects the
organisms with which it interacts as
well as how it modifies its physical
surroundings.
Energy Flow = = = = = = =
is a stable, self-regulating unit.
Such stability is not static but dynamic in
nature through a process called
homeostasis.
The organisms within an ecosystem are
growing and reproducing in harmony while
ultimately dying and decaying at the end of its
lifespan.
must have a continuous input of energy to
maintain its stability
While the only significant source of energy for
most ecosystems is sunlight, only producers
are capable of trapping solar energy through
the process of photosynthesis and making the
energy available to the ecosystem.
The energy is stored in the form of chemical
bonds in large molecules such as
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
o This stored energy is transferred to
consumers when the producers are
eaten.
Each step in the flow of energy through an
ecosystem
1st trophic level: producers
2nd trophic level: herbivores that eat the
producers
3rd trophic level: carnivores that eat
herbivores
4th trophic level: carnivores that eat other
carnivores
NOTE: Omnivores, parasites and scavengers
occupy different trophic levels, depending on
what they happen to be eating at the time.
o If we eat a piece of beef steak, we are at
the third trophic level but when we eat
vegetables, we are at the second
trophic level.
states that whenever energy is transformed
from one form to another, some of the energy
is converted to a non-useful form which
typically is low-quality heat.
The more useful energy is utilized, less
following an energy conversion as what
generally happens every time energy passes
from one trophic level to the next. Thus, there
is less useful energy left with each successive
trophic level.
The loss of low-quality heat is dissipated to
the surroundings which warms the air, water
or soil
organisms must expend energy to maintain
their own life processes
o It takes energy to chew food, defend its
territory, walk to waterholes, evade
predators, reproduce and care for its
offsprings.
o Therefore, the amount of energy
present in higher trophic levels is
considerably less than at the lower
trophic levels.
Approximately 90 percent of the useful energy
is lost with each transfer to the next higher
trophic level.
o So in any ecosystem, the amount of
energy contained in the herbivore
trophic level is only about 10 percent of
the energy contained in the producer
trophic level.
o Subsequently, the amount of energy at
the third trophic level is approximately
1 percent of that found in the first
trophic level.
Generally, it is difficult to actually measure the
amount of energy contained in each trophic
level, ecologists often use other measures
such as biomass determination to
approximate the relationship between the
amounts of energy at each level.
o biomass = the weight of living
material in a trophic level
o While it is more possible in a simple
ecosystem to collect and weigh all the
producers, herbivores and carnivores,
the weights will similarly show the
same 90 percent loss from one trophic
level to the next.
FOOD CHAINS
❖ The passage of energy from one trophic level
to the next resulting from one organism
consuming
o For example, when a plant growing
well on moist soil, captures sunlight via
its leaves and converts carbon dioxide
and water into sugars and other
organic molecules, the leaves become a
food source for insects.
o Some of these insects are eaten by
spiders, which in turn can be captures
and eaten by a frog.
o Furthermore, the frog can be eaten by
a large fish and the large fish can be
caught by a human where the fish ends
up as dinner on the table.
o This chain of events that began with
the plant and end with the fish on the
dinner table of a human consists of six
trophic levels.
❖ Each organism with its special abilities enable
it to occupy a specific niche in the food chain
where it is involved in converting energy and
matter from one form to another.
❖ There are food chains that rely on a constant
supply of dead organic material called
detritus coming from situations where
photosynthesis is taking place.
o When bottoms of deep lakes and seas
are too dark for photosynthesis to take
place, animals and decomposers rely
on a steady rain of small bits of organic
matter from the upper layers where
photosynthesis takes place.
o Similar situation occur in the forest
floor and streams of high-canopy
forests, where in the detritus food
chain, a mixture of insects, crustaceans,
worms, bacteria and fungi cooperate
in the breakdown of large pieces of
organic matter while at the same time
feeding on one another.
o Even a sewage plant contains a food
chain where particle and dissolved
organic matter are constantly supplied
to a series of bacteria and protozoa
that use this material for food.
FOOD WEB
❖ When several food chains overlap and
intersect
❖ Each organism is likely to be a food source for
several other kinds of organisms.
❖ Even the simplest food webs are complex.
Key Takeaways:
1. Every species was created to interact with
each other and has been doing so from the
moment it existed in order to survive.
2. An ecosystem is a community of organisms
interacting with one another while at the same
time interacting with the nonliving
environment, resulting in a self-sustaining
system which uses energy and cycled
materials.
3. The sun is the primary source of energy which
all organisms can derive directly or indirectly.
Other essential requirements for all forms of
life are atoms of certain elements and
molecules such as water to maintain and
sustain themselves.
4. In the second law of thermodynamics where
energy, while being transformed from one
form to another, some of the energy converted
is lost as low-quality heat, and generally
happens every time energy passes from one
trophic level to the next
 Module 3: Material cycles
and change
"Everything must go somewhere": means that
all materials in the ecosystem are continually
recycled and used over and over.
Nutrients
o An essential requirement for all living
organisms to carry out their life
functions are nutrients
Macronutrients
o Essential nutrients that are required in
fairly large quantities such as carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
phosphorus and sulfur.
Micronutrients
o nutrients such as iron, zinc, copper and
iodine are utilized in small amounts.
=====================================
→ aka. biogeochemical cycles
→ cyclic movement of minerals from their
reservoirs either in the air, water and soil, to
the living components, and back to the
reservoirs
→ pathway by which a chemicals move through
both biotic (bio) and abiotic (geo)
compartments of an ecosystem following a
cycling flow
→ classified based on the main reservoir of the
chemicals:
a) gaseous (atmosphere)
b) sedimentary (lithosphere)
c) hydrologic (hydrosphere)
→ All of these nutrients constitute matter in their
simplest form or in a complex form –
compound
o Nutrients are not lost but merely
moves through different places in
nature while at the same time
transforming into another form in
every movement it takes.
→ The movement occur continuously from the
nonliving environment to the living
organisms, and back to the nonliving
environment
=====================================
→ represents the natural capital or nutrient pool
from which the elements accumulated in large
quantities during its long history on Earth
=====================================
→ The continuous cycling of nutrients from the
natural capital or nutrient pool in the abiotic
component of environment to the living
beings and then back to the nutrient pool
together with other interrelated biochemical
reactions are what fuel life on earth
→ These reactions utilize the energy from the
sun to take gases from the air and nutrients
from the soil, and the resulting energy and
chemical compounds move through all plants
and animals on the earth
→ We will look at the flow of three kinds of atoms
within communities and between the biotic
and abiotic portions of the ecosystem:
a) Nitrogen
b) Phosphorus
c) Sulfur
=====================================
Carbon cycle
→ main element in organic compounds
(carbohydrate, lipids, protein, nucleic
acid)
→ is used by plants to build leaves and stems,
which are then digested by animals and
used for cellular growth
→ Some animals use carbon to form shells
and skeletons (clams, corals)
 → Photosynthesis – conversion of carbon
dioxide into carbohydrates
→ Respiration – release of carbon dioxide
into atmosphere
→ Decomposition – breakdown of
carbohydrates into carbon and some other
compound byproducts
→ Fossilization – formation of the remains
of organism into fossil fuel
=====================================
Nitrogen Cycle
→ Nitrogen = one of the basic elements that
compose proteins and nucleic acids such as
DNA
→ Proteins = the major structural components
of all living things
→ Growth of plants will be limited if there is not
enough nitrogen in the soil
→ About 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas
(N2)
o However, in this gas state, nitrogen
cannot be used by organisms
→ Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
o they fix nitrogen gas so that they could
be made available to plants and
animals
o found in the nodules of legumes such
as soybean, mungo and peas which
convert nitrogen (N2) to ammonia
(N3) of ammonium (NH4+)
o the process is called nitrogen
fixation
o When these bacteria die, ammonia or
ammonium is released and used by
other bacteria as energy source.
o A small portion of gaseous nitrogen is
fixed in the air by lightning and the
fixed nitrogen is brought down to the
soil by rain.
→ Nitrification
o ammonia or ammonium is converted
to nitrites (NO2-) by nitrifying bacteria
in the soil
o Some of these bacteria convert nitrites
into nitrates (NO3-)
▪ When ammonia and nitrates
that are released in the soil are
dissolved in wet soil, they are
absorbed by roots of plants and
become incorporated into plant
proteins
→ Ammonification
o metabolic wastes such as urea, uric
acid and remains of animals and plants
are broken down by decomposers
releasing ammonia or ammonium in
the process
→ These substances will then undergo
nitrification converting them to nitrites then
to nitrates
→ Nitrates not used by plants are converted by
denitrifying bacteria to nitrogen gas which is
released to the atmosphere.
→ Some of the gaseous nitrogen is converted by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria to ammonia and
ammonium, thereby repeating the cycle.
Nitrogen fixation
fixation of nitrogen gas (N2) into usable form
either thru lightning or bacteria in plants
Assimilation
absorption of ammonium ions from the soil
via their root hairs to synthesize protei
Ammonification
release of ammonia from organic nitrogen
(remains of organisms, excreta)
Nitrification
conversion of ammonia into nitrites (NO2 --)
by nitrifying bacteria and subsequently into
nitrates (NO3-)
Denitrification
reduction of nitrites/nitrates into largely inert
nitrogen gas
===================================== Topsoil that is eroded from fertilized crop
fields, lawns and golf courses carried large
Phosphorus Cycle quantities of phosphate ions runoffs into
streams, lakes and oceans
o Compounds of phosphorus (P) circulate
o There they stimulate the growth of
through water, the Earth’s crust and living
producers such as algae and various
organisms in the phosphorus cycle.
aquatic plants.
o Most of these compounds contain phosphate
o Phosphate-rich runoff from the land
ions (PO43-), which serve as an important
can produce huge populations of algae,
nutrient.
which can upset chemical cycling and
o In contrast to the other cycles, the movement
other processes in lakes.
of phosphorus does not include the
atmosphere.
o Major Reservoir: phosphate salts containing PROCESS:
PO43- in terrestrial rock formations and ocean
bottom sediments. 1. Phosphate can be lost from the cycle for long
o The phosphorus cycle is slow compared to the periods of time when it is washed from the
water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles. land into streams and rivers and is carried to
the sea. There it can be deposited as marine
Phosphates: sediment and remain trapped for millions of
years
are a component of biologically important
2. Someday, geological processes may uplift and
molecules such as nucleic acids and energy
expose these seafloor deposits, from which
transfer molecules such as ADP and ATP in
phosphate can be eroded to start the cycle
both producers and consumers
again.
is also a major component of vertebrate bones
3. As water runs over exposed rocks, it slowly
and teeth
erodes away inorganic compounds that
o Because most soils contain little
contain phosphate ions.
phosphate, it becomes a limiting factor
4. The running water carries these phosphate
for plant growth on land unless
ions into the soil where they can be absorbed
phosphorus as phosphate salt mined
by the roots of plants and by other producers.
from the earth is applied to the soil as
5. Phosphate compounds are also transferred by
a fertilizer
food webs from producers to consumers,
o Phosphorus is also scarce in water
eventually including detritus feeders and
thus, limiting the growth of producer
decomposers.
populations in many freshwater bodies
because phosphate salts are only
slightly soluble in water and thus do Geological uplifting
not release many phosphate ions that
producers need as nutrients. release of phosphate (phosphate rocks) from
o Human activities associated to the lithosphere
deforestation affecs the phosphorus Weathering of rocks
cycle through the extraction of large
amounts of phosphate from the earth release of phosphate into the ground and/or
to make fertilizers, thus reducing the water
phosphate levels in tropical soils
Assimilation
incorporation of phosphate ions into plants
(nucleic acid)
Decomposition
release of phosphate into the soil/water from
decaying organic matter
Sedimentation
formation of new phosphate rocks
=====================================
Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur atoms are a component of amino
acids
Important for the functioning of proteins
and enzymes in plants, and in animals that
depend upon plants for sulfur. Plants
absorb sulfur when it is dissolved in water.
Animals consume these plants, so that they
take up enough sulfur to maintain their
health.
sulfur circulates through the biosphere
beginning underneath the earth locked in
rocks and minerals and in the form of
sulfate (SO42-) salts or buried deep under
ocean sediments.
Particles of sulfate (SO42-) salts, such as
ammonium sulfate, enter the atmosphere
from sea spray, dust storms and forest fires
Plant roots absorb sulfate ions and
incorporate the sulfur as an essential
component of many proteins.
In the oxygen-deficient environments of
flooded soils, freshwater wetlands and
tidal flats, specialized bacteria convert
sulfate ions to sulfide ions (S2-)
Human activities have affected the sulfur
cycle primarily by releasing large amounts
of sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere.
In the atmosphere, SO2 is converted to
droplets of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
particles of sulfate (SO32-) salts, which
return to the earth as acid deposition,
which in turn can damage ecosystems.
Sulfur also enters the atmosphere from
several natural sources:
( )
a colorless, highly poisonous gas with a
rotten egg smell
is released from active volcanoes and
from organic matter broken down by
anaerobic decomposers in flooded
swamps, bogs and tidal flats
( )
a colorless and suffocating gas also
comes from volcanoes
We release sulfur to the atmosphere in
three ways:
1. We burn sulfur-containing coal and oil to
produce electric power
2. We refine sulfur-containing oil
(petroleum) to make gasoline, heating oil,
and other useful products
3. We extract metals such as copper, lead, and
zinc from sulfur-containing compounds in
rocks that are mined for these metals.
Process:
1. In the oxygen-deficient environments of
flooded soils, freshwater wetlands and tidal
flats, specialized bacteria convert sulfate ions
to sulfide ions (S2-)
2. The sulfide ions can then react with metal ions
to form insoluble metallic sulfides, which are
deposited as rock or metal ores which are
often extracted by mining and converted to
various metals and the cycle continues.
Volcanic eruption and Geological vents
release of sulfur from the lithosphere
Weathering of rocks
release of sulfur into the ground and/or wate
Assimilation
incorporation of sulfur into plants (vitamins,
protein, etc.)
Decomposition
release of sulfur into the soil/water from
decaying organic matter
Sedimentation
formation of new sulfur rocks
=====================================
Water Cycle
Water makes 70 95 % of most organisms
For living things: universal solvent;
component of body solutions(sweat, blood,
tears, saliva, urine); carries substances
throughout the body
For ecosphere: regulates climate; shapes
earth’s surface; dilutes and degrades wastes
Process:
Condensation
→ transformation of water vapour to liquid
water droplets in the air, producing clouds and
fog
Precipitation
→ movement of water from the atmosphere to
the lithosphere or hydrosphere
Evaporation
→ transformation of water from liquid to gas
phases as it moves from the ground or bodies
of water into the overlying atmosphere
Infiltration
→ flow of water from the ground surface into the
ground
→ Anthropogenic impacts of modern
technology is now transferring some
chemical elements such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur and carbon through the air,
water, soil and biosphere at rates that faster
than natural processes.
→ As our populations increases, so does our
utilization of resources and rates of transfer
increases as well.
→ This is a fast- emerging problem resulting
from rates of transfer which became
significantly large for a particular element that
pollution of the environment eventually
became apparent.
→ Our urban society has garnered much of the
use of resources and has contributed to much
of the release of various compounds and
chemicals into the biosphere, soil, water and
atmosphere and thus, constitute the biggest
malefactor of environmental problems.
→ Among the very common environmental
problems are the following:
• Eutrophication: defined as an increase in
suspended nutrients in water bodies such as
nitrogen and phosphorus that promoted
increase in algal growth, which adversely
degrade water quality.
• gradual increase in the concentration of
phosphorous, nitrogen, and other plant
nutrients in an aging aquatic ecosystem
• eutrophic waters are often murky and may
support fewerlarge animals, than non
eutrophic waters.
o For example, increased phytoplankton
biomass can increase turbidity, reduce
light penetration, and decrease levels
of oxygen, all of which ultimately have
 negative consequences for organisms
that live in the lake.
o Not only are the effects of
eutrophication detrimental to lake
biota, but they also pose a risk to
human health in the form of harmful
algal blooms.
• The process of eutrophication is natural for
water bodies.
o As time passes, a buildup of nutrients,
sediment, and plant material, slowly fill
the lake basin and eventually, the
process ends when the basin becomes
colonized by terrestrial vegetation.
o But due to human activities, nutrient
inputs have greatly increased the pace
at which eutrophication can occur.
• Eutrophication reduces the clarity of water
and underwater light.
o When waterbodies become eutrophic,
algae are starved of light.
o Competition ensues causing a large
population of algae to die, thereupon
decomposers acting on the dead algae
depletes oxygen levels in the water
further.
o As a result, eutrophication sets in,
leading to an anoxic and lethal
environment for aquatic organisms.
Cultural Eutrophication
• Aka. Human-induced eutrophication
• is attributed to increased phosphorus inputs
from sources such as agricultural fertilizers or
partially treated sewage.
Anoxia
• A negative impact of eutrophication and
increased algal growth is a loss of available
oxygen.
o These anoxic conditions lead to
fishkills and death of other aquatic
organisms such as amphibians.
o While it is true that algae produce
oxygen, but only when there is enough
light.
• common name: “harmful algae blooms”
• Harmful algae blooms (HAB): are the
sudden proliferation of one or more species of
microscopic plants either algae or
phytoplankton, which live in the ocean and
produce neurotoxins that can cause negative
and sometimes fatal effects in fish, birds,
marine mammals, and even humans.
• There are approximately 85 species of
aquatic plants that can cause harmful algae
blooms.
• In high concentrations, some HAB species
causes the characteristic reddish color of the
water, but other species can turn the water
green, brown, or purple, while others, or do
not even discolor the water at all.
• are caused by the rapid multiplication of
dinoflagellates: a type of phytoplankton due
to the sudden abundance of nutrient in
seawater which triggered the explosive
growth of dinoflagellates
• Coastal water pollution from human sewage,
agricultural runoff, and other sources
contributes to red tides, along with rising
ocean temperatures.
• On the other hand, red tides and harmful algae
blooms sometimes occur where there is no
apparent link to human activity.
• Although these species of algae or
phytoplankton have created serious health
concerns for humans, they remain as essential
elements in the foundation of the food chain,
without which, higher life forms, including
humans, would not exist and could not
survive.

• Aka. acid deposition or acid
precipitation
• any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or
nitric/carbonic acid that fall to the ground
from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms
(rain, snow, fog, hail or even acidic dust)
• detrimental effects on trees, freshwaters
and soils, destroys insects and aquatic life
forms, causes paint to peel, corrosion of
steel structures such as bridges, and
weathering of stone buildings and
sculptures, as well as impacts on human
health.
• with a pH of about 5.2 or below caused by
the emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx; the combination of
NO and NO2) from human activities.
o These are mainly the product of
fossil fuel combustion.
• Acid deposition can reduce the pH of
aquatic environments and lower
biodiversity.
o In terrestrial ecosystems, it
weakens trees, depletes soil of
important plant nutrients and
buffers and can release aluminum
bound to soil particles and rock in
its toxic dissolved form.
• Acid rain contributes to the corrosion of
surfaces and is responsible for the
deterioration of limestone and marble
buildings and monuments.
• Acid rain can be significantly reduced by
getting sulfur out of fossil fuels.
• Aside from being a pollutant itself, sulfur
was discovered to interfere with pollution
control technologies and therefore needs
to be removed from the fuel for significant
air pollution reduction strategy to work.
• Studies have shown show the benefits of
sulfur reduction far outweigh the costs,
even though required refinery
investments continue to be significant. In
fact, the European Union developed the
Euro-IV, near-zero sulfur fuel which
significantly reduced total fuel costs by
increasing fuel economy.
• The considerable potential for greenhouse
gas emission reductions adds further to
the health, environmental, and social
benefits of sulfur reduction.
→ It is clear that if we are to maintain a quality
environment on Earth, the biogeochemical
cycles need to operate within ranges of
transfer and storage necessary to sustain
healthy ecosystems.
→ This is one reason why understanding
biogeochemical cycles is very important.
o For example, when it became apparent
that the release of sulfur into the
atmosphere is seriously degrading the
quality if the atmosphere, the
European Union has strived
significantly to control these
emissions.
→ We are still a long way in fully understanding
the complexities of the biogeochemical cycles.
→ Currently, there are very large uncertainties in
the measurement of fluxes of chemical
elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur
and other.
→ Understanding these natural processes
intensively will allow us to better address
environmental problems in the future.
Key Takeaways:
1. Nature has its own way of sustaining itself
with essential nutrients needed by life.
2. Biogeochemical cycles follow a cyclic flow
with the involvement of both the biotic and
abiotic factors.
3. Disruption in the nutrient cycle caused by
natural phenomena and anthropocentric
activities corresponding bring about change
in the ecosystem.